Pragmatics

Interpreting

what speakers mean

Most definitions of pragmatics pay lip service to Charles Morriss famous definition of pragmatics as the study of the relation of signs to interpreters

Sentence vs utterance
Sentence

: the largest grammatical unit, consisting of phrases and/or clauses, used to express a statement, question, command, etc. Utterance : a sentence which is spoken in a particular context by a certain speaker and is directed to a hearer.
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Semantics vs pragmatics
Semantics and pragmatics are the two main branches of the linguistic study of meaning.
Semantics

: the study of word meaning and sentence meaning without any relation to context. Pragmatics: the study of utterance meaning, sentences which are used in communication, and also the study of meaning in language interaction between a speaker and a hearer. 4

The elements of communication

According

to Cook (1990), a context of language use consists of several factors: The addresser: the person who originates the message. The addressee: the person to whom the message is addressed.
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 The

channel: the medium through which the message travels: sound waves, marks on paper, telephone wires, word processor screens. The message form: the grammatical and lexical choices of the message. The topic: the information carried in the topic. The code: the language or dialect The setting: the social or physical context.
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A: I have a fourteen year old son B: Well that's all right. A: I also have a dog B: Oh I'm sorry. .

is trying to rent an apartment from B (the owner of the apartment). When we read or hear pieces of language, we normally try to understand not only what the words mean, but what the writer or speaker of those words intended to convey.

The Interpretation of Linguistic Messages based on: knowledge of the meaning of the word knowledge about the context e.g. FALL BABY SALE

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Driving by a parking garage, you may see a large sign like the one in the picture. You read the sign, knowing what each of the words means and what the sign as a whole means. However, you dont normally think that the sign is advertising a place where you can park your heated attendant. (You take an attendant, you heat him/her up, and this is where you can park him/her(
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Alternatively, the sign may indicate a place where parking will be carried out by attendants who have been heated.

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Context
linguistic

context or co-text: set of other words used in the same phrase or context. The surrounding co-text has a strong effect on what we think the word probably means.
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For example, the word bank can be identified as a homonym, a single form with more than one meaning. How do we usually know which meaning is intended in a particular sentence? We normally do so on the basis of linguistic context. If the word bank is used in a sentence together with words like steep or overgrown, we have no problem deciding which type of bank is meant. Or, if we hear someone say that she has to get to the bank to withdraw some cash, we know from this linguistic context which type of bank is intended.
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Physical context: the location will influence interpretation.

If we see the word BANK on the wall of a building in a city, the physical location will influence our interpretation. While this may seem rather obvious, we should keep in mind that it is not the actual physical situation out there that constitutes the context for interpreting words or sentences. The relevant context is our mental representation of those aspects of what is physically out there that we use in arriving at an interpretation. 16

Deixis
One of the first phenomenon that scientific consideration of language use could not ignore was achieved by pointing at variables along some of its dimensions. This phenomenon is called deixis, and the Pointers are deictic expressions. Deictic Expressions Can not be interpreted unless the physical context is known.

Examples: here, there, this, that, then, yesterday, as well as most pronouns, such as I, you, him, her, them
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For example: Youll have to bring it back tomorrow because she isnt here today. Out of context, this sentence is really vague. It contains a large number of expressions (you, it, tomorrow, she, here, today) that rely on knowledge of the immediate physical context for their interpretation (i.e. that the delivery driver will have to return on February 15th to 660 College Drive with the package labeled flowers, handle with care addressed to Lisa Landry). 18

