Review of Digital Modulation

Dr. A.K.Mukhopadhyay
Department of ECE, Dr. B.C.Roy Engg College, Durgapur

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Types of Signal Transmission

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Modulation Basic Principles

Modulating Signal m(t), at baseband(fB)

Modulation on carriers amplitude, frequency or phase

Carrier (fC)

Modulated Signal carrying the information of m(t), bandpass (fC)

fC

fC

The modulating signal is represented as a time-sequence of symbols or pulses. Each symbol has m finite states and carries n bits of information where n = log2m bits/symbol. ... Modulator

One symbol (has m states voltage levels) (represents n = log2m bits of information)

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Digital Modulation Features

The input is discrete signal (pulses or symbols in time sequence) Robust against channel impairments Easier multiplexing of voice, data, video informations Digital error-control codes Encryption of the transferred signals More secure link Modulating signal is a binary or M-ary data The carrier is usually a sinusoidal wave. Change in Amplitude (ASK), Frequency (FSK), Phase(PSK) and combination of more than one parameters (Hybrid/Multilevel ). Ex. : QAM (Phase and Amplitude change), M-ary
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Digital Modulation Benefits

Provides low bit-error rates at low SNRs
Power efficiency

Performance in multipath and fading conditions

Noise immunity efficiency

Minimum RF channel bandwidth

Bandwidth efficiency

Easy and cost-effective implementation

Tradeoffs for selecting a digital modulation scheme depending

on particular system or application.

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Modulation: representation
Any modulated signal can be represented as s(t) = A(t) cos [wct + f(t)]
amplitude phase or frequency

s(t) = A(t) cos f(t) cos wct - A(t) sin f(t) sin wct

in-phase

quadrature

Linear versus nonlinear modulation impact on spectral efficiency Linear: Amplitude or phase Non-linear: frequency: spectral broadening Constant envelope versus non-constant envelope hardware implications with impact on power efficiency
(=> reliability: i.e. target BER at lower SNRs) AKM/DigCom/Mod AKM lecture notes on

Linear Modulation Techniques

s(t) =

[ Snan g (t-nT)]cos wct - [ S n

(t), in-phase
LINEAR MODULATIONS

bn g (t-nT) sin wct

Q(t), quadrature

Square Constellations

M-ARY QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MOD. (M-QAM)

M-ARY PHASE SHIFT KEYING (MPSK)

Circular Constellations

M 4

M=4 (4-QAM = 4-PSK)

M 4

CONVENTIONAL 4-PSK (QPSK)

OFFSET DIFFERENTIAL 4-PSK 4-PSK (OQPSK) (DQPSK, p/4-DQPSK)

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Generic Digital Modulators

ASK
AM

FSK
VCO V1 and V2

BPSK
Mixer -V and +V

M-ary
DSP
Source: Tomasi Electronic Comm

PAM Circuits
Modulation

Detection
Peak detection, AM
http://www.tpub.com/content/neets/14184/css/14184_175.htm

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Amplitude Shift Keying

Binary

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Frequency Shift Keying

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Simple FSK Circuit

http://www.edn.com/contents/images/101101di.pdf

Transceivers

http://jap.hu/electronic/rf.html

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Phase Shift Keying

Binary

Quadrature M-ary

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Comparison of Modulation Techniques

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Power and Bandwidth Efficiency

Power efficiency refers to the ability of the modulation technique to retain the message fidelity even at low power level. Normally, the signal power needs to be increased to improve fidelity. Tradeoff between fidelity and signal power Power efficiency describes how efficient this tradeoff is made
Eb: signal energy per bit N0: noise power spectral density P: Error probability

Bandwidth efficiency refers to the ability of a modulation scheme to accommodate data within a limited bandwidth. It indicates how efficiently the allocated bandwidth is utilized
R: the data rate (bps) B: bandwidth occupied by the modulated RF signal

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Tradeoff Between Bandwidth Efficiency and Power Efficiency

Adding error control codes

Improves the power efficiency -Reduces the requires received power for a particular bit error rate Decreases the bandwidth efficiency -Consumes more bandwidth.

M-ary keying modulation

Increases the bandwidth efficiency Decreases the power efficiency - More power is requires at the receiver

M-FSK keying modulation

Increase the power efficiency Decrease the bandwidth efficiency

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Shannons Upper Limit on Bandwidth

The fundamental upper limit on bandwidth efficiency may be achieved using Shannons theorem (1948) that relates the channel bandwidth with the maximum data rate that can be transmitted over a noisy channel. C: channel capacity (maximum data-rate) in bps,

B: RF bandwidth S/N: signal-to-noise ratio

Shannons Theorem:
Example: SNR for a wireless channel is 30dB and RF bandwidth is 200kHz. Compute the theoretical maximum data rate that can be transmitted over this channel.

