Learning

Learning
Learning
relatively permanent change in an

organisms behavior due to experience and practice.

experience (nurture) is the key to

learning

4 types of learning
Habituation
Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Observational learning

They all operate under the same

principle learning by association

Association
We learn by association
Our minds naturally connect events

that occur in sequence

Associative Learning
learning that two events occur

together

two stimuli a response and its consequences

Habituation
Tendency to become familiar with a stimulus merely as a result of repeated exposure
Orienting reflex

Eyes widen, eyebrows rise, muscles tighten, heart beats faster, brain-waves indicate heightened physiological arousal Effect weakens with continued presentation of stimulus we habituate Primitive form of learning

Found in all organisms

Decreases the power of reward to motivate

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning

We learn to associate two stimuli.

Learning occurs as a result of

presentation of repeated pairing of two stimuli.

Ivan Pavlov
1849-1936 Russian physician/ neurophysiologist Nobel Prize in 1904 studied digestive secretions

 Unconditioned(al) Stimulus (US): An

effective stimulus that unconditionally-automatically and naturally- triggers a response. Unconditioned(al) Response (UR): unlearned, naturally occurring automatic response to the unconditioned stimulus salivation when food is in the mouth

 Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

previously neutral stimulus that,

after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response Conditioned Response (CR) learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus

Temporal Sequence of stimulus pairing

Simultaneous temporal sequence: UCS

and CS are presented simultaneouslysimultaneous conditioning. Delayed temporal sequence: CS is presented for long till UCS is presenteddelayed conditioning, most effective. Trace sequence: CS- time gap-UCS. Conditioning is based on memory trace formed by CS. Backward sequence: UCS-CS

Operant Conditioning
We learn to

associate a response and its consequence

Operant conditioning
Operant Conditioning
type of learning in which behavior is

strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment Law of Effect Thorndikes principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Operant conditioning
Operant Behavior
complex or voluntary behaviors

push button, perform complex task operates (acts) on environment produces consequences Respondent Behavior occurs as an automatic response to stimulus behavior learned through classical conditioning

B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)

elaborated Thorndikes Law of

Effect developed behavioral technology

Skinner Box
soundproof chamber with a bar or key that

an animal presses or pecks to release a food or water reward

contains a device to record responses

Operant conditioning
Reinforcer
any event that strengthens the

behavior it follows

Principles of Reinforcement
Primary Reinforcer
innately reinforcing stimulus
satisfies a biological need

Secondary Reinforcer
conditioned reinforcer

learned through association with

primary reinforcer

Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement
reinforcing the desired response each

time it occurs learning occurs rapidly extinction occurs rapidly Partial Reinforcement reinforcing a response only part of the time results in slower acquisition greater resistance to extinction

Partial Reinforcement Schedule has been divided on basis of response rate and time interval:
Fixed ratio

Variable ratio
Fixed interval

Variable interval

 Fixed Ratio (FR)

reinforces a response only after a

specified number of responses faster you respond the more rewards you get very high rate of responding like piecework pay

Variable Ratio (VR)

reinforces a response after an

unpredictable number of responses like gambling, fishing very hard to extinguish because of unpredictability

Fixed Interval (FI)

reinforces a response only

after a specified time has elapsed

response occurs more

frequently as the anticipated time for reward draws near

Variable Interval (VI)

reinforces a response at

unpredictable time intervals

produces slow steady

responding

 Shaping
Encouraging a new behavior by

reinforcing successive approximations This is how trainers get animals to do new tricks Successive Approximations reward behaviors that increasingly resemble desired behavior

Reinforcement
Reinforcer
A consequence that increases the likelihood that

behavior will occur again

Positive reinforcement
Providing a positive stimulus
Studying earns you a good grade

Negative reinforcement
Removing an aversive stimulus

Punishment
Powerful controller of unwanted

behavior A consequence that decreases the likelihood that behavior will occur again

Problems with Punishment

Punished behavior is not

forgotten, it's suppressedbehavior returns when punishment is no longer eminent Causes increased aggression

 Creates fear that can generalize to

desirable behaviors, e.g. fear of school, learned helplessness, depression Does not necessarily guide toward desired behavior- reinforcement tells you what to do--punishment tells you what not to do- Combination of punishment and reward can be more effective than punishment alone

Learned Helplessness
Prevent a dog from escaping electric shocks, and it will stop trying to get away.
Experiment on dogs

Conditioning
Acquisition
the initial stage of learning, during

which a response is established and gradually strengthened in classical conditioning, the phase in which a stimulus comes to evoke a conditioned response in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

