Historical Background of the Middle East from Mohammed to 1918

Arabs before Islam

Tribal society on the Arabian peninsula
Farmers, traders, nomadic shepherds Tribal organization (Hashem) Descended from Abraham

Pagan
Pre-Mohammed believed in animist religion City of Mecca (major idol center)
Quaba

Lineage of Mohammed
Abraham Ismail Adnan

Quraiysh Qussaiy Abdmanaf Abdshams Hashem Adbelmuttalib (Amneh+) Abdallah Abutalib Hamzeh Alabbas Abulahab Alhareth

Muhammad
Ummayah Dynasty (661-750)

Ali Abbbassides Dynasty (750-1258)

Mohammeds Background
Born 570 A.D. near Mecca Father died before the boy was born; Mother died when he was six. Consigned to the care of his grandfather, the head of the clan of Hashem. After the death of his grandfather, Muhammed was raised by his uncle, Abu Talib. About the year 590 A.D. entered the service of a wealthy widow named Khadijah, a caravan owner 15 years his senior who later became his first wife.

Mohammed the Prophet

610 A.D. Began to receive the Quran (Koran) from Allah via the Angel Gabriel Proclaim! In the name of thy Lord and Cherisher, Who created man, out of a mere clot of congealed blood: Proclaim! Qur'an 96:1-5 Preached the new religion of Islam (total submission to God) to people of Mecca for next 12 years.

Rejection in Mecca
From about 620, ecca became actively hostile, M since much of its revenues depended on its pagan hrine, the Kaaba. s Mohammed and his followers were invited to the town of Yathrib by ewish and Christian tribes after they J were no longer welcome in Mecca. In 622, the irst year of the Muslim calendar, they set f out on the Hijra, the emigration to Yathrib, ater l renamed Medina, meaning "the city" where Mohammed concluded a treaty with he tribes of t Medina. A large number of Medinans, known as the Ansar (helpers), ere attracted to Mohammed's cause. w Early versions of slamic practice included Jewish I practices such as the fast of Yom Kippur and prayer o Jerusalem. t
These were eventually ropped, and the direction of prayer d was turned to Mecca.

Collecting Followers
Mohammed believed firmly in his position as last of the prophets and as successor of esus J and prophets before him. Therefore, he at first expected that the Jews and Christians ould w welcome him and accept his revelations, but he was soon disappointed. Medina had a large Jewish population that controlled most of the wealth of the city, nd a a portion of them at least refused to give their new ruler any kind of religious llegiance. a Mohammed, after a long quarrel, appropriated much of their property, and estroyed two d Jewish tribes, the Banu Nadir and the Banu Quraizah.

Tolerance of People of the Book

Christians and Jews, upon payment of a yearly tax, were allowed religious freedom and, while maintaining their status as non-Muslims, were associate members of the Muslim state. This status did not apply to polytheists, who could not be tolerated within a community that worshipped the One God.

The Return to Mecca

In 629, Mohammed reentered Mecca without bloodshed and in a spirit of tolerance which established an ideal for future conquests. He destroyed the idols in the Ka'bah, to put an end forever to pagan practices there. The Meccans were forced to convert to Islam, and the powerful uraish and Umayya tribes were incorporated Q into the Islamic leadership by giving embers of their m leaders prominent positions in the military and overnment. g The new religion evolved into a way of life and recipe for community organization, roviding a religious and p ideological framework for uniting the Arab tribes, and a ocial and organizational framework for regulating s the unified action of the nomads. The separate tribes had been re-formed into a MuslimArab Umma (community).

The Succession
Just before he died unexpectedly in 632, Mohammed made what is known as his Farewell Presentation. In it he made clear that his revelations were meant for all peoples of the Earth, not just Arabs and that his followers were expected to take his message to all mankind.
All those who listen to me shall pass on my words to others and those to others again; and may the last ones understand my words better than those who listen to me directly. Be my witness Oh God, that I have conveyed your message to your people.

