CLINICAL TEACHING

CONCEPTS IN LEARNING THEORIES USED IN CURRICULUM PLANNING

REPORTER: Jan Mae Lee

CURRICULUM
Refers to the content and processes by which learners gain knowledge and understanding, develop skills, and alter attitudes, appreciation, and values under the auspices of a given school or program.

CONCEPTS OF A CURRICULUM
 A defined philosophy or mission statement  An organizing framework  Anticipated outcomes, competencies, and/or objectives to be achieved  Selected content with specific sequencing of the content  Educational activities and experiences to facilitate learning  Means of evaluation

*In curriculum planning, members may choose a single or combinations with specific nursing theory/model or/and learning theories on which to build the framework of the curriculum.

LEARNING THEORIES

Describe the processes used to bring about changes in the ways individuals understand information and changes the ways they perform a task or skill.

BEHAVIORAL LEARNING THEORIES

Focuses on what is directly observable in learners. A view that assumes a learner is essentially passive, responding to environmental stimuli.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
IVAN PAVLOV

A form of associative learning where there is a demonstration of how stimulus-response bonds (which some consider as the basic building blocks of learning) are formed. It involves the association an unconditioned and a conditioned stimulus in such a way that the conditioned stimulus elicits the unconditioned response.

CONCEPTS
 Conditioning The initiation of an involuntary reaction due to continuous use of a stimulus.  Controlled Stimulus Stimulus initially inadequate to evoke response in question but will do so if paired with the unconditioned stimulus.  Uncontrolled Stimulus Stimulus adequate at the onset of training to produce the response in question.  Controlled Response Learned response to a controlled stimulus.  Uncontrolled Response Response to an uncontrolled stimulus.

CONCEPTS
Stimulus Generalization Happens once a conditioned response to a stimulus of a certain kind is established, then the response will also occur to stimuli which are similar to the original stimulus. No learning occurs unless there is a generalization No two stimuli or stimulus situations are exactly alike. They must be treated as if they were exactly alike in order to elicit the same response.

CONCEPTS
Discrimination Eliciting different responses to two different stimuli Extinction Stimulus that are no longer reinforced tend to disappear from the learner s repertoire of behavior Spontaneous Recovery The return of a conditioned response, following experimental extinction, after periods of reinforcement. Once a conditioned response is established, it never completely disappears from the behavioral repertoire of the learner.

OPERANT CONDITIONING
B.F. SKINNER
 Another form of associative learning where there is a process of operating on the environment. Together with the concepts in classical conditioning the learner encounters another kind of stimulus, which is the reinforcing stimulus (reinforcer). This special stimulus has the effect of increasing the behavior occurring just before the reinforcer.  Described as the behavior is followed by a consequence, and the nature of the consequence modifies the organism's tendency to repeat the behavior in the future. A behavior followed by a reinforcing stimulus results in an increased probability of that behavior occurring in the future.

OPERANT CONDITIONING
B.F. SKINNER

Learning process whereby a desirable behavior is made more likely to occur in the future or to occur more frequently because it is reinforced or strengthened. B.F. Skinner defined learning as a change in probability of response.

CONCEPTS
Operant Set of behaviors that constitute an individual doing something. Reinforcement The notion that learning takes place because of the consequences of a behavior. Any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows.

CONCEPTS
Kinds of Reinforcement Positive Reinforcement - favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior. In situations that reflect positive reinforcement, a response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of something, such as praise or a direct reward. Negative Reinforcement - involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the display of a behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant. *in both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases.

CONCEPTS
 Punishment An action that suppresses or reduces the probability of the response it follows. The presentation of an adverse event or outcome. Kinds of Punishment Positive Punishment - punishment by application, involves the presentation of an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows. Negative Punishment - punishment by removal occurs when a favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs. *in both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases.

