Tissues

Biological tissue is a collection of interconnected cells that perform a similar function within an organism. In other words, it is a group of cells working together mainly inside an organ.

The tissues are formed by cells and molecules of extracellular matrix forming different organs and systems of the body.

Tissues
Human body is composed of 4 basic types of tissue: Epithelial tissue Connective tissue Muscular tissue Nervous tissue

Tissues
Epithelial tissue - Tissues composed of layers of cells that cover organ surfaces such as surface of the skin and inner lining of digestive tract: the tissues that serve for protection, glandular secretion, and absorption. Connective tissue - Connective tissue is characterized by the separation of the cells by an inorganic material, which is called extracellular matrix. Bone and blood are connective tissues.

Tissues
Muscle tissue - These are the contractile tissue of the body composed of elongated cells. Its function is to produce force and cause motion, either - locomotion or - movement within internal organs. Nervous tissue - Cells forming the brain, spinal cord and peripheral nervous system. Specialized functions of receiving, generating and transmitting nerve impulses.

Origin of Tissues
A fertilized egg divides to produce 3 primary germ cell layers.These layers differentiate to form the tissues of the body.

Ectoderm epidermis, CNS, some epithelial tissues Mesoderm skeletal system, muscle, connective tissue, gonads, blood, some epithelial tissues Endoderm digestive tract, some epithelial tissues

Epithelial tissue
General Features
1) Closely packed cellular arrangement: are composed of

closely aggregated polyhedral cells with very little extracellular matrix and little intercellular space.
2) Cover or line surfaces (interior or exterior) 3) Form ducts and secretory portions of glands (e.g. parenchyma) a) Exocrine Glands (have ducts) - secrete to some surface b) Endocrine Glands (lack ducts) - secrete to bloodstream by diffusion

Epithelial tissue
General Features
5) All epithelia are anchored to underlying tissues by a basement membrane composed of an upper basal lamina and a lower layer of reticular fibers (a CT fiber type). 6) Avascular - no blood vessels in epithelial tissues, cells derive nutrients by diffusion from blood vessels in surrounding CT.

Epithelial tissue
 Epithelial cells cover or line all body surfaces, cavities and tubes. So, These are called covering epithelia  Epithelial cells form the functional units of secretory glands. So, These are called glandular epithelia  Epithelial tissues are supported by a basement membrane which separates them from other tissues.  Epithelial cells are bound to each other by specialised cell junctions.

The basement membrane (basal lamina)

An extracellular supportive structure that separates epithelial and connective tissues:
Lamina lucida
connective tissue basement membrane

Lamina densa

Not usually visible with light microscope Functions: holds tissues together Template for cell migration during development

Epithelial tissue
Functions: Protection: Epithelial cells from the skin protect underlying tissue from mechanical injury, harmful chemicals, invading bacteria and from excessive loss of water.
Sensation: Sensory stimuli penetrate specialised epithelial cells. Specialised epithelial tissue containing sensory nerve endings is found in the skin, eyes, ears, nose and on the tongue.

Epithelial tissue
Functions: Secretion: In glands, epithelial tissue is specialised to secrete specific chemical substances such as enzymes, hormones and lubricating fluids (e.g. saliva, mucus, etc.).
Absorption: Certain epithelial cells lining the small intestine absorb nutrients from the digestion of food.

Epithelial tissue
Functions: Excretion: Epithelial tissues in the kidney excrete waste products from the body and reabsorb needed materials from the urine. Sweat is also excreted from the body by epithelial cells in the sweat glands.
Selective Diffusion: Simple epithelium promotes the diffusion of gases, liquids and nutrients. Because they form such a thin lining, they are ideal for the diffusion of gases (eg. walls of capillaries and lungs).

Epithelial tissue
Functions: Cleaning: Ciliated epithelium assists in removing dust particles and foreign bodies which have entered the air passages.
Reduces Friction: The smooth, tightlyinterlocking, epithelial cells that line the entire circulatory system reduce friction between the blood and the walls of the blood vessels.