632-661: the Four Elected Successors (Caliphs)

Abu-Bakr - 632-634
The first elected official. Wise leader, crisis manager

Omar Ibn Elkhattab - 634-644, "Commander of the Believers

A first-rate statesman. Honest, modest and just. Conquered the Levant, Egypt, Iraq, Persia Damascus (635) and Jerusalem (638) surrender peacefully Omars pledge to the Jerusalemites: Toleration A modern state: Treasury, communication, defense. Engraved currency.

Othman bin Affan - 644-656

Collected and compiled the Quran Emergence of power struggle

Ali Bin Abutalib - 656-661

Power struggle escalated to armed conflict Emergence of political parties

End of democracy. Ummayah Dynasty in Damascus, Muawyia (661-680)

The Ummayah Dynasty, 661-750

Empire center and capital move to Damascus Expansion: All N. Africa (Atlantic), W. Europe, much of C. Asia, the wall of China
711: Conquer of Spain and Portugal. Tariq Bin Ziyad

Expansion into W. Europe blocked in France by Charles Martel, 732 Power Struggle continues, but the Caliphs brutally liquidate all rivals Addelmalek builds Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem (691) Arabization of the empire Bloom of architecture, arts, agriculture, and science

The Abbassides Dynasty, 750-1258

A coalition of non-Arabs and Shia Arabs overthrows the Ummayah caliphate and moves the center of the Empire to Iraq and Iran Baghdad, built 762 AD. With over 2 Million inhabitants, Baghdad becomes the glamorous center of the world
Science, art, architecture, learning, and wealth Lighted streets, public baths, public libraries and hospitals everywhere

An Ummayah dynasty continues in Spain until the 9th century

Qurtoba (Cordova) competes with Baghdad

Cairo, built 968 AD

The Golden Age of Islamic Culture and Science (c. 750 CE - c. 1258 CE)
A dedicated quest for knowledge and a burst of scientific innovation in a multi-ethnic and multi-faith society Lasted for over 5 centuries, and produced a plethora of knowledge and discoveries in all disciplines Induced the later European renaissance Repeated requests in both the Quran and the Hadith for seeking knowledge, and application of rational thinking
Seek knowledge even in China Seek knowledge from crib to grave On judgment day, the ink of scientists is valued by God higher than the blood of martyrs The two important disciplines of science are theology and biology

Initially, massive translation of Greek and Indian writings

preserved all literary and scientific works and transmitted them to Europe

Medicine and Pharmacy

Institutionalized and regulated the practice of Medicine and Pharmacy
The modern concept of clinics Board exams and license to practice. Regulatory boards Classification of plants and Algae for their medical use, and outlined possible side effects

Hospitals:
Including specialized, in each of Baghdad, Qurtoba, and Damascus. Mobile hospitals for emergency. Departments and University Hospitals. Patients records and vital signs, urine tests, family history. Threads from animals intestine. Opium and Hashish for Anesthesia. Alcohol as disinfectant. Treatment of cataract, and removal of kidney and gallbladder stones

Surgery:

Autopsy:
Students training (Anatomy) Cause of death

MEDICINE
Al-Razi Rhazes (c. 865-c. 930), : was
the first to diagnose smallpox and measles, to associate these diseases and others with human contamination. His extensive medical treatise in nine volumes, "Hawi" was used as a textbook in the Sorbonne as late as 1395. Promoted psychotherapy. Stressed importance of a balanced diet for good health. Built a hospital in Baghdad.

Chemistry and Physics

Arabic terms and methods of preparation for Alkali, Alcohol, Tartarate Discovered and prepared in pure form 28 elements (Ibn Elhaytham) The processes of crystallization, fermentation, distillation, sublimation, Preparation of acids (H2SO4, HCl, HNO3) and bases (NaOH) Light travels in straight lines. Laws of refraction, reflection and illusion of light. Alluded to the Magnetic properties of some objects

Mathematics
Arabic numeral and the decimal system of numbers. Arithmetic. Roots and powers Algorithm The mathematical ZERO Algebra (combining fractions).
The Use of (x, y, z) to solve complex arithmetic/geometric problems

Trigonometry Differential and Integral calculus. pi = 3.141596535898732.

