Introduction to Composite Materials

Composite materials

Introduction

Definition: any combination of two or more different materials at the macroscopic level. OR Two inherently different materials that when combined together produce a material with properties that exceed the constituent materials.
 

Reinforcement phase (e.g., Fibers) Binder phase (e.g., compliant matrix)

Advantages
  

High strength and stiffness Low weight ratio Material can be designed in addition to the structure

Applications
    

Straw in clay construction by Egyptians Aerospace industry Sporting goods Automotive Construction

Types of Composites
Matrix phase/Reinforc ement Phase Metal Metal Ceramic
Polymer

Powder metallurgy parts combining immiscible metals Cermets, TiC, TiCN Cemented carbides used in tools Fiber-reinforced metals

Cermets (ceramicmetal composite)

Brake pads

Ceramic

SiC reinforced Al2O3 Tool materials

Fiberglass

Polymer Elemental (Carbon, Boron, etc.)

Fiber reinforced metals Auto parts aerospace

Kevlar fibers in an epoxy matrix Rubber with carbon (tires) Boron, Carbon reinforced plastics

MMCs
Metal Matrix Composites

CMCs
Ceramic Matrix Comps.

PMCs
Polymer Matrix Comps

D. Laminar Composites - 4
A lamina (laminae) is any arrangement of unidirectional or woven fibers in a matrix. Usually this arrangement is flat, although it may be curved, as in a shell. A laminate is a stack of lamina arranged with their main reinforcement in at least two different directions.

E. Filled Composites
There are two types of filled composites. In one, filler materials are added to a normal composite result in strengthening the composite and reducing weight. The second type of filled composite consists of a skeletal 3-D matrix holding a second material. The most widely used composites of this kind are sandwich structures and honeycombs.

Forms of Reinforcement Phase

Fibers
  

cross-section can be circular, square or hexagonal Diameters --> 0.0001 - 0.005 Lengths --> L/D ratio
 100 -- for chopped fiber  much longer for continuous fiber

Particulate


small particles that impede dislocation movement (in metal composites) and strengthens the matrix For sizes > 1 Qm, strength of particle is involves in load sharing with matrix flat platelet form

Flakes


Fiber Reinforcement
The typical composite consists of a matrix holding reinforcing materials. The reinforcing materials, the most important is the fibers, supply the basic strength of the composite. However, reinforcing materials can contribute much more than strength. They can conduct heat or resist chemical corrosion. They can resist or conduct electricity. They may be chosen for their stiffness (modulus of elasticity) or for many other properties.

Types of Fibers
The fibers are divided into two main groups: Glass fibers: There are many different kinds of glass, ranging from ordinary bottle glass to high purity quartz glass. All of these glasses can be made into fibers. Each offers its own set of properties. Advanced fibers: These materials offer high strength and high stiffness at low weight. Boron, silicon, carbide and graphite fibers are in this category. So are the aramids, a group of plastic fibers of the polyamide (nylon) family.

Fibers - Glass
Fiberglass properties vary somewhat according to the type of glass used. However, glass in general has several well known properties that contribute to its great usefulness as a reinforcing agent:
    

Tensile strength Chemical resistance Moisture resistance Thermal properties Electrical properties

There are four main types of glass used in fiberglass:

   

A C E S

glass glass glass glass

Fibers - Glass
Most widely used fiber Uses: piping, tanks, boats, sporting goods Advantages
  

Low cost Corrosion resistance Low cost relative to other composites: Relatively low strength High elongation Moderate strength and weight E-Glass - electrical, cheaper S-Glass - high strength

Disadvantages
  

Types:
 

Fibers - Aramid (kevlar, Twaron)

Uses:


high performance replacement for glass fiber Armor, protective clothing, industrial, sporting goods
 higher strength and lighter than glass  More ductile than carbon

Examples


Advantages:

Fibers - Carbon
2nd most widely used fiber Examples


aerospace, sporting goods high stiffness and strength Low density Intermediate cost Properties:
   

Advantages
   

Standard modulus: 207-240 Gpa Intermediate modulus: 240-340 GPa High modulus: 340-960 GPa Diameter: 5-8 microns, smaller than human hair


Fibers grouped into tows or yarns of 2-12k fibers

Fibers -- Carbon (2)

Types of carbon fiber
 

vary in strength with processing Trade-off between strength and modulus PAN (Polyacrylonitrile)
 fiber precursor heated and stretched to align structure

Intermediate modulus


and remove non-carbon material

High modulus


made from petroleum pitch precursor at lower cost much lower strength

Fibers - Others
Boron
  

High stiffness, very high cost Large diameter - 200 microns Good compressive strength Textile industry High strength Extremely light weight Low range of temperature usage