Conditioning
Extinction
Diminishing of a CR
In classical conditioning, when a UCS

does not follow a CS in operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced

Spontaneous recovery
reappearance, after a rest period, of an

extinguished CR

Conditioning
Generalization
tendency for a stimuli similar

to CS to evoke similar responses Experiment on Albert

Conditioning
Discrimination
in classical conditioning, the ability to

distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal and UCS in operant conditioning, responding differently to stimuli that signal a behavior will be reinforced or will not be reinforced

Observational Learning
Albert Bandura- Social learning

theory Observational Learning learning by observing and imitating others Modeling process of observing and imitating behavior

Observational Learning
Three types of reinforcement

important External reinforcement Vicarious reinforcement Self-produced reinforcement

Albert Bandura
Bobo doll

experiment

2 stages of observational learning

Acquisition Performance

4 steps of observational learning

Attention
Retention

Reproduction
Motivation

Cognitive learning
A change in the way information is processed as a result of

experience a person or animal possess.

Tolmans Theory of Learning

Concept of Latent Learning
Experiment on rats

Three Groups: Rewarded: Always rewarded Control group: Never Rewarded Delayed reward: Reward on 11th day

Cognitive Map
Mental representation of the

layout of ones environment Example- after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it

Insight learning
In a typical insight situation a problem comes, little time passes with no progress and then the solution comes suddenly. Insight involves a perceptual reorganization of elements in environment that new relationships among objects and events are suddenly seen. It is a type of cognitive learning.

Experiment on Chimpanzees by Kohler and Koffka

Verbal learning
It is different from conditioning.
Limited to human beings.

SAMPLE LIST OF ITEMS USED IN VERBAL LEARNING EXPERIMENTS

Nonsense syllable Unfamiliar words Familiar words

YOL
RUV TOJ

ZILCH
PLUMB VERVE

BOAT
NOSE BOWL

LIN
NOK MUP RIC NOK SUK

BLOUT
THILL SCOFF BOUGH MANSE DEVEN

FOAM
MEET GATE LAMB MALE SOLE

PAIRED-ASSOCIATES LEARNING
STIMULUS-RESPONSE STIMULUS-RESPONSE
GEN-LOOT BEM-TIME DAX-COAL WUF-DEER JIT-LION LUR-ROOF RUL-GOLD VAK-HILL KER-NAME MUW-BULL

 SERIAL LEARNING: serial anticipation

method FREE RECALL: Subjective organization Experiment by Bousefield- Category clustering Experiment four semantic categories: names, vegetables, animals, professions.

Determinants of Verbal learning

Length of learning list Meaningfulness of learning

material Familiarity with learning material Relations among the words in list Time taken to learn

Learning Curve (Graph)

Linear acceleration curve: curve of equal

returns, very rare, curve tells that the relationship between number of trials and percentage of performance is similar. Positive acceleration curve: curve of increasing returns, in early trials performance is low whereas in later it increases. Negative acceleration: curve of decreasing returns

S-Shaped curve: first trials

low performance, then increase due to practice, again decrease due to fatigue. Plateau- that part of learning curve where no fluctuation in learning rate despite of trials.

Transfer of learning
Positive transfer : when

something previously learnt benefits present learning task. Negative transfer: hinders at present task Zero transfer: no transfer

 Generic transfer: when previously learnt task simplifies learning present task, no matter the nature of both task match or not, previous task warm-up or develop a readiness to learn. Specific transfer: if learning of task A affects learning of task B. may be positive negative or neutral. Depends on nature of stimulus and response both. If Task A meaningful then positive if nonsense then negative.

Learning disability
Due to improper functioning of CNS
Characteristics are: Difficulty in attention Weak motor coordination Difficulty in following instructions

Neural basis of learning

Cerebellum has been found to be

important in associative learning. When it was removed earlier learned associations and ability to learn new ones were disrupted. Other important brain areas in learning are hippocampus, amygdala and brain stem areas.

Practical implications of learning theories

Behaviour modification: Used to cure

maladaptive or socially unacceptable behaviour . In this through extinction of disturbing response is done to modify behaviour. Reduction of absenteeism rate in organizations by assigning appropriate rewards.

Systematic desensitization: for

excessive anxiety or fear. Aversion therapy: punished on unwanted behaviour. Modeling: systematic use of modeling is done to shape and develop competence

Bio-feedback treatment:

interaction of both types of conditioning. Used for people who lose mental peace with accelareted breathing, loss of apetite for food, rise of blood pressure with slightest provocation.