Solution:

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Condition For Error Free Communications as per Shanons Formula

Required channel quality for error free communications

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Bandwidth Expressions
Bandwidth depends on whether the signal is at baseband or at Passband. For baseband, Bandwidth = (1/2)Rb(1 + ) (using a Nyquist LPF ) For passband digital signal, Bandwidth = Rb(1 + ) (using Nyquist BPF)

Occupied Bandwidth, B = Rs ( 1 + ) where Rs is the symbol rate and is the filter roll-off factor Noise Bandwidth, BN, for a channel will not be affected by the rolloff factor of filter. Thus BN = Rs

NOTE: Symbol Rate that is key to bandwidth, not the Bit Rate Different modulation schemes pack different no. of bits in a single symbol. BPSK has 1 bit per symbol, QPSK has 2 bits per symbol. AKM/DigCom/Mod AKM lecture notes on

Example
GIVEN:QPSK modulation, Bit rate 512 kbit/s, Filter roll-off, FIND: Occupied Bandwidth, B, and Noise Bandwidth, BN SOLUTION: 2 bits per Number of

=0.3

Symbol Rate = Rs = (1/2) (512 103) = 256 103 Occupied Bandwidth, B = Rs (1 + )=256 103 ( 1 + 0.3) = 332.8 KHz Noise Bandwidth is, BN = Rs = 256 kHz Same Example with FEC: We use 1/2-rate FEC. Symbol Rate, Rs = (1/2) (2) (512 103) = 512 103 symbols/s 2 bits per Occupied Bandwidth, 2B = Rs ( Number) of 665.6 kHz 1+ = -rate
symbol FEC bits/s

symbol

bits/s

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Detection
Coherent Detection
Local oscillator Synchronization
RF carrier

Incoherent Detection

Mixer, LPF; PLL

Comparison
Timing

No local oscillator Envelope detector; Discriminator Differential PSK Receiver Circuits S/N

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Coherent and Non-coherent Detection

Coherent Detection (most PSK, some FSK):
Exact replicas of the possible arriving signals are available at the receiver. This means knowledge of the phase reference (phased-locked). Detection by cross-correlating the received signal with each one of the replicas, and then making a decision based on comparisons with pre-selected thresholds. Knowledge of the carriers wave phase not required. Less complexity. Inferior error performance.

Non-coherent Detection (some FSK, DPSK):

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Coherent Detection
ASK FSK PSK

Source: Tomasi Electronic Comm

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Coherent Detection
Carrier Recovery
No carrier pilot Square loop Costas loop Remodulator Reference
http://www.mwrf.com/Art icles/Print.cfm?Ad=1&Articl eID=9366

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Design Trade-offs
Primary resources:
Transmitted Power. Channel Bandwidth.

Design goals:
Maximum data rate. Minimum error probability. Minimum transmitted power. Minimum channel bandwidth. Robust against interfering signals. Minimum circuit complexity.

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Coherent Binary PSK (BPSK)

Two signals, one representing 0, the other 1.

Each of the two signals represents a single bit of information. Each signal persists for a single bit period (T) and then may be replaced by either state. Signal energy (ES) = Bit Energy (Eb), given by:

Therefore
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BPSK representation
Lets consider the unidimensional base (N=1) where:

Lets also rewrite the signal amplitudes as a function of their energy:

Therefore, we can write the signals s1(t) and s2(t) in terms of 1(t):
This can be graphically represented by signal space diagram as:
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BPSK Modulation
+A

-A

Noise consideration in BPSK Detection

Actual BPSK signal is received with noise AWGN is a good approximation of noise Other noise models are more complex Constellation becomes a distribution because of noise variations to signal

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Bit Error Rate (BER) for BPSK

BER is given by
Approximation valid for Eb/No greater than ~4 dB Eb/No (dB) BER 0 0.08 2 0.04 4 0.014 6 0.0027 8 2*10-4 10 4*10-6 10.543 10-6

erfc(z)= complementary error function of z = 1-erf(z)=

Note that these calculations are for synchronous detection

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Differential PSK Simplicity Transmitter Receiver

Non-Coherent Modulation: DPSK

Information in MPSK, MQAM carried in signal phase. Requires coherent demodulation: i.e. phase of the transmitted signal carrier 0 must be matched to the phase of the receiver carrier More cost, susceptible to carrier phase drift. Harder to obtain in fading channels Differential modulation: do not require phase reference. More general: modulation with memory: depends upon prior symbols transmitted. Use previous symbol as the a phase reference for current symbol Information bits encoded as the differential phase between current & previous symbol Less sensitive to carrier phase drift (f-domain) ; more sensitive to doppler effects: decorrelation of signal phase in time-domain

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DPSK
A 0 bit is encoded by no change in phase, whereas a 1 bit is encoded as a phase change of . If symbol over time [(k1)Ts, kTs) has phase (k 1) = eji , i = 0, , then to encode a 0 bit over [kTs, (k + 1)Ts), the symbol would have phase: (k) = eji and to encode a 1 bit the symbol would have phase (k) = ej(i+). DQPSK: gray coding:

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Coherent Quaternary PSK (QPSK)

Four signals are used to convey information. Constant Modulus => This leads to a constellation of:

when shown as a phasor with reference to the signal phase, q,Each of the two states represents a two-bit information.
we use the following ortho-normal basis:

This gives, (after some trigonometric manipulations), the constellation representation or Signal space diagram of coherent QPSK AKM/DigCom/Mod

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QPSK Implementation
Note that the QPSK signal can be seen to be two BPSK signals in phase quadrature

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QPSK Detection

Resources for Detection Mini Circuits http://www.minicircuits.com/pages/app_ notes.html Intel http://www.intel.com/netcomms/technolo gies/wimax/303788.pdf

Bit Error Rate (BER) for QPSK

The BER is the probability of choosing the wrong signal (symbol) state Because the signal is Gray coded the BER for QPSK is that for BPSK: BER (after a lot of derivation) is given by:

Note that Eb is here, not Es!

