Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Southern Methodist University EETS8320 Fall 2005 Session 5 Slides only. (No notes.)
Rev. 2.8;Page 1
1996-2005, R.Levine
Electromagnetic waves are guided by conductors (in twisted pair, co-axial cable, or wave guides). Power loss is due to:
A. Longitudinal metallic resistance of wire/cable B. Radiation losses (particularly for twisted pairs)
Rev. 2.8;Page 2
1996-2005, R.Levine
Figure taken from web site http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~www_pa/Scots_Guide/audio/part6/page3.html The H field is related to the B field by the equation B=H
Rev. 2.8;Page 3
1996-2005, R.Levine
Rev. 2.8;Page 4
1996-2005, R.Levine
Derived parameters:
Fractional power loss in percent/meter or dB/meter Characteristic impedance or surge impedance, Z0 : Z 0 ! R jL 2Tf
G jC 2Tf
Wave speed (phase velocity) cm ! 1 / R jL 2Tf
y G jC 2Tf
* Transverse EM waves have both their E and H fields in the cross-sectional plane perpendicular to the direction of EM power flow. (H field is B/ .) H is measured in amp/meter, analogous to lumped element current, and more convenient for analysis of power flow. Symbol j=-1. Mathematicians use symbol i, but engineers use i for current.
Rev. 2.8;Page 5
1996-2005, R.Levine
When two transmission wires/cables having different Z0 are spliced, EM wave power is partially reflected and partially transmitted. This produces echo.
Rev. 2.8;Page 6
1996-2005, R.Levine
Electrical Resistance
Most metal objects have linear resistance properties. Ohms law applies: v= Ri, where i is current (amps), R is resistance (ohms), and v is voltage (volts)
area
length
Power lost due to electrical resistance R carrying current i, is i2R (also equivalent to v2/R or vi)
This formula describes dc (constant current) power loss accurately. Current density is uniform throughout the area for unvarying or direct current.
*Material resistivity of copper can be increased by repeatedly bending and flexing the wire to modify the atomic level crystal structure. Newly manufactured soft drawn copper wire has slightly lower resistivity than hard drawn wire that was repeatedly flexed via roller machines before selling. Hard drawn wire is mechanically stronger and can be pulled with less breakage.
Rev. 2.8;Page 7
1996-2005, R.Levine
Power Loss
Power really flows via an electromagnetic wave in the space surrounding the wires (only a little electric field in the copper)
Wave speed is affected by the insulation material (e.g.,plastics, paper pulp, silk or other woven fibers, etc.) Only a surface portion of the copper carries alternating current, so-called skin effect, -- to form a boundary for EM wave depth of the current skin is inversely proportional to square root (
of frequency -- therefore effective resistance is higher at higher frequency due to smaller effective current-carrying area
Resistance of the wire causes i2R loss, the conversion of electric power into heat
Silver would be slightly better, but too costly (silver coating/plating sometimes used) Aluminums low resistivity is close to Cu -- also lighter in weight!... but its surface oxide is a poor conductor*
Rev. 2.8;Page 8
1996-2005, R.Levine
Wire Gauge
In North America, wire diameter is described by peculiar gauge (ga or AWG) number
Based on the number of times the wire is drawn through smaller and smaller conical diamond forming dies during manufacture. Larger ga or AWG number implies smaller diameter
Most other countries list actual diameter (in mm) [dc resistance stated in table]
B&S or Diameter AWG Copper (inches) Wire Gauge 12 0.08 14 19 22 24 0.064 0.036 0.025 0.020 Diameter ; per km (at dc, 0 Hz) (mm) [loop ; is twice the resistance of one wire] 2.053 10.42 Electric power uses 1.628 0.91 0.644 0.511 16.56 51.6 103.8 164.4
Electric power uses Telephone history interest Telephone use today
Telephone use today Abbreviations: AWG=American Wire Gauge, B&S=Brown & Sharpe (manufacturer of measuring equipment), ; = Ohms
Rev. 2.8;Page 9
1996-2005, R.Levine
Transmission Lines
Electromagnetic waves propagate or flow in a direction parallel to the wires axis, but power flow is mostly in the electromagnetic field outside the metallic wires
The wires act as a waveguide, although the name waveguidesometimes describes a hollow tube
The most accurate, but complicated, method of analysis is to examine the electromagnetic wave pattern in space
Is the propagation completely parallel to the wires, or do waves bounce around on diagonal reflected paths as in a hollow waveguide or a multi-mode optical fiber?
A sufficiently accurate method for many applications is to describe the transmission line properties by approximate lumped electrical parameters
Rev. 2.8;Page 10 1996-2005, R.Levine
Free-wave Coupling
Why dont the EM waves just flow out into space away from the wires?
With certain geometrical arrangements, they do just that: Parallel wires separated far more than their diameters Wires bent to right angles from parallel (so-called dipole antenna) like the lines above... A bend in the two parallel wires (over large distance compared to the wavelength)
Rev. 2.8;Page 11
1996-2005, R.Levine
Following two thought experiments require relatively short section of wire, so EM waves travel to far end in a very short time.