CONCEPTS
Types of Reinforcement Primary reinforcement instinctive behaviors lead to satisfaction of basic survival needs such as food, water, sex, shelter. No learning takes place because the behaviors emerge spontaneously. Secondary reinforcement the reinforcer is not reinforcing by itself, but becomes reinforcing when paired with a primary reinforcer, such as pairing a sound or a light with food. Generalized reinforcement stimuli become reinforcing through repeated pairing with primary or secondary reinforcers. Many are culturally reinforced.

CONCEPTS
Schedules of Reinforcement giving reinforcement on different schedules has different results for training. Continuous reinforcement reinforcement is given every time the animal gives the desired response. Intermittent reinforcement reinforcement is given only part of the times the animal gives the desired response. Ratio reinforcement a pre-determined proportion of responses will be reinforced. Fixed ratio reinforcement reinforcement is given on a regular ratio, such as every fifth time the desired behavior is produced.

CONCEPTS
Schedules of Reinforcement (cont.) Variable (random) fixed reinforcement reinforcement is given for a predetermined proportion of responses, but randomly instead of on a fixed schedule. Interval reinforcement reinforcement is given after a predetermined period of time. Fixed interval reinforcement reinforcement is given on a regular schedule. Variable interval reinforcement reinforcement is given after random amounts of time have passed.

CONCEPTS
Acquisition Rate How rapidly an animal can be trained to a new operant behavior as a function of reinforcement. Rate of Response Measure of learning that is very sensitive to different schedules of reinforcement. Extinction Rate The rate at which an operant response disappears following the withdrawal of reinforcement.

CONCEPTS
Acquisition Rate How rapidly an animal can be trained to a new operant behavior as a function of reinforcement. Rate of Response Measure of learning that is very sensitive to different schedules of reinforcement. Extinction Rate The rate at which an operant response disappears following the withdrawal of reinforcement.

BEHAVIORISM
JOHN B. WATSON

Coined the term behaviorism Further extended Pavlov s work and applied it to human beings.

CONCEPTS
Behaviorism Assumes that behavior is observable and can be correlated with other observable events. Thus, there are events that precede and follow behavior. Its goal is to explain relationships between antecedent conditions (stimuli), behavior (responses), and consequences (reward, punishment, or neutral effect).

CONCEPTS
Aspects of Behaviorism o Opposes mentalistic concepts o Uses contiguity to explain learning o Considers emotion to be just another example of classical conditioning o Rejects the notion of individual differences o Thought complex behaviors came about through combinations of identifiable reflexes o Believes that all human differences were the result of learning o Believes that practice strengthens learning

CONNECTIVISM
E.L. THORNDIKE

Perceived that learners are empty organisms who respond to stimuli in a random manner. Rejected the notion that man is simply another animal that can reason. He believed intelligence should be defined solely in terms of greater or lesser ability to form connections.

CONCEPTS
 Law of Effect States that the responses which occur just prior to a satisfying state of affairs are more likely to be repeated, and responses just prior to an annoying state of affairs are more likely not to be repeated.  Multiple Response In any given situation, the organism will respond in a variety of ways if the first response does not immediately lead to a more satisfying state of affairs. Problem solving is through trial and error.  Set or Attitude There are predisposition's to behave or react in a particular way. These are unique for species or groups of related species, and may be culturally determined in humans.

CONCEPTS
Prepotency of Elements Thorndike observed that a learner could filter out irrelevant aspects of a situation and respond only to significant (proponent) elements in a problem situation. Response by Analogy In a new context, responses from related or similar contexts may be transferred to the new context. This is sometimes referred to as the theory of identical elements. Associative Shifting It is possible to shift any response from one stimulus to another.

CONCEPTS
Law of Readiness A series of responses can be chained together to satisfy some goal which will result in annoyance if blocked. Law of Exercise Connections become strengthened with practice, and weaken when practice is discontinued. Intelligence is a function of the number of connections made.

DRIVE REDUCTION THEORY

CLARK L. HULL

Based on Thorndike s work, but included reinforcement as a major characteristic of learning.

