Microbiology for the Health Sciences

Section II. Introduction to Microorganisms

Dr. Suhaila Al-Sheboul Molecular Microbiology and Genetics Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences Department of Medical laboratory Sciences Room 20

Microbiology for the Health Sciences

Chapter 3. Cell Structure and Taxonomy

Chapter 3 Outline
Introduction Eucaryotic Cell Structure Procaryotic Cell Structure Recap of Structural Differences Between Procaryotic and Eucaryotic Cells Reproduction of Organisms and Their Cells

Taxonomy
Determining Relatedness Among Organisms

Introduction
A cell is the fundamental living unit of any living organism because it exhibits the basic characteristics of life.

Metabolism refers to the chemical reactions that occur within a cell.

Bacterial cells do not have the complex system of membranes and organelles found in the more advanced cellular organisms.

Introduction (continued)
Bacteria and Archaea are called procaryotes or procaryotic cells because they do not have a true nucleus. More complex cells that contain a true nucleus and many membrane-bound organelles are called eucaryotes or eucaryotic cells. Eucaryotes include algae, protozoa, fungi, plants, animals and humans. Some microorganisms are procaryotic, some are eucaryotic, and some are not cells at all.

Acellular and Cellular Microbes

Introduction (continued)
Viruses Composed of only a few genes protected by a protein coat.

Depend on the energy and metabolic machinery of a host cell in order to reproduce.
They are acellular, that is, they are not composed of cells.

Eucaryotic Cell Structure

TEM of Yeast Cell

Nuclear pores

Vacuole

Nucleus

Cell membrane Mitochondria

Eucaryotic Cell Structures

Cell Membrane Mosaic of large molecules of proteins and phospholipids.

Regulates passage of nutrients, waste products and secretions in and out of the cell.
Has selective permeability.

The Nucleus
The command center of the cell. 3 components: nucleoplasm, chromosomes, and nuclear membrane. Chromosomes are embedded in the nucleoplasm. Eucaryotic chromosomes consist of linear DNA molecules and proteins Genes are located along the DNA molecules. Each gene contains the information to produce a gene product.

The Nucleus (continued)

Most genes code for proteins but some code for 2 types of ribonucleic acid (RNA) Ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) Transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA) The organisms complete collection of genes is the organisms genotype or genome. The number and composition of chromosomes and the number of genes on each chromosome are characteristic of the particular species of organism. Human diploid cells have 46 chromosomes or 23 pairs.

Eucaryotic Cell Structures (continued)

Cytoplasm A semi-fluid, gelatinous, nutrient matrix. Endoplasmic Reticulum A highly convoluted system of membranes arranged to form a transport network in the cytoplasm.

Contains storage granules and a variety of organelles.

Each organelle has a specific function. The cytoplasm is where most metabolic reactions occur.

Ribosomes Mainly ribosomal RNA and protein. Important in the synthesis of proteins.

Eucaryotic Cell Structures (continued)

Golgi Complex Also Golgi apparatus or Golgi body. Connects or communicates with ER. Completes the transformation of newly synthesized proteins and packages them for storage or export. Lysosomes and Peroxisomes Originate in the Golgi complex.

Lysosomes contain lysozyme and other digestive enzymes.

Peroxisomes are membrane bound vesicles where H2O2 is generated and broken down.

Eucaryotic Cell Structures (continued)

Mitochondria Power plants, powerhouses, or energy factories of the eucaryotic cell. ATP molecules are formed by cellular respiration. Plastids Membrane-bound structures containing photosynthetic pigments they are sites of photosynthesis. Chloroplasts are a type of plastid.

Number of mitochondria varies depending on activities of cell.

Eucaryotic Cell Structures (continued)

Cytoskeleton A system of fibers throughout the cytoplasm. 3 types of fibers: microtubules, microfilaments and intermediate filaments. Cell wall Some eucaryotic cells contain cell walls an external structure to provide shape, protection and rigidity. Simpler than procaryotic cell wall.

Microtubules and microfilaments essential for a variety of activities.

Chitin found in cell wall of fungi; cellulose in cell wall of algae and plants.