Approximation valid for Eb/No greater than ~4 dB

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QPSK Waveform

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Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

QAM uses two-dimensional signaling
Ak modulates in-phase cos(2pfct) Bk modulates quadrature phase cos(2pfct + p/4) = sin(2pfct) Transmit sum of inphase & quadrature phase components
Ak

x
cos(2pfct)

Yi(t) = Ak cos(2pfct)

+
Yq(t) = Bk sin(2pfct)

Y(t)
Transmitted Signal

Bk

x
sin(2pfct)

Yi(t) and Yq(t) both occupy the bandpass channel QAM sends 2 pulses/Hz

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QAM Demodulation
Y(t)

x
2cos(2 fct)

Lowpass filter (smoother)

Ak

2cos2(2 fct)+2Bk cos(2 fct)sin(2 fct) = Ak {1 + cos(4 fct)}+Bk {0 + sin(4 fct)}

Lowpass filter (smoother) smoothed to zero

x
2sin(2 fct)

Bk

2Bk sin2(2 fct)+2Ak cos(2 fct)sin(2 fct) = Bk {1 - cos(4 fct)}+Ak {0 + sin(4 fct)}
smoothed to zero

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Signal Constellation Patterns

Each pair (Ak, Bk) defines a point in the plane Signal constellation is a set of signaling points Bk
(-A,A) (A, A)

Bk

Ak Ak
16 possible points per T sec. 4 bits / pulse

(-A,-A)

4 possible points per T sec. (A,-A) bits / pulse 2

Point selected by amplitude & phase

Ak cos(2pfct)+Bksin(2pfct)=Ak2+Bk2cos(2pfct+tan-1(Bk/Ak))

Bk

Bk Ak
Ak
16 possible points per T sec. AKM lecture notes on

4 possible points per T sec. AKM/DigCom/Mod

QAM Constellations

Euclidean Distance Constellation Display

http://www.lecroy.com/tm/library /LABs/PDF/LAB303B.pdf

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M-PSK and M-QAM

M-PSK (Circular Constellations)
bn 4-PSK 16-PSK an

M-QAM (Square Constellations)

bn 16-QAM 4-PSK

an

Tradeoffs Higher-order modulations (M large) are more spectrally efficient but less power efficient (i.e. BER higher). M-QAM is more spectrally efficient than M-PSK but also more sensitive to system nonlinearities.

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Other Modulation Schemes

Offset QPSK (OQPSK) One of the bit streams delayed by Tb/2 Same BER performance as QPSK Minimum Shift Keying (MSK) QPSK - also constant envelope, continuous phase FSK minimum bandwidth, sidelobes large 1/2-cycle sine symbol rather than rectangular Same BER performance as QPSK can be implemented using I-Q receiver Gaussian MSK (GMSK) -- Reduces sidelobes of MSK using a pre-modulation filter Used by RAM Mobile Data, GSM, CDPD, and HIPERLAN

http://www.emc.york.ac.uk/reports/linkpcp/appD.pdf http://ocw.mit.edu/NR/rdonlyres/Electrical-Engineering-and-Computer-Science/6976High-Speed-Communication-Circuits-and-SystemsSpring2003/D5DCBE3A-60CD-48A6977E-78BD8CBEF42E/0/proj2.pdf http://www.ictp.trieste.it/~radionet/2001_school/lectures/fitton/digital_mod.pdf http://www.plextek.com/papers/schmsv6.pdf AKM/DigCom/Mod AKM lecture notes on

Minimum Shift Keying (MSK) spectra

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System Performance
Eye Diagram
Superposition of sampled pulses

Eye Opening

Contrast between 0 and 1

http://www.complextoreal.com/chapters/eye.pdf

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Summary of Digital Communications Parameters

M = modulation size. Bw = Bandwidth in Hertz = Roll-off factor (from 0 to 1) Gc = Coding Gain (convert from dB to linear) Ov = Channel Overhead (0 to1)

Bits per Symbol:

Gross Bit Rate [bps]: Net Data Rate [bps]:

Symbol Rate [symbol/second]

Required Eb/No (using coding gain): Required C/N:

Required Signal Strength [Watts]:
Where , k = Boltzman constant = 1.38e-23 J/Hz TS = System Noise Temperature T0 = ambient temperature (usually 290 K) F = System Noise figure in linear scale (not in dB)

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