Polyethylene - trade name: Spectra fiber

   

Fibers -- Others (2)

Ceramic Fibers (and matrices)


 

Very high temperature applications (e.g. engine components) Silicon carbide fiber - in whisker form. Ceramic matrix so temperature resistance is not compromised Infrequent use

Fiber Material Properties

Steel: density (Fe) = 7.87 g/cc; TS=0.380 GPa; Modulus=207 GPa Al: density=2.71 g/cc; TS=0.035 GPa; Modulus=69 GPa

Fiber Strength

Matrix Materials
Functions of the matrix
 

Transmit force between fibers arrest cracks from spreading between fibers
 do not carry most of the load

 

hold fibers in proper orientation protect fibers from environment

 mechanical forces can cause cracks that allow

environment to affect fibers

Demands on matrix
    

Interlaminar shear strength Toughness Moisture/environmental resistance Temperature properties Cost

Matrices - Polymeric
Thermosets
  

cure by chemical reaction Irreversible Examples

 Polyester, vinylester


Most common, lower cost, solvent resistance Superior performance, relatively costly

 Epoxy resins


Matrices - Thermosets
Polyester Polyesters have good mechanical properties, electrical properties and chemical resistance. Polyesters are amenable to multiple fabrication techniques and are low cost. Vinyl Esters Vinyl Esters are similar to polyester in performance. Vinyl esters have increased resistance to corrosive environments as well as a high degree of moisture resistance.

Matrices - Thermosets
Epoxy Epoxies have improved strength and stiffness properties over polyesters. Epoxies offer excellent corrosion resistance and resistance to solvents and alkalis. Cure cycles are usually longer than polyesters, however no by-products are produced. Flexibility and improved performance is also achieved by the utilization of additives and fillers.

Matrices - Thermoplastics
Formed by heating to elevated temperature at which softening occurs
  

Reversible reaction Can be reformed and/or repaired - not common Limited in temperature range to 150C Polypropylene
 with nylon or glass  can be injected-- inexpensive

Examples


Soften layers of combined fiber and resin and place in a mold -- higher costs

Matrices - Others
Metal Matrix Composites - higher temperature


e.g., Aluminum with boron or carbon fibers

Ceramic matrix materials - very high temperature



Fiber is used to add toughness, not necessarily higher in strength and stiffness

Important Note
Composite properties are less than that of the fiber because of dilution by the matrix and the need to orient fibers in different directions.

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES OF COMPOSITES

Composite materials have succeeded remarkably in their relatively short history. But for continued growth, especially in structural uses, certain obstacles must be overcome. A major one is the tendency of designers to rely on traditional materials such as steel and aluminum unless composites can be produced at lower cost. Cost concerns have led to several changes in the composites industry. There is a general movement toward the use of less expensive fibers. For example, graphite and aramid fibers have largely supplanted the more costly boron in advanced fiber composites. As important as savings on materials may be, the real key to cutting composite costs lies in the area of processing.

The processing of fiber reinforced laminates can be divided into two main steps: Lay up Curing Curing is the drying and hardening (or polymerization) of the resin matrix of a finished composite. This may be done unaided or by applying heat and/or pressure. Lay up basically is the process of arranging fiber reinforced layers (laminae) in a laminate and shaping the laminate to make the part desired. (The term lay up is also used to refer to the laminate itself before curing.) Unless prepregs are used, lay up includes the actual creation of laminae by applying resins to fiber reinforcements.

Laminate lay up operations fall into three main groups:

A. Winding and laying operations B. Molding operations C. Continuous lamination

Continuous lamination is relatively unimportant compared with quality parameters as not good as wrt other two processes. In this process, layers of fabric or mat are passed through a resin dip and brought together between cellophane covering sheets. Laminate thickness and resin content are controlled by squeegee rolls. The lay up is passed through a heat zone to cure the resin.

A. Winding Operation
The most important operation in this category is filament winding. Fibers are passed through liquid resin, and then wound onto a mandrel. After lay up is completed, the composite is cured on the mandrel. The mandrel is then removed by melting, dissolving, breaking out or some other method.

B. Molding Operations
Molding operations are used in making a large number of common composite products. There are two types of processes:

A. Open mold
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) Hand lay up Spray up Vacuum bag molding Pressure bag molding Thermal expansion molding Autoclave molding Centrifugal casting Continuous pultrusion and pulforming.

1. Hand Lay-up
Hand lay up, or contact molding, is the oldest and simplest way of making fiberglass resin composites. Applications are standard wind turbine blades, boats, etc.)

