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We already discussed:
active versus passive sensors reflective optosensors reflectance break-beam various detectable object features
shaft encoding
speed and position quadrature shaft encoding modulated IR IR communication
Today we are going to talk about ultrasonic and vision sensing. Are those sensors active or passive?
The emitter produces a sonar "chirp" of sound, which travels away from the source, and, if it encounters barriers, reflects from them and returns to the receiver (microphone).
The amount of time it takes for the sound beam to come back is tracked:
starting the timer when the "chirp" is produced, and stopping the timer when the reflected sound returns
Specular Reflection
A major disadvantage of ultrasound sensing is its susceptibility to specular reflection
specular reflection means reflection from the outer surface of the object
The sonar sensing principle is based on the sound wave reflecting from surfaces and returning to the receiver. The direction of reflection depends on:
the incident angle of the sound beam the surface.
Thus, important to remember that the sound wave will not necessarily bounce off the surface and "come right back."
Specular Reflection
The smaller the angle, the higher the probability that the sound will merely "graze" the surface and bounce off,
thus not returning to the emitter,
in turn generating a false long/far-away reading.
This is often called specular reflection, because smooth surfaces, with specular properties, tend to aggravate this reflection problem. Coarse surfaces produce more irregular reflections, some of which are more likely to return to the emitter.
Specular Reflection
For example, in our experiments with PSUBOT, we used sonar sensors, and we have lined one part of the test area with wooden panel.
It has much better sonar reflectance properties than the very smooth wall behind it. Big glass windows are also a trouble.
In summary, long sonar readings can be very inaccurate, as they may result from false rather than accurate reflections.
This must be taken into account when programming robots, or a robot may produce very undesirable and unsafe behavior.
For example, a robot approaching a wall at a steep angle may not see the wall at all, and collide with it!
Nonetheless, sonar sensors have been successfully used for very sophisticated robotics applications, including terrain and indoor mapping
They remain a very popular sensor choice in mobile robotics. We use them in PSUBOT and PEOPLEBOT.
Polaroid sensors
The first commercial ultrasonic sensor was produced by Polaroid.
They used them to automatically measure the distance to the nearest object (presumably which is being photographed).
These simple Polaroid sensors still remain the most popular off-theshelf sonars They come with a processor board that deals with the analog electronics. Their standard properties include:
32-foot range 30-degree beam width sensitivity to specular reflection
Polaroid sensors
Polaroid sensors can be combined into phased arrays to create more sophisticated and more accurate sensors.
One can find ultrasound used in a variety of other applications; the best known one is ranging in submarines.
The sonars there have much more focused and have longer-range beams.
Core Functions:
Ultrasonic Sensing Infrared Sensing Independent drive motors for steering
US sensor
16F877
Motors
IR Sensor
Tank treads
With two motors: one operating on each side. Skid steering
DC Motor
Bi-directional Continuous
The application of power causes the shaft to rotate continually.
Servo Motor: Combines continuous motor with feedback loop to ensure accurate positioning of the motor.
Motor Specifications
DC Motor
Low-voltage variety: operating range at 1.5 to 12 V 50% < operating range < 130%
Speed
0.5 ft per second
Current Draw
The current draw of a motor increases in proportion to the load on the motor shaft
Torque Gears
POWER SYSTEMS
POWER SYSTEMS
THE ISSUE:
How will a single 12V motorcycle battery properly supply: Micro controllers and digital parts that require a very constant +5V supply Analog circuitry requiring anywhere from 512V, as well as 10V supplies DC Motors that require fairly large current draws with bipolar operation +
POWER OVERVIEW
THE SOLUTION:
DC MOTOR CONTROL
The DC Motors will be operated both forward and backward, so both positive and negative voltages must be applied
H-BRIDGE CONVERTER
ULTRASONIC SENSORS
Ultrasonic Transmit
SURFACE
Received pulse
To determine distance, the PIC will have a routine to determine the time duration between the sent pulse and the return pulse. From there, distance is determined by the simple relationship: d = vsound t
As it turns out, the effect of Doppler shifting is negligible, even if our vehicle moved twice as fast as it currently does
PYROELECTRIC SENSOR
sensors detecting infrared heat Glolab RE200B ($4) crystalline material Frensel Lens ($4)
Human IR wavelength range 8-14m
Figure 1
Chassis placement
PYROELECTRIC SENSOR
Output Characteristics
20mV
RE200B Amp. Comp. PIC
Backup
Sound sensor
ADD-ONS
Voice Alarm
talks with intruder
Enhancement
other types of sensors grouping of sensors for better detection/collision avoidance
DEMO
Have your robot demonstrate the following movements using inverse kinematics, closed-loop encoder monitoring, and proportional control
Line: 36 inches forward, 180 degree turn, 36 inches forward Square: 36 inches forward, 90 degree turn, 36 inches forward, 90 degree turn, 36 inches forward, 90 degree turn, 36 inches forward, 90 degree turn Triangle: 16 inches backward, -90 degree turn, 12 inches backward, 307 degrees, 20 inches backward, 217 degrees
Sonar Beam
?
Distance is not a point distance Sonar beam has angular spread (about 30 degree dispersion in Polaroid module) Closest point of object is somewhere within that arc Need multiple readings to disambiguate but readings take time; tradeoffs
Sonar effects
(a) Sonar providing an accurate range measurement
(b-c) Lateral resolution is not very precise; the closest object in the beams cone provides the response
(d) Specular reflections cause walls to disappear (e) Open corners produce a weak spherical wavefront
(f) Closed corners measure to the corner itself because of multiple reflections --> sonar ray tracing
(Courtesy of Dodds)
Sonar modeling
initial time response accumulated responses
(Courtesy of Dodds)
spatial response
Sonar vs. IR
Both can be used as distance sensors Sonar is more commonly used Sonar cannot easily be used between 1 and 6 inches from obstacle
3 connections
SPI expansion header (2 pin cable) Digital port 7 (3 pin cable) Power expansion header (4 pin cable)
(Blue on left)
http://lcs.www.media.mit.edu/groups/el/project s/handy-board/software/sonar.html
Sound travels 1.1 feet per millisec (In average air conditions) .5 microsecs per timer count (10000 counts = 5 millisecs) Example
10000 counts 5 millisecs * 1.1 ft/millisec = 5.5 feet 5.5 ft/2 for round trip time = 2.75 feet for 10000 timer counts - ((10000/2000) * 1.1)/2 = 2.75
Today
Understanding sonar Attaching and programming sonar Servo motors and programming Sonar for obstacle avoidance Serial communication review
Command output shaft to move to a certain angular position Three wires: power, ground and control Use digital port number 9
Servomotors
For our specific servos, you must set the MIN_SERVO_WAVETIME variable to 600, and the MAX_SERVO_WAVETIME variable to 4400 for a proper mapping between degrees/radians and pulses.
Servo Turret
Attach forward-facing servo motor to robot Can use to mount various sensors that can actively scan a scene
(Courtesy of Bennet)
If one obstacle detected use closed-loop control to keep it away from robot If two obstacles detected
Estimate distance and try to pass in-between with closedloop control, if possible
(Courtesy of Bennet)
Michael Walker Jason Jones Charlie Hwang Understanding sonar and servos Mitch Tu http://plan.mcs.drexel.edu/courses/ Maja Mataric robotlab/labs/lab07.pdf Fred Martin