CONCEPTS
Drive Reduction Theory postulated that behavior occurs in response to "drives" such as hunger, thirst, sexual interest, feeling cold, etc. When the goal of the drive is attained (food, water, mating, warmth) the drive is reduced, at least temporarily. This reduction of drive serves as a reinforcer for learning. Thus learning involves a dynamic interplay between survival drives and their attainment. The bonding of the drive with the goal of the drive was a type of reinforcement, and his theory was a reinforcement theory of learning.

COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES Focuses on the inner mental activities opening the
black box of the human mind is valuable and necessary for understanding how people learn. Mental processes such as thinking, memory, knowing, and problem-solving need to be explored. Knowledge can be seen as schema or symbolic mental constructions. Learning is defined as change in a learner s schemata.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
JEAN PIAGET

A four-stage model of how the mind processes new information encountered. He posited that children progress through 4 stages and that they all do so in the same order.

CONCEPTS
 4 STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Sensorimotor (Birth 2 years old) The infant builds an understanding of himself or herself and reality (and how things work) through interactions with the environment. Learning takes place via assimilation (the organization of information and absorbing it into existing schema) and accommodation (when an object cannot be assimilated and the schemata have to be modified to include the object.) Pre-operational (2 4 years old) The child is not yet able to conceptualize abstractly and needs concrete physical situations. Objects are classified in simple ways, especially by important features.

CONCEPTS
 4 STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (cont.)

Concrete Operational (7 11 years old) The child begins to think abstractly and conceptualize, creating logical structures that explain his or her physical experiences. Formal Operations (11 15 years old) The Cognition reaches its final form. The person no longer requires concrete objects to make rational judgments. He or she is capable of deductive and hypothetical reasoning. His or her ability for abstract thinking is very similar to an adult.

CONCEPTS
Assimilation The process by which a person takes material into their mind from the environment, which may mean changing the evidence of their senses to make it fit. Accommodation The difference made to one's mind or concepts by the process of assimilation. Note that assimilation and accommodation go together: you can't have one without the other. Classification The ability to group objects together on the basis of common features.

CONCEPTS
Class inclusion The understanding more advanced than simple classification, that some classes or sets of objects are also sub-sets of a larger class. (E.g. there is a class of objects called dogs. There is also a class called animals. But all dogs are also animals, so the class of animals includes that of dogs) Conservation The realisation that objects or sets of objects stay the same even when they are changed about or made to look different. Decentration The ability to move away from one system of classification to another one as appropriate.

CONCEPTS
Egocentrism The belief that you are the centre of the universe and everything revolves around you: the corresponding inability to see the world as someone else does and adapt to it. Not moral "selfishness", just an early stage of psychological development. Operation The process of working something out in your head. Young children (in the sensorimotor and pre-operational stages) have to act, and try things out in the real world, to work things out (like count on fingers) older children and adults can do more in their heads.

CONCEPTS
Schema (scheme) The representation in the mind of a set of perceptions, ideas, and/or actions, which go together. Stage A period in a child's development in which he or she is capable of understanding some things but not others

CONDITIONS OF LEARNING
ROBERT M. GAGNE
 Much of an individual s learning (from sensorimotor to highly complex intellectual skills) requires different conditions for learning to be successful.  Classified learning outcomes into five different categories. Each category involves both internal and external conditions that contribute to, or interfere with the learning process.  Believed that there are 8 different types of learning that proceed sequentially in hierarchical order.

CONCEPTS
Learning Outcomes Intellectual skills Verbal information Cognitive strategies Motor skills Attitudes

CONCEPTS
Types of Learning Signal Learning An involuntary response occurs to a specific stimulus (Pavlov) Stimulus response A voluntary response occurs to a specific stimulus (Skinner) Chaining Two or more stimulus response associations occur and a sequence of behavior is learned. Verbal Association The chaining of stimulus response connections

CONCEPTS
Types of Learning (cont.) Discrimination Learning The learner responds to one stimuli but not a similar one Concept Learning The learner organizes different stimuli into a class and then responds to any member of that class in the same way Principle or Rule Learning A chain of two or more concepts Problem Solving The combination of two or more principles or rules to form higher order thinking patterns.