2. Spray-up
In Spray up process, chopped fibers and resins are sprayed simultaneously into or onto the mold. Applications are lightly loaded structural panels, e.g. caravan bodies, truck fairings, bathtubes, small boats, etc.

3. Vacuum-Bag Molding
The vacuum bag process was developed for making a variety of components, including relatively large parts with complex shapes. Applications are large cruising boats, racecar components, etc.

4. Pressure-Bag Molding
Pressure bag process is virtually a mirror image of vacuum bag molding. Applications are sonar domes, antenna housings, aircraft fairings, etc.

5. Thermal Expansion Molding

In Thermal Expansion Molding process, prepreg layers are wrapped around rubber blocks, and then placed in a metal mold. As the entire assembly is heated, the rubber expands more than the metal, putting pressure on the laminate. Complex shapes can be made reducing the need for later joining and fastening operations.

6. Autoclave Molding
Autoclave molding is similar to both vacuum bag and pressure bag molding. Applications are lighter, faster and more agile fighter aircraft, motor sport vehicles.

7. Centrifugal Casting
Centrifugal Casting is used to form round objects such as pipes.

8. Continuous Pultrusion and Pulforming

Continuous is the counterpart extrusion. parts can be pultrusion composite of metal Complex made.

Pulforming is similar to pultrusion in many ways. However, pultrusion is capable only of making straight products that have the same volume all along their lengths. Pulformed products, on the other hand, can be either straight or curved, with changing shapes and volumes. A typical pulformed product is a curved reinforced plastic car spring. (shown in figure.)

B. Closed mold
(1) Matched die molding: As the name suggests, a matched die mold consists of closely matched male and female dies (shown in figure). Applications are spacecraft parts, toys, etc. (2) Injection molding: The injection process begins with a thermosetting (or sometimes thermoplastic) material outside the mold. The plastic may contain reinforcements or not. It is first softened by heating and/or mechanical working with an extrusion type screw. It is then forced, under high pressure from a ram or screw, into the cool mold. Applications are auto parts, vanes, engine cowling defrosters and aircraft radomes.

Material Forms and Manufacturing

Objectives of material production
   

assemble fibers impregnate resin shape product cure resin

Sheet Molding Compound (SMC)



Chopped glass fiber added to polyester resin mixture

Question: Is SMC isotropic or anisotropic?

Manufacturing - Filament Winding

Highly automated


low manufacturing costs if high throughput e.g., Glass fiber pipe, sailboard masts

Prepregs
Prepreg and prepreg layup


prepreg - partially cured mixture of fiber and resin

 Unidirectional prepreg tape with paper backing
 

wound on spools Cut and stacked

Curing conditions
 Typical temperature and pressure in autoclave is 120-200C, 100 psi

Manufacturing - Layups
compression molding

vacuum bagging

Material Forms
Textile forms


Braiding or weaving
 Tubular braided form


can be flattened and cut for non-tubular products

Fabric Structures
Woven: Knit: Braided: Series of Interlaced yarns at 90 to each other Series of Interlooped Yarns Series of Intertwined, Spiral Yarns

Nonwoven: Oriented fibers either mechanically, chemically, or thermally bonded

Woven Fabrics
Basic woven fabrics consists of two systems of yarns interlaced at right angles to create a single layer with isotropic or biaxial properties.

Physical Properties
Construction (ends & picks) Weight Thickness Weave Type

Components of a Woven Fabric

Basic Weave Types

Plain Weave

Basic Weave Types

Satin 5HS

Basic Weave Types

2 x 2 Twill

Basic Weave Types

Non-Crimp

Braiding
A braid consists of two sets of yarns, which are helically intertwined. The resulting structure is oriented to the longitudinal axis of the braid. This structure is imparted with a high level of conformability, relative low cost and ease of manufacture.

Braid Structure

Types of Braids

Triaxial Yarns
A system of longitudinal yarns can be introduced which are held in place by the braiding yarns These yarns will add dimensional stability, improve tensile properties, stiffness and compressive strength. Yarns can also be added to the core of the braid to form a solid braid.

Fabric effects on material properties

Resin transfer molding (RTM)

Dry-fiber preform placed in a closed mold, resin injected into mold, then cured

Material Forms Pultrusion

Fiber and matrix are pulled through a die, like extrusion of metals -assembles fibers, impregnates the resin, shapes the product, and cures the resin in one step.  Example. Fishing rods


Pultrusion

Manufacturing
Tube rolling - tubular products


Examples
 fishing rods  golf clubs  oars

Prepreg tape typically used wrapped in 2 directions or spiral wrapped