Eucaryotic Cell Structures (continued)

Flagella and Cilia
Some eucaryotic cells (e.g., spermatozoa) possess long thin structures called flagella. Organelles of locomotion; may be one or more flagella on a cell. Cilia are also organelles of locomotion but are shorter, thinner and more numerous; hair-like.

Cilia can be found on some species of protozoa and certain types of cells in our bodies (e.g., respiratory tract).

Cilia
Cell with numerous cilia Cilia in cross-section

Procaryotic Cell Structure

Procaryotic cells are about 10 times smaller than eucaryotic cells. Procaryotic cells are simple compared to eucaryotic cells. Procaryotic cells reproduce by binary fission. All bacteria are procaryotes as are archaeans. Unlike eucaryotic cells, the cytoplasm of eucaryotic cells is not filled with internal membranes. Cytoplasm of procaryotic cell surrounded by cell membrane, a cell wall (usually) and sometimes a capsule or slime layer.

Procaryotic Cell

Procaryotic Cell Structure (continued)

Cell membrane Similar in structure and function to the eucaryotic cell membrane. Selectively permeable. Many enzymes are attached to the cell membrane and metabolic reactions take place there. Chromosome Procaryotic chromosome usually consists of a single, long, supercoiled, circular DNA molecule serves as control center of cell. Plasmids are small circular molecules of DNA that are not part of the chromosome.

Procaryotic Cell Structure (continued)

Cytoplasm Semi-liquid that consists of water, enzymes, waste products, nutrients, proteins, carbohydrates and lipids required for metabolic functions of the cell. Cytoplasmic particles Most are ribosomes occurring in clusters. Eucaryotic ribosomes are smaller than procaryotic ribosomes, but function is the same protein synthesis.

Procaryotic Cell Structure (continued)

Bacterial Cell Wall Rigid exterior that defines the shape of bacterial cells chemically complex.

Main constituent of most bacterial cell walls is peptidoglycan (only found in bacteria).
Gram-positive bacteria have a thick layer of peptidoglycan; Gram-negative bacteria have a much thinner layer. Mycoplasma spp. do not have a cell wall.

Gram-negative and Gram-positive Cell Walls

Bacterial Cell Walls

A. Gram-positive bacterium B. Gram-negative bacterium

Procaryotic Cell Structure (continued)

Glycocalyx (Slime Layers and Capsules)

Some bacteria possess a thick layer of glycocalyx outside their cell wall.
Glycocalyx is a slimy, gelatinous material produced by the cell membrane and secreted outside the cell wall. 2 types of glycocalyx slime layer and capsule Pseudomonas spp. produces a slime layer.

K. pneumoniae, N. meningitidis and S. pneumoniae possess a capsule.

Capsule Stain

(Example of a negative staining technique)

Procaryotic Cell Structure (continued)

Flagella Flagella are threadlike, protein appendages that enable bacteria to move. Number and arrangement of flagella are characteristic of a particular species: Peritrichous bacteria flagella over entire surface Lophotrichous bacteria flagella at one end Amphitrichous bacteria flagella at both ends Monotrichous bacteria single polar flagellum

Four Basic Types of Flagellar Arrangement on Bacteria

A Peritrichous Salmonella Cell

Procaryotic Cell Structure (continued)

Pili (also called fimbriae) Hair-like structures, most often observed on Gramnegative bacteria.

Composed of polymerized protein molecules called pilin.

Pili are thinner than flagella, have a rigid structure and are not associated with motility. Pili enable bacteria to anchor themselves to surfaces. Some bacteria possess a sex pilus for conjugation.

Proteus vulgaris cell, showing pili and several flagella

Pili

Flagella

Procaryotic Cell Structure (continued)

Spores (Endospores) A few genera (e.g., Bacillus and Clostridium) are capable of forming thick-walled spores as a means of survival. The process of spore formation is called sporulation it is not reproduction. Spores have been shown to survive for many years and are resistant to heat, cold drying and most chemicals. Usually one spore is produced in a bacterial cell and generates into one vegetative bacterium. Endospores can be visualized with a spore stain.

