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INTRODUCTION
The word statistics conveys a variety of meaning to people in different walks to life. To some it is an imposing from of mathematics; to other it could be simply tables, charts, and figures which one commonly find in newspaper, journals, books, reports, various reports and speeches, classroom lectures etc.
It is also used to refer to a body of knowledge known as statistical methods, developed for handling data in general, particularly in the field experimentation and research.
Definition
Statistics can be defined as numerical data involving variability and the treatment of such data. According to croxton and cowden, Statistics is defined as collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of numerical data.
CONT.
Assessment of treatment protocol and different interventions used for care and treatment of the patients. Collections, analysis, and dissemination of various population health statistics.
SCALES OF MEASUREMENTS
Measurement is a central and essential to the process of obtaining data. The term measure means to ascertain the dimensions of quantity or capacity to mark off, usually with reference to some unit of measurement.
Level of Measurements
Absolute zero
Distance is meaningful
FEMALE
COMPLETELY DEPENDENT NEEDS ANOTHER PERSON ASSISSTANCE NEEDS MECHANICAL ASSISSTANCE COMPLETELY INDEPENDENT
1 2
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
Descriptive statistics are used to organize and summarize data to draw meaningful interpretations. Descriptive statistics also allow the researcher to interpret the data meaningfully, so that research questions can be answered completely and appropriately
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
An appropriate presentation of data involves organization of data in such manner that meaningful conclusion and inferences can be drawn to answers the research questions. Unsorted and ungrouped records do not allow us to draw clear conclusions. Quantitative data are generally condensed and frequency distribution is presented through tables, charts, graphs and diagrams.
TABLES
A table presents data in a concise, systematic manner from masses of statistical data. Tabulation is the first steps before data is used for further statistical analysis and interpretation. Tabulation means a systematic presentation of information contained in the data in rows and columns in accordance with some features and characteristics. Rows are horizontal and columns are vertical arrangement.
A table should be precise, understandable, and self- explanatory. Every table should have title, which is placed at the top of the table. The title must describe the content clearly and precisely. Items should be arranged alphabetically or according to size, importance, or casual relationship to facilitate comparison. Rows and columns to be compared with one another should be brought together.
CONT.
The content of the table, as a whole as well as the items in each column and row should be defined clearly and fully. The unit of measurement must be clearly stated. Percentage can be given in parenthesis or can be worked out to one decimal figure to drawn the reader attention to the fact that the figure is a percentage and not an absolute number. Totals can be placed at the bottom of the columns.
CONT..
References symbols can be directly placed beneath the table for any explanatory footnotes. Two or three small tables should be preferred to one large one.
PARTS OF A TABLE
TABLE NUMBER TITLE HEAD NOTES CAPTION AND STUBS BODY OF TABLE FOOTNOTES SOURCE NOTES
TABLE NO. KNOWLEGDE SCORE OF DIABETIC PATIENT CAPTION (SD & t value)
TABLE NO. 9
SD
TITLE
2.59
SD(2.59) & t value 17.56 shows a a highly significant improvement in the knowledge score SOURCE NOTE
FOOT NOTES
BODY OF TABLE
TYPES OF TABLES
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE CONTINGENCY TABLE MULTI RESPONSE TABLE MISCELLANEOUS TABLE
N = 60
percentage 30 70
39 21
08 17 20 15
65 35
13.3 28.3 33.3 25.0
64 36
32 77 109
45.87*df =1
297
720
f 35 33 33 32
32 30
CONSTRUCTING DIAGRAMS/GRAPHS
They must have a title, and index The proportion between width and height be balanced The selection of scale must appropriate Footnotes may be included wherever it is needed. Principal of simplicity must be kept in mind. Neatness and cleanliness in construction of graphs must be ensured.
BAR DIAGRAM
it is a convenient, graphical device that is particularly useful for displaying nominal or ordinal data. It is an easy method adopted for visual comparison of the magnitude of different frequencies. Length of vertical bar diagrams or horizontal diagrams indicates the frequency of a character the bar chart are called vertical bar charts (or column charts) if the bars are placed horizontally, we get horizontal bar chart.
