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14.1 Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are A major source of energy from our diet. Composed of the elements C, H, and O. Also called saccharides, which means sugars.
Copyright 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates Are produced by photosynthesis in plants. Such as glucose are synthesized in plants from CO2, H2O, and energy from the sun. Are oxidized in living cells (respiration) to produce CO2, H2O, and energy.
Copyright 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc Publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Types of Carbohydrates
The types of carbohydrates are Monosaccharides, the simplest carbohydrates. Disaccharides, which consist of two monosaccharides. Polysaccharides, which contain many monosaccharides.
Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides consist of 3 to 6 carbon atoms, typically. A carbonyl group (aldehyde or ketone). Several hydroxyl groups.
Aldoses
Aldoses are monosaccharides With an aldehyde group. With many hydroxyl (OH) groups. triose (3 C atoms) tetrose (4 C atoms) pentose (5 C atoms) hexose (6 C atoms) O CH aldose H COH H COH CH2OH Erythose, an aldotetrose
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Ketoses
Ketoses are monosaccharides With a ketone group. With many hydroxyl (OH) groups. triose (3 C atoms) tetrose (4 C atoms) pentose (5 C atoms) hexose (6 C atoms)
CH2OH C=O ketose H COH H COH HCOH CH2OH
Fructose, a ketohexose
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Learning Check
Identify each as aldo- or keto- and as tetrose, pentose,
or hexose:
O C H H C OH H C OH H C OH H C OH CH2OH
CH2OH C O HO C H H C OH CH2OH
B
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Solution
A. aldohexose B. ketopentose
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Fischer Projections
A Fischer projection Is used to represent carbohydrates. Places the most oxidized group at the top. Shows chiral carbons as the intersection of vertical and horizontal lines.
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D and L Notations
In a Fischer projection, the OH group on the Chiral carbon farthest from the carbonyl group determines an L or D isomer. Left is assigned the letter L for the L-isomer. Right is assigned the letter D for the D-isomer.
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O C H O C H H OH H OH H OH CH2OH
D-ribose
OH H OH OH CH2OH
HO H H HO
H OH OH H CH2OH
L-galactose
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Learning Check
Identify each as the D or L isomer. A. B.
O C H HO HO HO H H H CH2OH H HO O C H OH H CH2OH HO H H
C.
CH2OH O H OH OH CH2OH
__-ribose
__- threose
__- fructose
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Solution
Identify each as the D or L isomer. A. B.
O C H HO HO HO H H H CH2OH H HO O C H OH H CH2OH HO H H
C.
CH2OH O H OH OH CH2OH
L-ribose
L-threose
D-fructose
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D-Glucose
D-glucose is Found in fruits, corn syrup, and honey. An aldohexose with the formula C6H12O6. Known as blood sugar in the body. The monosaccharide in polymers of starch, cellulose, and glycogen.
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D-Fructose
D-fructose Is a ketohexose C6H12O6. Is the sweetest carbohydrate. Is found in fruit juices and honey. Converts to glucose in the body.
CH2OH C O HO C H H C OH H C OH CH2OH
Copyright 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc Publishing as Benjamin Cummings
D-Fructose
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D-Galactose
D-galactose is
O C H H C OH HO C H HO C H H C OH CH2OH D-Galactose
An aldohexose C6H12O6. Not found free in nature. Obtained from lactose, a disaccharide. A similar structure to glucose except for the OH on C4.
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Learning Check
Draw the structure and Fischer projection of D-fructose.
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Solution
CH2OH C O HO C H H C OH H C OH CH2OH D-Fructose
H H OH OH CH2OH Fischer projection HO CH2OH C=O H
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OH
OH
Cyclic Structures
Cyclic structures Are the prevalent form of monosaccharides with 5 or 6 carbon atoms.
O O
Form when the hydroxyl group on C-5 reacts with the aldehyde group or ketone group.
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CH2OH O
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C
1
H C OH
2
H
6 5
H OH H
4 3 2 1
HO 3 C H H 4 C OH H 5 C OH
6 CH2OH
O H
HOCH2 C C C C C OH OH H OH
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CH2OH
6 5 4
O
1
OH
OH
3
OH OH
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O
OH OH OH OH
OH
O OH
OH OH
-D-glucose
-D-glucose
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CH2OH O OH
OH
H O C H
CH2OH O OH OH
OH
OH OH
OH
-D-glucose (36%)
OH -D-glucose (64%)
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D-fructose
-D-fructose
-D-fructose
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Learning Check
Write the cyclic form of -D-galactose
O C H H C OH HO C H HO C H H C OH CH2OH
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Solution
CH2OH OH OH OH O
OH
-D-galactose
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Reducing Sugars
Reducing sugars Are monosaccharides with a carbonyl group that oxidizes to give a carboxylic acid. Undergo reaction with Benedicts reagent (Cu2+) to give the corresponding carboxylic acid. Include the monosaccharides glucose, galactose, and fructose.