EPITHELIAL TISSUES
Classification:
Epithelial tissues are classified according to A. their shape B. the number of cell layers and presence of cell surface specialisations

Classification of epithelia
Number of cell layers
Simple Stratified Pseudostratified

Shape of apical surface cells

Squamous Cuboidal Columnar Transitional

By the number of cell layers

Simple  One cell layer thick  All cells in contact with the basement membrane  Involved in selective diffusion, absorption, secretion Stratified  Multiple cell layers  Only base layer in contact with basement membrane  Usually form protective surfaces Pseudostratified Appears multilayer but is only one cell layer thick All cells in contact with basement membrane Confined to larger airways of respiratory tract

By cell shape
Squamous Irregular shaped, thin & flat, plate-like cells - central nuclei Cuboidal Isodiametric cells - central nucleus, short cylinders appearing like cubes from the side Columnar Cells tall at right angle to basement membranebasal nucleus, often elongated, looks like columns or cylinders Transitional Intermediate between cuboidal and squamous, always stratified Surface cells may contain two nucleii Confined to urinary tract

EPITHELIAL TISSUE TYPES (Mixed) Simple squamous Simple cuboidal Simple columnar

basal lamina

SIMPLE - one-cell thick

Stratified squamous

Stratified cuboidal & columnar

SIMPLE COVERING EPITHELIA

Simple squamous Function: passive transport of gases and fluids Location: alveoli of lungs, lining body cavities (mesothelium), lining blood vessels (endothelium)
Mesothelium: The layer of flat cells of mesodermal origin that lines the embryonic body cavity and gives rise to the squamous cells of the peritoneum, pericardium, Mesoderm:The middle embryonic germ layer, lying between the ectoderm and the endoderm Read more:

Simple Squamous Epithelium

Contd
Simple cuboidal

Function: secretory, excretory, absorptive Location: kidney, salivary glands, pancreas

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

Contd
Simple columnar

Function: highly secretory, excretory, absorptive Location: digestive tract, gall bladder
[Goblet cell :specialized epithelial cells that secrets mucus]

Nonciliated Simple Columnar Epithelium

Ciliated Simple Columnar Epithelium

STRATIFIED COVERING EPITHELIA

Stratified squamous

Function: protective Location: oral cervix, anal canal cavity,

Cells at surface are squamous, basal cells are cuboidal and divide constantly

Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

Multilayered Surface cells cuboidal

rare (only found in sweat gland ducts & male urethra)

Stratified Columnar Epithelium

Multilayered Surface cells columnar Rare (very large ducts & part of male urethra)

Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium

Single cell layer All cells attach to basement membrane but not all reach free surface Nuclei at varying depths

Transitional Epithelium
Characterized by domelike cells that are neither squamous nor columner. The form of the cells changes. Location: bladder Function: stretching, protective

Transitional Epithelium

Multilayered Surface cells varying in shape from round to flat if stretched Lines hollow organs of the urinary tract that expand from within

Connective tissue
Functions
Mechanical function : 1. Connect and bind the cells and organs and ultimately give support to the body . 2. Provide a tight covering for deeper structure and help to maintain the shape of these regions . 3. Hold bone ends together at joints and provide attachment of many muscle (cartilage)

Other Function: 5. Storage In the form of adipose tissue , provide a store of nutrients 6. Defense Macrophages and plasma cells destroy invading foreign particles by producing antibodies against them . In addition intercellular substances act as a physical barrier to the penetration of bacteria and inert particles .

7. Repair The traumatic injury or inflammatory area is easily repaired to get regenerative power. 8. Transport Carry nutrients through blood to various tissues in the body and move metabolic wastes from the cells. 9. Help in regeneration of specialized tissues, e.g. cartilage , bone.