DISTURBIMG FACTORS
SNORING
MOBILE PHONE COUGHING 0 20 40 60 80
it is another useful pictorial device for presenting discrete data of qualitative characteristics such as age groups, genders and occupational groups in a population. The total area of the circle represents the entire data under consideration. Researcher must remember that only percentage data must be used to prepare pie diagrams
HISTOGRAM
it is most commonly used graphical representation of grouped frequency distribution. Variable characters of the different group are indicated on the horizontal line (x-axis) and frequencies (no. of observation) are indicated on the vertical on the vertical line (y-axis). Frequency of each group forms a column or rectangle. Such diagram is called Histogram.
EXAMPLE OF HISTOGRAM
FREQUENCY POLYGON
it is the curve obtaining by joining the midpoints of the tops of the rectangle in a histogram by straight line. It gives a polygon i.e. figure with many angles. In this, the two end points of the line drawn are joined to the horizontal axis at the midpoint of the empty class- interval at both ends of the frequency distribution. Frequency polygons are simple and sketch an outline of data pattern more clearly than histograms
LINE DIGRAMS
Variables in the frequency polygon are designed by line. It is mostly used where data collected over a long period of time. On x-axis, values of independent variables are taken and values of dependent variables are taken on y-axis. Vertical axis may not start from zero, but at some point from where the frequency starts. With reference to x-axis and yaxis, he given data may be plotted and these consecutive points or data are then joined by straight lines.
no of cars sold
400 300 200 100 0 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 in delhi in mumbai
This graph represents the data of a cumulative frequency distribution. For drawing ogive, an ordinary frequency distribution table is converted into cumulative frequency table. the cumulative frequencies are then plotted corresponding to the upper limit of the classes are joined by a free hand curve. The diagram made is called ogive.
it is a graphic presentation, made to show the nature of correlation between two variables characters x and y on the similar features or characteristics such as height and weight in men aged 20 years. Therefore, it is also called correlation diagram.
this method is used to impress the frequency of the occurrence of events to common people such as, attacks, deaths, number operations, admission, accidents, and discharge in a population
Example of Pictogram
Middle class
Developing countries
Developed countries
LIMITATIONS OF GRAPHS
Confusing (may be false or true) Present only quantitative aspect under study They can present only approximate values Getting limited information on only one or two aspect or characteristic
Definition
According to croxton and cowden An average value is a single value within the range of the data that is used to represent all of the value of series. Since an average is somewhere within the range of data, it is also called a measures of central value.
Mode
Median
ARITHMATIC MEAN
The
mean or average is probably the most commonly used method of describing central tendency.
CONT..
Arithmetic mean is represented by X X = SUM OF THE VALUES (x) NUMBER OF VALUES(n)
Example
Q. The heamoglobin of ten women is 12.5, 13, 10, 11.5, 11, 14, 9, 7.5,10 and 12. Calculate the mean heamoglobin among this sample of women. X = 110.5 = 11.5 10 SO, The mean Hb of for ten women's are 11.5
example
Q. following data gives the age of 100 adolescent girls. Find the mean age
Age in year (x) No. of students (f) 16 35 17 18 19 31 20 14 Xf
560
527 360 266
f = 100
xf = 1713
= 1713 100
= 17.13
EXAMPLE
Q.Calculate the mean age of the following group of people:
Class interval of age 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 No. of people (f) Midpoint (m) Fm
15
40 40 60 f = 135
17.5
22.5 27.5 32.5
262.5
450 1,100 1,950 fm = 3,762.5
= 3726.5 = 27.87 135 Therefore the mean age of the people in this group will be 27.87 years.
CONT.
It can be treated algebraically It is a reliable method of calculating average Calculated value is not based on the position of series.
MEDIAN
A median of sets of value is the middle most value when the data is arranged in ascending order of magnitude. The middle value will divide the number of observation in the data into two equal parts. The median is denoted by M.