Astronomy
Astrology (myth) Astronomy (science) Movement, path, and location of planets and stars Earth is spherical and rotates along its axis and around the sun.
Calculated earth circumference (Albairuni) Calculated the time needed for one rotation around the sun (solar year) Calculated the equinoxes

CUISINE
Crusaders carried spices with them home from Palestine to western Europe. Rice, Sesame, pepper, ginger, cloves, melons and shallots, as well as dates, figs, oranges, lemons, and other citrus fruits, were introduced into European cuisine via the Crusaders and the trade caravans of Eastern merchants.

A Time of Rapid Decline

The Arab empire began to disintegrate soon after the Golden age, and a period of independent Caliphates and successive chaotic invasions followed. The Shi'ite Fatimids established an independent Caliphate in North Africa in 910, and conquered Egypt in 969, founding the city of Cairo. The Buwayhids occupied the throne of Persia in 932 and conquered Baghdad in 945.

Non-Arabs Assume Control

Seljuk Turks entered the Middle East from Asia around 1000AD. They established a highly cohesive, well-administered Sunni state under the nominal authority of the 'Abbasid caliphs at Baghdad. By 1055 they were powerful enough to take control of what was left of the Baghdad caliphate. By 1071 Seljuks extended their rule to the Holy Lands of Palestine.

The Seljuk Empire in 1092

Pope Urban IIs Call for Crusade

"From the confines of Jerusalem and from the city of Constantinople a grievous report has gone forth and has been brought repeatedly to our ears; namely, that a race from the kingdom of the Persians [the Turks, who conquered ancient Persia],... a race wholly alienated from God, has violently invaded the lands of those Christians and has depopulated them by pillage and fire.... They have either destroyed the churches of God or have appropriated them for the rites of their own religion. They destroy the altars, after having defiled them with their uncleanliness.... The kingdom of the Greeks [the Byzantine, or Eastern Empire] is now dismembered by them and has been deprived of territory so vast in extent that it could not be traversed in two months' time. "Accordingly, undertake this journey eagerly for the remission of your sins, with the assurance of the reward of imperishable glory in the kingdom of heaven." When an armed attack is made upon your enemy, let this one cry be raised by all the soldiers of God: `It is the will of God! It is the will of God!'....

Contemporary Description of the Christian Conquest of Jerusalem, 1099

But now that our men had possession of the walls and towers, wonderful sights were to be seen. Some of our men (and this was more merciful) cut off the heads of their enemies; others shot them with arrows, so that they fell from the towers; others tortured them longer by casting them into the flames. Piles of heads, hands, and feet were to be seen in the streets of the city. It was necessary to pick one's way over the bodies of men and horses. But these were small matters compared to what happened at the Temple of Solomon, a place where religious services are ordinarily chanted. What happened there? If I tell the truth, it will exceed your powers of belief. So let it suffice to say this much, at least, that in the Temple and porch of Solomon, men rode in blood up to their knees and bridle reins. Indeed, it was a just and splendid judgment of God that this place should be filled with the blood of the unbelievers, since it had suffered so long from their blasphemies.

The Mongols
Despite the conquest of Baghdad by the Seljuk Turks, the Abbasids still ruled nominally as Caliphs until 1258, when the Mongols sacked Baghdad. , The Mongols swept across the Middle East, reaching the Mediterranean and wreaking havoc in the already weakened remains of the Arab empire. The advance was finally stopped at the battle of Ayn Jalut near Nazereth in Palestine in 1260. The Mongols eventually converted to Islam and were integrated in the Muslim domains.

Tamerlane (1336-1405) or Timur, the Lame

The Mamlukes
The Mamlukes were a slave caste of Turkic warriors. About 1250 they took power in Egypt from the remains of the Ayubbid dynasty founded by Saladin. It was they who defeated the Mongols at Ayn Jalut. Their rule was quickly extended over Palestine and Syria.