Types of deixis
1) 2) 3) a. Temporal deixis (now, then, last week, tenses) Spatial deixis (here, there, near that) Social deixis Person to things (it, this, these boxes) and people (him, them,those idiots), pronouns(I, you, we ,he) b. Attitudinal ( including honorifics like madam , mr. majesty ,vocatives , and titles of address) 4) Discourse deixis ( including reference in the text , anaphora and cataphora )
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All these deictic expressions have to be interpreted in terms of which person, place or time the speaker has in mind. We make a broad distinction between what is marked as close to the speaker (this, here, now) and what is distant (that, there, then). We can also indicate whether movement is away from the speakers location (go) or toward the speakers location (come).
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If youre looking for someone and she appears, moving toward you, you can say Here she comes! If, however, she is moving away from you in the distance, youre more likely to say There she goes! The same deictic effect explains the different situations in which you would tell someone to Go to bed versus Come to bed.
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Debby: Go anyway today? Dan: Yes , we went down to Como. Up by bus ,and back by hydrofoil. Debby: Anything to see there? Dan: Perhaps not the most interesting of Italian towns ,but its worth the trip. Debby: I might do that next Saturday. Jane: What do you mean when you say perhaps not the most interesting of Italian towns? Jack: He means certainly not the most interesting

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Reference
In discussing deixis, we assumed that the use of words to refer to people, places and times was a simple matter. However, words themselves dont refer to anything. People refer. We have to define reference as an act by which a speaker (or writer) uses language to enable a listener (or reader) to identify something. To perform an act of reference, we can use proper nouns (Chomsky, Jennifer), other nouns in phrases (a writer, my friend) or pronouns (he, she)
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We sometimes assume that these words identify someone or something uniquely, but it is more accurate to say that, for each word or phrase, there is a range of reference. The words Jennifer or friend or she can be used to refer to many entities in the world. As we observed earlier, an expression such as the war doesnt directly identify anything by itself, because its reference depends on who is using it.
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We can also refer to things when were not sure what to call them. We can use expressions such as the blue thing and that icky stuff and we can even invent names. For instance, there was a man who always drove his motorcycle fast and loud through my neighborhood and was locally referred to as Mr. Kawasaki. In this case, a brand name for a motorcycle is being used to refer to a person.
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Inference
As in the Mr.Kawasaki example, a successful act of reference depends more on the listeners ability to recognize what we mean than on the listeners dictionary knowledge of a word we use. For example, in a restaurant, one waiter can ask another, Wheres the spinach salad sitting? and receive the reply, Hes sitting by the door. If youre studying linguistics, you might ask someone, Can I look at your Chomsky? and get the response, Sure, its on the shelf over there. 26

These examples make it clear that we can use names associated with things (salad) to refer to people, and use names of people (Chomsky) to refer to things. The key process here is called inference.
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An inference is additional information used by the listener to create a connection between what is said and what must be meant. In the last example, the listener has to operate with the inference: if X is the name of the writer of a book, then X can be used to identify a copy of a book by that writer. Similar types of inferences are necessary to understand someone who says that Picasso is in the museum or We saw Shakespeare in London.
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Anaphora
We usually make a distinction between introducing new referents (a puppy) and referring back to them (the puppy, it). We saw a funny home video about a boy washing a puppy in a small bath. The puppy started struggling and shaking and the boy got really wet. When he let go, it jumped out of the bath and ran away.
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In this type of referential relationship, the second (or subsequent) referring expression is an example of anaphora (referring back). The first mention is called the antecedent. So, in our example, a boy, a puppy and a small bath are antecedents and The puppy, the boy, he, it and the bath are anaphoric expressions. Anaphora can be defined as subsequent reference to an already introduced entity. Mostly we use anaphora in texts to maintain reference.
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The connection between an antecedent and an anaphoric expression is created by use of a pronoun (it), or repetition of the noun with the (the puppy), or the use of other nouns that are related to the antecedent by inference, as in the following examples. 1) We found a house to rent, but the kitchen was very small. 2) I caught a bus and asked the driver if it went near the downtown area. In the first example, we must make an inference like if X is a house, then X has kitchen in order to interpret the connection between antecedent a house
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and anaphoric expression the kitchen. In the second example, we must make an inference like if X is a bus, then X has a driver in order to make the connection between a bus and the driver. In a context where both speakers easily make these types of inferences, it is possible to hear someone complain: I was waiting for the bus, but he just drove by without stopping..