Formula
M= n+1 2
Example
Q. Following data gives the weight of the seven people in pounds; calculate the median of given data.
Solution
First arrange the data in to ascending or descending order. 143, 146, 151, 158, 167, 169, 172 = 7+1 = 8 = 4 2 2 Therefore the fourth observation in the data will be the median. i.e 158
05
19
03
11
06
09
24
27
38
44
53
M = 53 + 1 = 54 2 2
= 27
The cumulative frequency has been calculated as the 27th observation in array, which means that the x value in front of 27th cumulative frequency that is 200 is the median.
EXAMPLE
Q. Calculate the median for the following frequency table
Income/da y(x) 100-150 150-200 200-250 250300 300-350 350-400
19
03
11
06
09
Cumulative 5 frequency(c f)
24
27
38
44
53
In case of the continuous frequency table, median can be calculated by using following formula: M = l + (N/2 cf) X i F Where, l = the lowest limit = 200 i = class interval = 50 f = frequency of the median class = 03
cf = cumulative frequency of a class just before the median class = 24 N = f = 53 M = 200 + (26.5 24) 50 = 200+41.66 03 So, the median income/day according to no. of house holds is 241.66
MERITS OF MEDIAN
Uses in case of open ended classes and unequal classes. Extreme values do not affect the median. Most appropriate average in dealing with qualitative data.
DEMERITS OF MEDIAN
For calculating median, it is necessary to arrange the data. Since it is the position averages, the values is not determined by each and every observation. Median is not calculated for qualitative data.
MODE
It is the value which has the highest frequency. That means mode is the most frequently occurring value in the data. In others words, the mode of the distribution value at the point around which the items tend to be most heavily concentrated. It is denoted as Z
120
4
130
8
140
10
150
5
160
3
Z = 140
Example
Q. Calculate the mode for following data
Income 100-150 150-200 200-250 250-300 300-350 350-400 /day (x)
05
10
03
11
06
09
Solution
Z = 250 + (11 -03) x 50 2 X 11 03 06 Z = 250 + 30.7 = 280.7 So, the mode = 280. 7
Merits of mode
It is not affected by extremes value. It can be used to describe quantitative phenomenon. Values of mode can be determined graphically.
Demerits of mode
The value of mode cannot always be determined. It is not capable of algebraic manipulation. It is not based on all the values.
MEASURES OF DISPERSION
The observation deviating from the central value is different in different sets of values of character. In some distribution, the difference may be less, whereas in other it may be more. This property of deviation of the values from the average is called variations or dispersion. The degree of variation indicated by measure of dispersion
RANGE
It is the difference between highest and lowest value in the data. If H is the highest and L is the lowest value.
Range (R) = H L
EXAMPLE
Q. Calculate the range for the following data 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 12, 15, 17, 19, 20, 21, 23, 26 R = H L = 26-3 = 23
MERITS OF RANGE
Range is very simple to understand. It is also easy to calculate.
DEMERITS OF RANGE
It is not suitable for deep analysis. It is not suitable in case of extreme values.
STANDARD DEVIATION
Standard deviation is the positive square root of mean of the square deviations of values from the arithmetic mean. . It is denoted by SD or
If the Standard Deviation is large it means the numbers are spread out from their mean. If the Standard Deviation is small , it means the numbers are close to their mean.
72 76 80 80 81 83 84 85 85 89
Average: 81.5
The Standard Deviation measures how far away each number in a set of data is from their mean. For example, start with the lowest score, 72. How far away is 72 from the mean of 81.5? 72 - 81.5 = - 9.5
Cont.
Or, start with the highest score, 89. How far away is 89 from the mean of 81.5? 89 - 81.5 = 7.5
72 76 80 80 81 83 84 85 85 89
-9.5
So, the first step to finding the Standard Deviation is to find all the distances from the mean.
7.5
72 76 80 80 81 83 84 85 85 89
- 9.5 - 5.5 - 1.5 - 1.5 - 0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 3.5 7.5
So, the first step to finding the Standard Deviation is to find all the distances from the mean.