* Backward spelling is also used informally: 1/henry=yrneh (ernie), 1/farad=daraf
Rev. 2.8;Page 12
1996-2005, R.Levine
Inductance/unit length
Isolate a unit length of transmission wire pair, short circuit the two wires at the far end
Theoretically, it is desirable to chill the material to a low (super-conducting??) temperature, so the electrical resistance does not complicate the measurement! This is what scientists call a thought experiment
Apply a constant voltage Va-b for T seconds. The current i will increase slowly and the magnetic field increases proportional to i. Compute VT/i at the end of the time. This is the inductance L. (Blue area is VT.)
volts a-b a V I b amps
t 0 T
Rev. 2.8;Page 13
1996-2005, 0 R.Levine T
Capacitance/unit length
Isolate a unit length of transmission wire pair Apply a constant current I for T seconds. The voltage Va-b will increase slowly as the electric field increases. Positive electric charge is drawn away from the lower wire and pumped up to the upper wire. The total amount of charge transferred in T seconds is I T (ampsec or coulomb) Compute IT/V at the end of the time. This is the capacitance C. (Green area is IT.)
a I b amps volts a-b V
t 0 T
Rev. 2.8;Page 14
1996-2005, 0 R.Levine T
External H field falls off asymptotically inversely proportional to distance from wire center.
Rev. 2.8;Page 16
1996-2005, R.Levine
Note: These parameters are all dc values for 20 C temperature. Rev. 2.8;Page 17 1996-2005, R.Levine
Telephone lines run parallel to electric power wires for miles, on telephone poles or in underground conduits
Power wires are furthest from the street level for safety of telephone repair crews
Longitudinal voltage produces significant ac power frequency hum if telephone line is unbalanced
Example: unbalance occurs when one wire has lower resistance than other wire vis--vis ground/earth, due to damaged or wet insulation.
Rev. 2.8;Page 18
1996-2005, R.Levine
Real transmission lines must have well balanced electrical characteristics to prevent longitudinal or common mode induced voltages from appearing at the ends However, for many theoretical purposes, an unbalanced model with the same total loop parameter values is simpler for analysis
Unbalanced Model
Rev. 2.8;Page 19
1996-2005, R.Levine
dc or Resistive Model
A model which ignores L and C is only useful for the single special purpose of computing dc loop current Omitting inductance and capacitance theoretically removes time delay and waveform distortions. Power loss still occurs.
Note for dc that L becomes a zero ohm resistance or a short circuit, while C becomes an open circuit
or
Rev. 2.8;Page 20
1996-2005, R.Levine
Temperature: resistance of metal increases about 1% for each higher degree Celsius
Standard room temperature is 20 C (=68 F)
Wire Diameter (more generally, current carrying cross sectional area). Larger diameter implies lower resistance. Signal frequency: due to frequency-dependent skin effect
Higher equivalent resistance for higher frequency Because current-carrying area is smaller at high frequency
Rev. 2.8;Page 21
1996-2005, R.Levine
Wet cable can be dried out by use of dry nitrogen (N2) gas under continuous pressure from an evaporating tank of liquid nitrogen Slightly temperature dependent
Rev. 2.8;Page 23 1996-2005, R.Levine
For lossy lines, or lines with other components inserted periodically*, the phase velocity varies greatly at different test frequencies
Therefore, a non-sinusoidal waveform can have its different frequency components arrive with different delays, thus changing the received waveform. (an effect called dispersion)
* For example, when loading coils (inductors) are connected in series in the wires at intervals of 6000 ft, the wave speed is lower than for non-loaded wires.
Rev. 2.8;Page 25
1996-2005, R.Levine
Zo depends on geometry
For a transverse electromagnetic wave (propagation parallel to the wires) in a lossless (non-resistive, perfectly insulated) square parallel plate transmission line, Zo= (/) = 377; approximately
That is an approximation assuming all significant electric and magnetic field is almost completely confined in the space between the two parallel plates
Geometry with increased distance between conductors has higher Zo value. For lossy lines, or lines with material or properties dependent on frequency or temperature, the Zo will be different if these parameters change When two line sections with different Zo values (due to change in wire diameter, insulation type, etc.) connect, some of the wave power will be reflected and some will continue into the next section of transmission line
Rev. 2.8;Page 28
1996-2005, R.Levine
In modern telephone cables, wires are typically separated by about 3 wire diameters, and each wire is coated with plastic insulation. Theoretical surge impedance of this pair is about 300 ;. Resistor-capacitor circuit model often used to better represent an average length subscriber loop terminated in a central office subscriber card.