Characteristics of connective tissue

a. The intercellular material is maximum where as the cellular component is minimum. b. Unlike the other tissues, (e.g. epithelium, muscle and nerve) which are formed mainly by cells, the major constituent of connective tissue is ECM (Extracellular matrix). c. Possess cells, fibers and ground substances.

Connective tissues cells

Cell specialization in connective tissue has given rise to several types of cells, each having its own morphologic and functional characteristics .They are1. Fibroblast or fibrocytes 2. Macrophages 3. Mast cells 4. Plasma cells 5. Fat cells or adipose tissue 6. Leukocytes 7. Pigment cells

Fibroblasts
Most common and numerous cell found in connective tissue. Derived from undifferentiated mesenchymal* cells. There are two morphological types of fibroblast . Fibroblast: The young cells Fibrocytes : The old Mature cells *Cells from the embryonic mesoderm which are undifferentiated and
can be converted into various types of cells

Fibroblasts
Functiona. Synthesis of collagen and elastic fibers and the glycosaminoglycans* for the extracellular substances. b. Help in healing of wounds by continued proliferation and subsequent conversion into fibrocytes. c. Fibroblasts are also involved in the production of growth factors that influence cell growth and differentiation. Hyalouronic acid :A gellike aminoglycan that is found in the tissue space, the synovial fluid of joints, and the vitreous
humor of the eyes and acts as a binding, lubricating, and protective agent.

Macrophages
Macrophages derived mainly from precursor cells from the bone marrow that divide, producing monocytes. These cells circulate in the blood and in the second step migrate into the connective tissue where they mature and are called macrophage . Therefore, Monocytes and Macrophages are the same cell in different stages of maturation.

Functions of macrophages
1.Major function a. Act as a defense elements. b. They phagocytize cell debris, abnormal ECM elements, bacteria and inert elements c. Secrete an array of substances that participate in defensive and reparative functions .

Functions of macrophages
2. Macrophages participate in the immune system of the body . These cellsa. influence activation of the immune response . b. participate in cell mediated resistance to infection by bacteria, virus, fungi. c. participate in the destruction of aged erythrocytes.

Mast cells
Function : 1. The mast cells liberate histamine, which promotes increase vascular permeability leading to inflammation . 2. Play an important role in all allergic reaction, like an anaphylactic shock . 3.The mast cells help in the formation of hyaluronic acid in the matrix. This substance increases viscosity of the synovial fluid.

Collagenous fibers
Collagen fibers consist of the protein collagen. They are extremely tough and in the fresh state appear white and hence also are termed white fibers . These fibers consist of many closely packed tropocollagen fibrils and vary from 1 to 12 m in diameter .

Collagenous fibers
Functions: Their great tensile strength imparts both flexibility and strength to the tissue. Example: Bone, skin, cartilage contain collagen fibers.

Cartilage: Overview
Avascular specialized fibrous Connective tissue. It hasFirm Extra cellular matrix Chondrocytes embedded in the ECM Function: To support soft tissues In the development & growth of long bones

Three types of cartilage:

Hyaline cartilage Elastic cartilage Fibrocartilage

They vary in certain matrix components

Bone: Overview
Bone is the hardest of all connective tissues which constitutes the skeleton of the body. The composition of bone is constantly changing. Short term changes occur as calcium from the blood is deposited in bones and as calcium is released back into the blood. Long term changes occur in both the structural and functional composition as aging processes. Function: To support fleshy structure To protect vital organs To harbor the bone marrow where blood cells are formed. To provide calcium reserve (bone contains about 90% of body s calcium)

Bone: Overview
Bone is composed of intercellular calcified matrix and Three cell types. The cells of bones are: 1. Osteocytes 2. Osteoblast -aid the growth and development of teeth and bones. 3. Osteoclast - A cell that actively reabsorbs old or fatigued bone so that new bone may be replaced by osteoblast cells. When osteoclast cells reabsorb bone faster than the osteoblast cells are building it, then osteoporosis (bone loss) occurs.