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When the antecedent is bus, we might expect it as the pronoun, but use of the pronoun he obviously assumes an inference involving the driver. We have used the term inference here to describe what the listener (or reader) does. When we talk about an assumption made by the speaker (or writer), we usually talk about a presupposition.
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Presupposition
What

a speaker assumes is true or known by the hearer

: Your brother is waiting for you. obvious presupposition that you have a brother.
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E.g.

If you are asked

Why did you arrive late?, there is a presupposition that you did arrive late. And if you are asked the question When did you stop smoking?, there are at least two presuppositions involved. In asking this question, the speaker presupposes that you used to smoke and that you no longer do so.
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Questions like this, with built-in presuppositions, are very useful devices for interrogators or trial lawyers. If the defendant is asked by the prosecutor, Okay, Mr. Smith, how fast were you going when you ran the red light?, there is a presupposition that Mr. Smith did in fact run the red light. If he simply answers the How fast part of the question, by giving a speed, he is behaving as if the presupposition is correct.
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Speech acts
We have been considering ways in which we interpret the meaning of an utterance in terms of what the speaker intended to convey. We have not yet considered the fact that we usually know how the speaker intends us to take (or interpret the function of) what is said. In very general terms, we can usually recognize the type of action performed by a speaker with the utterance .
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We use the term speech act to describe actions such as requesting, commanding, questioning or informing. We can define a speech act as the action performed by a speaker with an utterance. If you say, Ill be there at six, you are not just speaking, you seem to be performing the speech act of promising.
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locutionary meaning

speakers

utterance

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illocutionary force

speakers

intention

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perlocutionary impact
hearers

reaction

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instances
Locution:

I have much money at now Illocution: an act of offering the hearer to ask for money, borrow some money, or have a dinner treat, depending on context. Perlocution: the hearer asks for some money, or asks for a dinner treat.

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instances
Locution:

You have eye inflammation Illocution: an act of ordering the hearer to go to an ophthalmologist to have eye examination or to treat the eye, depending on context. Perlocution: the hearer goes to an ophthalmologist or treats the eye.

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Direct and indirect speech acts

We usually use certain syntactic structures with the functions listed beside them in the following table. Structures Functions Did you eat the pizza? Interrogative Question Eat the pizza (please)! Imperative Command (Request) You ate the pizza. Declarative Statement
When an interrogative structure such as Did you . . .?, Are they . . .?or Can we . . .? is used with the function of a question, it is described as a direct speech act. For example, when we dont know something and we ask someone to provide the information, we usually produce a direct speech act such as Can you ride a bicycle?
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Compare that utterance with Can you pass the salt? In this second example , we are not really asking a question about someones ability. In fact, we dont normally use this structure as a question at all. We normally use it to make a request.
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That is, we are using a syntactic structure associated with the function of a question, but in this case with the function of a request. This is an example of an indirect speech act. Whenever one of the structures in the set above is used to perform a function other than the one listed beside it on the same line, the result is an indirect speech act.
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The utterance
You left the door open has a declarative structure and, as a direct speech act, would be used to make a statement. However, if you say this to someone who has just come in (and its really cold outside), you would probably want that person to close the door. You are not using the imperative structure. You are using a declarative structure to make a request. Its another example of an indirect speech act.

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It is possible to have strange effects if one person fails to recognize another persons indirect speech act. Consider the following scene. A visitor to a city, carrying his luggage, looking lost, stops a passer-by. A: Excuse me. Do you know where the Ambassador Hotel is? B : Oh sure, I know where it is. (and walks away)
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In this scene, the visitor uses a form normally associated with a question (Do you know . . .?), and the passer-by answers that question literally (I know ). That is, the passer-by is acting as if the utterance was a direct speech act instead of an indirect speech act used as a request for directions. Failure to recognize indirect speech acts can lead to some bizarre interactions.