A Bacillus With a Well-Defined Endospore

Endospore

Recap of Structural Differences Between Procaryotic and Eucaryotic Cells

Eucaryotic cells contain a true nucleus; procaryotic cells do not. Eucaryotic cells are divided into plant and animal types

Animal cells do not have a cell wall, plant cells have a simple cell wall.
Eucaryotic cells contain membranous structures and many membrane bound organelles; procaryotic cells possess no membranes other than the cell membrane that encloses the cytoplasm

Reproduction of Organisms and Their Cells

Procaryotic Cell Reproduction

Procaryotic cells reproduce by a process known as binary fission one cell splits in half to become two daughter cells.
Before a procaryotic cell divides in half, the chromosome must be duplicated. The time it takes for binary fission to occur is called the generation time.

Generation time varies from one species to another and depends on growth conditions (E. coli has a generation time of ~20 minutes).

Binary Fission of a Bacterial Cell

Taxonomy
Taxonomy is the science of classification of living organisms. Taxonomy consists of classification, nomenclature and identification. Classification is the arrangement of organisms into taxonomic groups (known as taxa). Tool for remembering the sequence of Taxa King David Came Over for Good Spaghetti KDCOFGS, K for Kingdom, D for Division, C for Class, O for Order, F for Family, G for Genus and S for species.

Microbial Classification
The science of taxonomy was established on the binomial system of nomenclature.

In the binomial system, each organism is given 2 names genus and the specific epithet. Taken together, both names constitute the species.
For example, Escherichia coli; Escherichia is the genus and coli is the specific epithet. The genus is frequently abbreviated with just a single letter, (e.g., E for Escherichia).

The abbreviation sp. is used to designate a single species and spp. for more than one species.

Microbial Classification
Organisms are categorized into larger groups based on their similarities and differences.

The Five-Kingdom System of Classification 1. Bacteria and archaeans Kingdom Procaryotae 2. Algae and protozoa Kingdom Protista 3. Fungi Kingdom Fungi 4. Plants Kingdom Plantae 5. Animals Kingdom Animalia Viruses are not included because they are acellular. Other systems of classification do exist.

Microbial Classification (continued)

The Three-Domain System of Classification 1. Archaea (procaryotic) 2. Bacteria (procaryotic) 3. Eucarya (all eucaryotic organisms) The Three-Domain System is based on differences in the structure of certain ribosomal RNA (rRNA) molecules among organisms in the 3 domains.

Determining Relatedness Among Organisms

The most widely used technique for gauging diversity or relatedness of organisms is called ribosomal RNA (rRNA) sequencing.

Ribosomes are composed of two subunits; a small subunit and a large subunit.
The small subunit is composed of only one rRNA molecule, which is coded for by a gene called the 16S rRNA gene in procaryotes and the 18S rRNA gene in eucaryotes.

Determining Relatedness Among Organisms (continued)

To determine how closely related one procaryotic organism is to another, scientists compare the sequence of nucleotide base pairs in the 16S rRNA gene from one of the organisms to the sequence of base pairs in the 16S rRNA gene from the other organisms.
The more similar the sequence of base pairs, the more closely related are the organisms.

Review of Key Points

The cell is the fundamental unit of any living organism. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells. Complex eucaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles and a true nucleus, containing DNA. Procaryotic cells exhibit all the characteristics of life, but do not have a true nucleus or a complex system of membranes and membrane-bound organelles. Some eucaryotic cells have cell walls to provide rigidity, shape and protection. In eucaryotic cells, energy is produced within mitochondria; energy reactions occur at the cell membranes of procaryotic cells.

Review of Key Points (continued)

External to the cell wall, some bacteria have either a capsule or a slime layer. Many bacteria have flagella that enable motility and some produce spores for survival. Eucaryotic cells reproduce either by mitosis or meiosis, whereas procaryotic cells reproduce by binary fission. In the binomial system of nomenclature, the first name is the genus, the second name is the specific epithet and the two names together are the species.

Review of Key Points (continued)

Taxonomic classification of organisms separates them into kingdoms, divisions, orders, classes, families, genera, and species, based on their characteristics, attributes, properties and traits.

In the 5-Kingdom System of Classification, microorganisms are found in the first 3 kingdoms Procaryotae (bacteria), Protista (algae and protozoa), and Fungi. The most widely used technique for determining how closely one procaryotic organism is related to another involves the gene that codes for the 16S rRNA molecule of ribosomes.