Rev. 2.8;Page 29 1996-2005, R.Levine
900;
1.2F
Rev. 2.8;Page 30
1996-2005, R.Levine
Wave Reflections
When two transmission lines having different values of Zo are joined, and an electromagnetic wave arrives at the joint from one side
Part of the power will travel through the joint into the second transmission line Part of the power will be reflected back towards the source
If the reflected wave occurs in a purely unidirectional wire pair, this may not be a problem
Example: one unidirectional pair of a two-pair (4 wire) system
If the reflected wave occurs in a bi-directional wire pair, or can get into the return unidirectional wire pair via a 2-to-4 wire conversion point (a hybrid or directional coupler), the participants may perceive an echo. We try to prevent echo, but when it occurs the best present remedy is an echo canceller.
The echo canceller determines the time delay, amplitude and polarity (+ or -) of the echo waveforms, and generates a canceling signal by means of digital signal processing (DSP). In dialed call service, the echo canceller must adaptively re-adjust its parameters (time delay, etc.) for each new telephone call.
Rev. 2.8;Page 31
1996-2005, R.Levine
Transmission Loss
Loss is usually expressed in dB for convenience in adding total logarithmic loss for a chain of devices
simpler than multiplying the numerical input/output ratios for a chain of sections
For a length of wire or cable, transmission* gain in dB is: 10log10 (output power/input power) With output lower than input power, this gain will be a negative number (that is, a loss of power) For 1 mi of 19 ga wire loop using 1 kHz test signal, input to output power ratio is 1.26/1 = 1/0.794) Corresponds to -1 dB/mi (-0.6 dB/km) gain (+1 dB/mi loss) Also corresponds to input-output voltage ratio 1.122/1 (or 1/0.89) for a mile of 19 ga wire
* Be careful about often careless and confusing usage of minus sign. Strictly speaking, negative loss is gain or amplification. Transmission gain could also theoretically be produced by wire with negative resistance!
Rev. 2.8;Page 33
1996-2005, R.Levine
19 1
22 1.79
24 2.2
1 1
10 3.2
100 6.1
Rev. 2.8;Page 34
1996-2005, R.Levine
Insertion Loss
Conceptually think of breaking the chain of equipment and inserting another device of interest (more wire, an amplifier, etc.) Additional loss due to this insertion of another device is the so-called insertion loss Insertion loss and transmission loss are the same in a chain of devices with the same surge impedance that is, the same ratio of V/I at all connection points
That is, uniform characteristic impedanceor surge impedance at all points in the transmission chain Not accurate throughout the audio frequency range, but telephone systems often approximate the surge impedance Zo of wire pair by using 600 ; (resistive) as a nominal approximate value for certain test purposes
Rev. 2.8;Page 35
1996-2005, R.Levine
0 1
T( x ) 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 x
Rev. 2.8;Page 37 1996-2005, R.Levine
Loop Length
Subscriber Loop length is usually limited by dc loop current (so-called resistance limit)
At least 5 to 10 mA needed to properly operate microphone and tone dial in a telephone set. 20 mA or more is desirable.
Rev. 2.8;Page 38
1996-2005, R.Levine
Conflicting Objectives
Amplifiers are used in analog transmission systems to compensate for power loss in transmission wire, cable
In digital transmission systems, dispersion and other waveform changes must also be compensated by repeaters. The example here considers only amplification.
One very high gain amplifier could, in theory, compensate for the loss of any length of line But if the signal gets too small before further amplification, the effects of thermal noise and interference will be severe If the signal is amplified too high before transmission, the voltage will be huge (and possibly even dangerous!) The cost of a very high gain amplifier is also much greater than a low gain amplifier The optimum engineering-economic arrangement is to use a number of amplifiers of moderate gain, inserted at equal distances into the transmission wires
Rev. 2.8;Page 39 1996-2005, R.Levine
Usual practice is to place amplifiers (repeaters) periodically at fixed distance intervals so:
Required amplifier gain is moderate, so unit cost is moderate Input signal is never too low compared to noise & interference If the first or last section of line is not the standard interval length, a Line Build-Out (LBO) network is connected into the end. LBO can be made using inductors, resistors and capacitors, or sometimes by merely using a spool of wire or cable of the correct length. An example showing economic optimization of repeater spacing will be given on the practice quiz Rev. 2.8;Page 40 1996-2005, R.Levine
Used historically for baseband transmission on both subscriber loops and trunks The 6000 ft spacing of loading coils led directly to the same spacing later for T-1 digital carrier repeater units, since access and enclosures were already available at these locations.
Rev. 2.8;Page 42
1996-2005, R.Levine
Loading coil toroidal cores are also used to wind transformers for radio and other applications
Available at low cost on the used equipment market. Used by radio hams and experimenters
In some cases where two pairs split off from one pair (a bridged tap), a coil is wired in series with each pair to increase the Zo and reduce reflected power
This is called a bridge lifter
Loading coils and bridge lifters must be removed to install any transmission system which utilizes frequencies above about 4 kHz, such as:
All types of digital systems (T-1, ISDN, etc.) Data above voice (several proprietary systems) ADSL, HDSL, etc.
Rev. 2.8;Page 43
1996-2005, R.Levine