Next, you need to square each of the distances to turn them all into positive numbers
Distances Squared
72 76 80 80 81 83 84 85 85 89
- 9.5 - 5.5 - 1.5 - 1.5 - 0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 3.5 7.5
90.25 30.25
Next, you need to square each of the distances to turn them all into positive numbers
Distances Squared
72 76 80 80 81 83 84 85 85 89
- 9.5 - 5.5 - 1.5 - 1.5 - 0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 3.5 7.5
90.25 30.25 2.25 2.25 0.25 2.25 6.25 12.25 12.25 56.25
Distances Squared
72 76 80 80 81 83 84 85 85 89
- 9.5 - 5.5 - 1.5 - 1.5 - 0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 3.5 7.5
90.25 30.25 2.25 2.25 0.25 2.25 6.25 12.25 12.25 56.25
Sum: 214.5
Distances Squared
72 76 80 80 81 83 84 85 85 89
- 9.5 - 5.5 - 1.5 - 1.5 - 0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 3.5 7.5
90.25 30.25 2.25 2.25 0.25 2.25 6.25 12.25 12.25 56.25
= 21.45
Distances Squared
72 76 80 80 81 83 84 85 85 89
- 9.5 - 5.5 - 1.5 - 1.5 - 0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 3.5 7.5
90.25 30.25 2.25 2.25 0.25 2.25 6.25 12.25 12.25 56.25
= 21.45
= 4.63
Distances Squared
72 76 80 80 81 83 84 85 85 89
- 9.5 - 5.5 - 1.5 - 1.5 - 0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 3.5 7.5
90.25 30.25 2.25 2.25 0.25 2.25 6.25 12.25 12.25 56.25
= 21.45
= 4.63
Distances Squared
Now find the Standar d Deviatio n for the other class grades
57 65 83 94 95 96 98 93 71 63
- 24.5 - 16.5 1.5 12.5 13.5 14.5 16.5 11.5 - 10.5 -18.5
600.25 272.25 2.25 156.25 182.25 210.25 272.25 132.25 110.25 342.25
= 228.05
= 15.10
Team A
Average on the Quiz Standard Deviation
Team B
81.5 4.63
81.5 15.10
CORRELATION COEFFICENT
Sometimes two continuous characters are measured in a series or in a similar pattern such as weight and cholesterol, weight and height etc. this relationship or association between two quantitatively measured or continuously variables is called correlation.
PERFECT POSITIVE CORRELATION PERFECT NEGATIVE CORRELATION MODERATELY POSITIVE CORRELATION MODERATELY NEGATIVE CORRELATION ABSOLUTELY NO CORRELATION
It is used to measure the degree of linear relationship between two variables. It is also called product moment correlation. It is denoted by r
It is the method of finding the correlation between two variables by taking their ranks. This method of finding correlation is especially useful in dealing with qualitative data. It can be used when the actual magnitude of characteristics under consideration is not known, but relative position or rank of magnitude is known. It is denoted by p.
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
Inferential statistics are concerned with population, use sample data to make an inference about the population or to test the hypotheses considered at the beginning of the research study.
Inferential statistics help the researcher to determine if the difference found between two more groups, such as an experimental and control group, is a real difference or only a chance difference that occurred because an unrepresentative sample was chosen from the population.
ACCEPT H0 H0(TRUE)
H0(FALSE)
TEST OF SIGNIFICANCE
t-TEST
PARAMETRIC Z- TEST TESTS ANOVA
CHI-SQUARE McNEMAR TEST MANN-WHITNEY TEST WILCOXON SIGNED RANK TEST FISHERS EXACT TEST
PARAMETRIC TESTS
These tests are known as normal distribution statistical tests. The statistical methods of inference make certain assumptions about the population from which the samples are drawn.
t Test
It is applied to find the significant difference between two means. This test can be applied when following criteria are fulfilled:
Randomly selected homogeneous sample. Quantitative data( numerical data not the frequency distribution)
CONT..
Variability normally distributed. Sample size less than 30; if the sample size is more than 30, then Ztests is applied.
TYPES Of t TESTS
Unpaired t Test: it is applied when we obtain data from subjects of two independent separated groups of people or samples drawn from different populations. Paired t Test: it is applied on paired data of independent observations made on same samples before and after the intervention. Paired test is most commonly used in nursing research studies.
t =
CONT.
Formula for calculating SE for paired t TEST: SE = Formula for calculating SE for unpaired t TEST: SE = 1/n1+1/n2
CONT.