Bone Marrow

The soft, fatty, vascular tissue that fills most bone cavities and is the source of red blood cells and many white blood cells. Bone marrow (or "medulla ossea") is the tissue comprising the center of large bones. It is the place where new blood cells are produced.

Bone marrow contains two types of stem cells: hematopoietic (which can produce blood cells) give rise to the three classes of blood cell that are found in the circulation: white blood cells (leukocytes), red blood cells (erythrocytes), and platelets (thrombocytes). Mesenchymal stem cells are found arrayed around the central sinus in the bone marrow. They have the capability to differentiate into osteoblasts, chondrocytes, myocytes, and many other types of cell. They also function as "gatekeeper" cells of the bone marrow.

Muscles

Muscle is one of our 4 tissue types and muscle tissue combined with nerves, blood vessels, and various connective tissues. Muscles are quite complex and as well find out, they are a marvel of both biology and physics.

Muscle Functions
1. Production of Movement Movement of body parts and of the environment Movement of blood through the heart and the circulatory vessels. Movement of lymph through the lymphatic vessels Movement of food (and, subsequently, food waste) through the GI tract Movement of bile out of the gallbladder and into the digestive tract Movement of urine through the urinary tract Movement of semen through the male reproductive tract and female reproductive tract Movement of a new born through the birth canal

Muscle Functions
2. Maintenance of posture
Muscle contraction is constantly allowing us to remain upright. The muscles of our neck are keeping our head up right now. As we stand, our leg muscles keep us on two feet. Generation of heat. occurs via shivering an involuntary contraction of skeletal muscle.

3. Thermogenesis

Muscle Functions
4. Stabilization of joints
Muscles keep the tendons that cross the joint nice and rigid. This does a wonderful job of maintaining the integrity of the joint.

All the things muscles do fall under one of these 4 categories.

3 Types of Muscle Tissue

Characteristics of Muscle Tissue

1. Excitability
The ability to receive and respond to a stimulus In skeletal muscle, the stimulus is a neurotransmitter (chemical signal) release by a neuron (nerve cell). In smooth muscle, the stimulus could be a neurotransmitter, a hormone, stretch, (pH, (Pco2, or (Po2. In cardiac muscle, the stimulus could be a neurotransmitter, a hormone, or stretch. The response is the generation of an electrical impulse that travels along the plasma membrane of the muscle cell.

Characteristics of Muscle Tissue

2. Contractility
The ability to shorten forcibly when adequately stimulated. This is the defining property of muscle tissue. The ability to be stretched (Extended) The ability to recoil and resume original length after being stretched.

3. Extensibility 4. Elasticity

NERVOUS TISSUE

NERVE TISSUE
By far the most complex tissue in the human body is nerve tissue. Formed by a network of more than 100 million nerve cells, assisted by many more glial cells. Each neuron has, on an average , at least a thousand interconnection with other neurons forming a very complex nervous system.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
Structures that make up the nervous system are the Brain 12 pairs of cranial nerves and their branches, the spinal cord 31 pairs of spinal nerves and their branches, Ganglia and sensory receptors.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
Cranial nerves ( 12 pairs)
1. Olfactory Bulb 2. Optic Nerve 3. Oculomotor Nerve 4. Trochlear Nerve 5. Trigeminal Nerve 6. Abducens Nerve 7. Facial Nerve 8. Vestibulocochlear Nerve 9. Glossopharyngeal Nerve 10. Vagus Nerve 11. Accessory Nerve 12. Hypoglossal Nerve

SPINAL Nerve : 8 pairs nerves, of cervical

12 pairs of thorasic nerves, 5 pairs nerves 5 pairs nerves, 1 pair nerves of lumbar

of

sacral

of coccygeal

Nervous Tissue senses stimuli and transmits signal from one part of the body to another. The nervous tissue consists of elements: The nerve cell or neuron The neuroglia The functional unit of the nervous tissue is neuron. The nerve cells are easily stimulated and can transmit impulses very rapidly.