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The main reason we use indirect speech acts seems to be that actions such as requests presented in an indirect way (Could you open that door for me?) are generally considered to be more gentle or more polite in our society than direct speech acts (Open that door for me!). Exactly why they are considered to be more polite is based on some complex social assumptions.
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Politeness
We can think of politeness in general terms as having to do with ideas like being tactful, modest and nice to other people. In the study of linguistic politeness, the most relevant concept is face. Your face, in pragmatics, is your public self-image. This is the emotional and social sense of self that everyone has and expects everyone else to recognize. Politeness can be defined as showing awareness of and consideration for another persons face.
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If you say something that represents a threat to another persons self-image, that is called a face-threatening act. For example, if you use a direct speech act to get someone to do something (Give me that paper!), you are behaving as if you have more social power than the other person.

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If you dont actually have that social power (e.g. youre not a military officer or prison warden), then you are performing a face-threatening act. An indirect speech act, in the form associated with a question (Could you pass me that paper?), removes the assumption of social power.

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Youre only asking if its possible. This makes your request less threatening to the other persons face. Whenever you say something that lessens the possible threat to anothers face, it can be described as a face saving act.

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Negative and positive face

We have both a negative face and a positive face. (Note that negative doesnt mean bad here, its simply the opposite of positive.) Negative face is the need to be independent and free from imposition. Positive face is the need to be connected, to belong, to be a member of the group.
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So, a face-saving act that emphasizes a persons negative face will show concern about imposition (Im sorry to bother you . . .; I know youre busy, but . . .). A facesaving act that emphasizes a persons positive face will show solidarity and draw attention to a common goal (Lets do this together . . .; You and I have the same problem, so . . .).

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Ideas about the appropriate language to mark politeness differ substantially from one culture to the next. If you have grown up in a culture that has directness as a valued way of showing solidarity, and you use direct speech acts (Give me that chair!) to people whose culture is more oriented to indirectness and avoiding direct imposition, then you will be considered impolite.
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You, in turn , may think of the others as vague and unsure of whether they really want something or are just asking about it (Are you using this chair?). In either case, it is the pragmatics that is misunderstood and, unfortunately, more will be communicated than is said.

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Discourse analysis

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In the study of language, some of the most interesting observations are made, not in terms of the components of language, but in terms of the way language is used. We have already considered some of the features of language in use when we discussed pragmatics in the preceding chapter. We were, in effect, asking how it is that language-users successfully interpret what other language-users intend to convey.
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When we carry this investigation further and ask how we make sense of what we read, how we can recognize well-constructed texts as opposed to those that are jumbled or incoherent, how we understand speakers who communicate more than they say, and how we successfully take part in that complex activity called conversation, we are undertaking what is known as discourse analysis. The word discourse is usually defined as language beyond the sentence and the analysis of discourse is typically concerned with the study of language in text and conversation.
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Interpreting discourse
When we concentrate on the description of a particular language, we are normally concerned with the accurate representation of the forms and structures used in that language. However, as language-users, we are capable of more than simply recognizing correct versus incorrect forms and structures. We can cope with fragments in newspaper headlines such as Trains collide, two die, and know that what happened in the first part was the cause of what happened in the second part.
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The following example, provided by Eric Nelson, is from an essay by a student learning English and contains all kinds of errors, yet it can be understood. My Town
My natal was in a small town, very close to Riyadh capital of Saudi Arabia. The distant between my town and Riyadh 7 miles exactly. The name of this Almasani that means in English Factories. It takes this name from the peopls carrer. In my childhood I remember the people live. It was very simple. Most the people was farmer.
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This example may serve to illustrate a simple point about the way we react to language that contains ungrammatical forms. Rather than simply reject the text as ungrammatical, we try to make sense of it. That is, we attempt to arrive at a reasonable interpretation of what the writer intended to convey. (Most people say they understand the My Town text quite easily.) It is this effort to interpret (or to be interpreted), and how we accomplish it, that are the key elements investigated in the study of discourse. To arrive at an interpretation, and to make our messages interpretable, we certainly rely on what we know about linguistic form and structure. But, as language-users, we have more 64 knowledge than that.

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