The Safavid Persians

In the confusion left by the retreating Mongols,the Safavid dynasty took power in Persia in 1501, and established a strong independent state, though it eventually had to cede Baghdad and all of Iraq to the Ottoman Turks. Persians fought against western incursions, against the Uzbeks and against Sunni Muslims. The Sunni Turkish Sultans inflicted a decisive defeat on the Persians in 1514, causing the loss of northern Iraq and eastern Asia minor. The Safavid's ruled in Persia until 1732.

The Ottoman Turks

The Ottoman state was born on the frontier between Islam and the Byzantine Empire. Turkish tribes, driven from their homeland in the steppes of Central Asia by the Mongols, had embraced Islam and settled in Anatolia on the battle lines of the Islamic world, where they formed the Ottoman confederation. They were called ghazis, warriors for the faith, and their highest ambition was to die in battle for their adopted religion.
Osman I (Othman): 1299-1326

The Ottoman Turks

While the Mamlukes were taking power in the southern part of the Middle East, the Ottoman Turks, a related Asiatic people who had migrated to this region around the year 1000, were gathering strength in the Asia Minor and spilling over into Europe. Their success was due to good organization and early exploitation of the power of fire arms, which was not realized by other Muslim antagonists. In Asia Minor, Osman I established the beginning of the Ottoman dynasty in 1293. Osman's successor Ohkran conquered most of western Asia Minor. By 1354 the Turks had a base at Gallipoli, a peninsula. on the Mediterranean coast of Turkey. In 1351, Murad I took Adrianople. The Byzantine Empire was reduced to the city of Constantinople. In 1389, at the Battle of Kosovo, Murad I defeated Christian resistance and Ottoman power extended up to the Danube.

The Ottoman Bureaucracy

SULTAN
Divans
Social / Military Divans
Heads of Individual Religious Millets

Local Administrators & Military Landowners / Tax Collectors

Muslims

Jews

Christians

The Ottoman Turks

On May 29, 1453, Constantinople was conquered by the Sultan Mehmet the Conqueror (Mehmet the II). The Turks spread their rule progressively over practically the entire Middle East. In 1517 they defeated the Mamlukes, using canons and guns against the Mamluke troops who were armed mostly with swords. The Hashemite Sharif of Mecca accepted Ottoman rule in 1518. In 1519 they extended their rule through most of North Africa, and later conquered Iraq. In Europe, the Ottoman Turks conquered Romania, Transylvania, Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia and Albania. By 1529 they were threatening Vienna, though their siege failed and they did not extend their empire beyond Hungary.

Sultan Mehmet II

The Ottoman Struggle With Europe

The Ottoman empire continued to flourish in the 16th and 17th centuries despite inherent weaknesses in the organization of the Sultanate. The decisive turning point in the Turkish struggle with Europe came with the second siege of Vienna in 1683. The Turks were beaten back by a combined force of Germans and Austrians aided by 30,000 Poles under the Emperor Jan Sobieski. The Ottoman Empire declined in power and importance, but the fact of decline was not really grasped for another 120 years.

The Golden Age of the Ottomans

Europe Ends, Asia Begins

The Topkapi Palace

Topkapi Harem

Hagia Sophia

Hagia Sophia - interior

Blue Mosque

Blue Mosque - interior

The Sick Old Man of Europe

In the 19th century the Turkish Empire continued to retreat before the advances of the Europeans and to disintegrate due to internal causes. Turkey lost further territories, especially in the Balkans, after the Crimean war in 1856 and after the Balkan crisis of 1878. In 1914, Turkey entered WW I under on the side of the Central Powers. Britain decided that it was time to dismantle the Ottoman Empire. A British officer, T.E. Lawrence (Lawrence of Arabia) aided a Muslim revolt by the Hashemite family, rulers of Mecca. Turkey was forced to sign an ignominious peace at Sevres in 1919 which ended the Empire and put much of its former lands under European control.

The Ottoman Empire in 1914

End of the Caliphate

In the wake of the humiliation of WW I, a military officer, Mustafa Kemal, seized power in Turkey in 1922 and officially abolished the caliphate. General Kemal took the name Kemal Ataturk, Father of the Turks, and began the modernization of Turkey.

Historical Background of the Middle East from Mohammed to 1918