Digital Data, Digital Signal

Data

Analog: Continuous value data (sound, light, temperature) Digital: Discrete value (text, integers, symbols)

Signal
Analog: Continuously varying electromagnetic wave Digital signal: Discrete, discontinuous voltage pulses Each pulse is a signal element Binary data encoded into signal elements

Digital data, digital signal Analog data, digital signal Digital data, analog signal Analog data, analog signal

Analog data to analog signal

Inexpensive, easy conversion (eg telephone) Used in traditional analog telephony Examples: AM, FM, PM.
Requires a codec (encoder/decoder) Allows use of digital telephony Examples: PCM, ADPCM, Delta Modulation etc

Analog data to digital signal

Digital data to analog signal Requires modem (modulator/demodulator) Necessary when analog transmission is used Examples : ASK, FSK,PSK, QAM Digital data to digital signal Less expensive when large amounts of data are involved More reliable because no conversion is involved

In a digital signal binary data are transmitted by encoding each data bit into signal elements. If the signal elements all have the same algebraic sign,that is ,all positive or negative ,then the signal is unipolar.

In polar signalling, one logic state is represented by positive voltage level, and the other by a negative voltage level.

The data signaling rate, or just data rate, of a signal is the rate, in bits per second, that data are transmitted.

The tasks involved in interpreting digital signals at the receiver is that ,the receiver must know the timing of each bit.
That is receiver must know with some accuracy when a bit begins and ends.

The receiver must determine whether the signal level for each bit position is high(1) or low(0). Because of noise and other impairments , there will be errors.

What factors determine how successful the receiver will be in interpreting the incoming signal? For that following three factors are important. 1. The signal- to- noise ratio (or better Eb / N0 ) 2. The data rate 3. The bandwidth

With other factors held constant the following statements are true: An increase in data rate increases bit error rate (the probablity that a bit is received in error). An increase in S/N decreases bit error rate. An increase in bandwidth allows increase in data rate.

Encoding Scheme

There is an other factor that can be used

to

improve performance and that is the encoding scheme. i-e the mapping from data bits to signal elements.

Signal Spectrum

Lack of high frequencies reduces required bandwidth Lack of dc component is desirable

Clocking One rather expensive approach is to provide a separate clock-lead to synchronize the transmitter and receiver. The alternative is to provide some synchronization mechanism that is based on the transmitted signal; this can be achieved with suitable encoding

Error detection

Can be built in to signal encoding

Some codes are better than others Higher signal rate (& thus data rate) lead to higher costs

Signal interference and noise immunity

Cost and complexity

Polar encoding uses two voltage levels (positive and negative).

Two different voltages for 0 and 1 bits Voltage constant during bit interval

no transition I.e. no return to zero voltage

e.g. Absence of voltage for zero, constant positive voltage for one.
More often, negative voltage for one value and positive for the other. This is NRZ-L

Nonreturn to zero inverted on ones Constant voltage pulse for duration of bit Data encoded as presence or absence of signal transition at beginning of bit time Transition (low to high or high to low) denotes a binary 1

No transition denotes binary 0

An example of differential encoding

Pros
Easy to engineer Make good use of bandwidth Used for digital magnetic recording

Cons
Presence of dc component Lack of synchronization capability

Not often used for signal transmission

Signal is decoded by comparing the polarity of adjacent signal elements rather than determining the absolute value of a signal element.

Advantages:
1.

More reliable detection of transition in presence of noise.

This addresses some of the deficiencies of the NRZ codes. Use more than two signal levels Examples: 1. Bipolar-AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion) 2. Pseudoternary

zero represented by no line signal one represented by positive or negative pulse

one pulses alternate in polarity

Advantages on next slide

Advantages: No loss of synchronization if a long string of ones occurs (zeros still a problem)

No net dc component (b/c 1 signals alternate in voltage from +ve to ve) Lower bandwidth Easy error detection

One represented by absence of line signal Zero represented by alternating positive and negative No advantage or disadvantage over bipolar-AMI

It is another technique which overcomes the limitations of NRZ codes. Its two techniques are in common use today i-e: Manchester Differential Manchester

1. 2.

 Transition Transition Low High Used

in middle of each bit period serves as clock and data

to high represents one to low represents zero by IEEE 802.3

 Mid-bit

transition is clocking only at start of a bit period represents

Transition

zero
No

transition at start of a bit period represents

one
Note:
Used

this is a differential encoding scheme

by IEEE 802.5

Disadvantages

At least one transition per bit time and possibly two

Maximum Requires

modulation rate is twice NRZ

more bandwidth

Advantages

Synchronization :
Because there is a predictable transition during each bit time

,the receiver can synchronize on that transition. For this

reason biphase codes are known as self clocking codes.

No dc component Error detection

The absence of expected transition can be used to detect errors

Use scrambling to replace sequences that would produce constant voltage Filling sequence
Must produce enough transitions to sync Must be recognized by receiver and replace with original Same length as original

No dc component No long sequences of zero level line signal No reduction in data rate Error detection capability

Commonly used in North America. Based on bipolar-AMI If octet of all zeros and last voltage pulse preceding was positive encode as 000+-0-+ If octet of all zeros and last voltage pulse preceding was negative encode as 000-+0+-

Rules

Causes two violations of AMI code Unlikely to occur as a result of noise

Receiver detects and interprets as octet of all

zeros

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Commonly used in Europe and Japan Based on bipolar-AMI

String of four zeros replaced with one or two pulses. 4 zeros are encoded as either 000-, 000+, +00+, or -00 Number of the non-zero pulses after last substitution is odd use (000V) Number of the non-zero pulses after last substitution is even use (B00V) Substitution rule is s.t. the 4th bit is always a code violation, and successive violations are of alternate polarity (not to introduce dc component) These codes are suitable for high data-rate transmission
40

41

Encode the following sequence of bits using all the encoding techniques . 10001110011011000001