Calculate observed difference between two means. Observed difference = X1 X2; where X1 is mean of the first sample and x2 is the mean of the second sample. Calculate t value by using following formula: t = mean difference of mean SE
CONT.
Z- TEST
When a sample is larger than 30 subjects, and a researcher wants to compare the difference in population mean and a simple mean or the difference between two sample means, then Z test is applied.
FORMULA
Z = observed difference between two sample means SE of different between two sample means Z =
A
SE
When a researcher wants to compare the difference between more than two samples means; t- test will be not useful and a need of alternative test will be felt. This need can be fulfilled by test known as analysis of variance (ANOVA) test. Therefore, it is clear that ANOVA is used to compare the more than two samples means drawn from corresponding normal population
CONT
Calculate the sum of squares between the groups by using following formula: (X1) +(X2) + (X3) +(X 4) + n1 n2 n3 n4 so on (X)2 N
CONT.
Calculate the sum of squares within the groups (error sum of squares) by using following formula: = total sum of squares sum of squares between the groups Calculate the degree of freedom for between and within the groups. df for error is = N 1( no. of groups- 1)
CONT.
Calculate the mean of sum of square by using following formula. Mean of sum of squares between the groups = sum of square between the groups df for between the groups
CONT.
Mean of sum of squares within the groups = sum of squares within the groups df for within the groups
Finally compute the F ratio by using following formula: F-ratio of square = Mean of sum of squares between the groups Mean of sum of squares within the groups
Researcher in the field of health sciences many times may not be aware about the nature of the distribution or other required population parameters. In addition, sample may too small to test the hypothesis and generalize the findings for the population from which the sample is drawn.
STEPS OF CHI-SQUARE
Make the contingency tables. Note the frequencies observed in each class of one event row wise and numbers in each group of other event column- vise. Determine the expected number (E) in each cell of table assumption of null hypothesis. E = Column or vertical total X row or horizontal total Grand total
CONT.
Find the difference between the observed and the expected frequencies in each cell (O E) Calculate the chi square value for each cell by formula; X2 = (O E)2 E
Sum up the x2 values of all the cells to get the total chi square value.
McNEMAR TEST
When the proportions being compared are from two paired groups(e.g. when a pretest-posttest design is used to compare changes in proportions on a dichotomous variable), the appropriate test is the McNEMAR TEST
MANN-WHITNEY TEST
It is another type of non-parametric test for testing the difference between two independent groups. The test involves assigning ranks to the two groups of measures. The sum of the rank for the two group can be compared by calculating the U statistics.
When the ordinal data are paired (dependent) the wilcoxon signed rank test can be used. It involves taking the difference between paired scores and ranking the absolute difference.
Interpretation of data
By interpretation of data we mean that task of drawing conclusion or interferences and of explaning their significances, after careful analysis of the collected data. The interpretation of research data cannot be considered in the abstract. In view of the diversity of research methods use in education, and the corresponding diversity of data, they seek, the interpretation of such data is best considered within context of each method. The analysis and interpretation of historical data.
Cont.
The process of interpretation is essentially one of stating that what the findings show. The findings of the study are the result, conclusion, implication, interpretation, recommendations, generalizations, future research and nursing practice.
Cont
Interpreting the findings of a study involves a search for their meaning in relation to the problem, conceptual framework, purpose and all the research decision made in developing and implementing the empirical phase of the study
Types of validity
Explanatory validity Ecology validity and Methodological validity
Explanatory validity
It refers to the extent to which the concept is chosen to account for that study findings to do so. This requires examination of alternative, equally plausible explanation for the findings.
Ecological validity
It refers to the extent to which the sample of observations in the study represents the substantive domain, the adequacy of the relationship between the study design and substance being studied
Methodological validity
It refers to the degree of which the findings are a function of a set or method used to test the theory
Errors of Interpretation
Failure to see the problem proper perspective Investigator may have an inadequate grasp of the problem in its broad sense and too close a focus in its immediate aspect. Failure to appreciate the relevance of various elements The investigator may fail to see the relevance of the various elements of the situation due to an inadequate grasp of the problem, too rigid a mind set or even a lack of imagination.