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Oxidation of D-Glucose
O C H
Benedicts reagent
O C OH H C OH
[O]
H C OH HO C H H C OH H C OH CH2OH D-glucose
+ Cu
2+
+ Cu2O(s)
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Reduction of Monosaccharides
The reduction of monosaccharides Involves the carbonyl group. Produces sugar alcohols called alditols. Such as D-glucose gives D-glucitol also called sorbitol.
D-Glucitol
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Learning Check
Write the products of the oxidation and reduction of D-mannose.
O C H HO HO H H H H OH OH CH2OH
D-mannose
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Solution
Write the products of the oxidation and reduction of D-mannose.
O CH2OH HO HO H H H H OH OH CH2OH
D-mannitol
O C OH Oxidation HO HO H H H H OH OH CH2OH
D-mannonic acid
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C H Reduction HO HO H H H H OH OH CH2OH
D-mannose
14.5 Disaccharides
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Important Disaccharides
A disaccharide Consists of two monosaccharides. Monosaccharides Disaccharide Glucose + glucose maltose + H2O Glucose + galactose lactose + H2O Glucose + fructose sucrose + H2O
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Maltose
Maltose is A disaccharide also known as malt sugar. Composed of two D-glucose molecules. Obtained from the hydrolysis of starch. Linked by an -1,4-glycosidic bond formed from the OH on C1 of the first glucose and OH on C4 of the second glucose. Used in cereals, candies, and brewing. Found in both the - and - forms.
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Formation of Maltose
Lactose
Lactose Is a disaccharide of D-galactose and - or -D-glucose. Contains a -1,4glycosidic bond. Is found in milk and milk products.
-form
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Sucrose
Sucrose or table sugar Is obtained from sugar cane and sugar beets. Consists of -D-glucose and -D-fructose.. Has an ,-1,2-glycosidic bond.
-D-glucose
-D-fructose
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Learning Check
Write the structures and names of the two monosaccharides that form when sucrose is hydrolyzed.
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Solution
-D-glucose
-D-fructose
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Sweeteners
Sugars and artificial sweeteners Differ in sweetness. Are compared to sucrose (table sugar), which is assigned a value of 100.
TABLE 15.2
60 000
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Learning Check
Identify the monosaccharides in each of the following: A. lactose (1) -D-glucose (2) -D-fructose (3) -D-galactose
B. maltose (1) -D-glucose (2) -D-fructose C. sucrose (1) -D-glucose (2) -D-fructose
(3) -D-galactose
(3) -D-galactose
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Solution
Identify the monosaccharides in each of the following: A. lactose (1) -D-glucose (3) -D-galactose B. maltose (1) -D-glucose C. sucrose (1) -D-glucose
(2) -D-fructose
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14.6 Polysaccharides
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Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides Are polymers of D-glucose. Include amylose and amylopectin, starches made of -D-glucose. Include glycogen (animal starch in muscle), which is made of D-glucose. Include cellulose (plants and wood), which is made of -D-glucose.
CH2OH O OH OH
OH
OH
-D-glucose
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Amylose
Amylose is A polymer of -Dglucose molecules. Linked by -1,4 glycosidic bonds. A continuous (unbranched) chain.
Amylopectin
Amylopectin Is a polymer of -Dglucose molecules. Is a branched-chain polysaccharide. Has -1,4-glycosidic bonds between the glucose units. Has -1,6 bonds to branches.
Glycogen
Glycogen Is the polysaccharide that stores -D-glucose in muscle. Is similar to amylopectin, but is more highly branched.
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Cellulose
Cellulose Is a polysaccharide of glucose units in unbranched chains. Has -1,4-glycosidic bonds. Cannot be digested by humans because humans cannot break down -1,4glycosidic bonds.
Copyright 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings 56
Learning Check
Identify the polysaccharides and types of glycosidic bonds in each of the following:
A.
B.
C.
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Solution
A. Cellulose
B. Amylose Amylopectin C. Glycogen
-1,4-glycosidic bonds
-1,4-glycosidic bonds -1,4-and -1,6-glycosidic bonds -1,4-and -1,6-glycosidic bonds (more branched than amylopectin)
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