Basic Civil and Mech. Engg.

UNIT - I

SURVEYING AND CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Surveying Measurements
Why study surveying? Example of a measurement science Two quantities measured in surveying Lengths Angles All measurements are imperfect Errors Mistakes

Measurement Errors
Sources of errors Natural Instrumental Personal Types of errors Systematic Random Terms used in describing errors Precision Accuracy

Uses and Importance of Surveying

Locate/ map resources Engineering design
Layout construction or engineering projects Verify performance

Acquire reliable data Provide control

Usually for location

Historical Development of Surveying

Early applications Boundary location Construction Mapping Early surveys limited by technology Crude and inconsistent methods Development of sighting devices, standards,

Historical Development of Surveying

Industrial revolution improved surveying Advances in available materials Improvement in tools Electronics revolution fundamental advances Electronic distance and angle measurement Satellite surveying Enhanced processing Modern surveying Rapidly developing and evolving

SURVEYING
General meaning To inspect, view, scrutinize, or examine To determine condition, situation, or value

SURVEYING - process of measuring

a) horizontal / vertical distances and b) included angle in order to determine location of points on, above or below the earth surface. direct / indirect Representation of surface features in a horizontal plane

LEVELLING Process of determining relative heights in the

vertical plane

PURPOSE ( Surveying)
Data - to prepare plan or map, showing ground features To determine relative heights of objects/ points in a vertical plane To fix control points hence establish boundaries Uses: Setting of building, roads, rail track, dam..etc

TYPES - SURVEYING

Plane Surveying

Geodetic Surveying

CLASSIFICATION: Nature of field of survey: i) Land Surveying ii) Astronomical Surveying iii) Marine / Hydrographic surveying Discipline of survey i) Engg. Survey ii) Geological Survey iii) Mine Survey iv) Military Survey v) Archaeological Survey Instrument used i) Chain Surveying ii) Compass iii) Plane table iv) Level v) Theodolite vi) photographic surveying

Control surveying : To establish horizontal and vertical positions of control points. Land surveying : To determine the boundaries and areas of parcels of land, also known as property survey, boundary survey or cadastral survey. Topographic survey : To prepare a plan/ map of a region which includes natural as well as and man-made features including elevation. Engineering survey : To collect requisite data for planning, design and execution of engineering projects. Three broad steps are 1) Reconnaissance survey : To explore site conditions and availability of infrastructures. 2) Preliminary survey : To collect adequate data to prepare plan / map of area to be used for planning and design. 3) Location survey : To set out work on the ground for actual construction / execution of the project. Route survey : To plan, design, and laying out of route such as highways, railways, canals, pipelines, and other linear projects. Construction surveys : Surveys which are required for establishment of points, lines, grades, and for staking out engineering works (after the plans have been prepared and the structural design has been done). Astronomic surveys : To determine the latitude, longitude (of the observation station) and azimuth (of a line through observation station) from astronomical observation. Mine surveys : To carry out surveying specific for opencast and underground mining purposes.

Principle of Surveying
PRINCIPLE I Any surveying work should be carried out from whole to part

PRINCIPLE II New points should be fixed by atleast two independent measurements i) measurement of 2 distances ii) 2 angles iii) 1 angle and 1 distance
Reference:
http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-contents/IIT-ROORKEE/SURVEYING/modules/module1/htmlpage/9(1).htm

Surveying by the Germans during the First World War, 1918

1) MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCES

CHAIN SURVEYING
OLDEST METHOD OF SURVEYING
HORIZONTAL MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLE OF TRIANGULATION

USED FOR MEASURING SMALL AREAS OF LAND WHEN THE LEVEL OF ACCURACY REQUIRED IS NOT HIGH

Only linear distances on field measured These distance are used to define boundary of field and mark simple details Principle: Form network of triangles by using distances measured (For better accuracy equilateral ) Accessories: a) Meter Chain b) Chain pins (arrows) c) measuring tape d) Ranging / offset rod

METRIC SURVEYING CHAIN

For field surveying To measure distance btwn 2 points on ground Available in lengths of 5m, 10m, 20m & 30m Specification IS: 1492 1970 (Reaffirmed 1978) Surveying chain Brass handles with brass eyebolt and collar, Galvanized mild steel links and wire rings LENGTH OF CHAIN: Distance - Outside faces - fully stretched chain Engraved on handles Grooves cut on outside face of handles for holding arrows in position

CHAIN SURVEYING - ACCESSORIES

Flexible joint Brass handle Brass tallies Galvanised MS links

Metric Surveying Chain

Lincoln with Surveyor's Chain

Circular eye

Chain Pins (Arrows)

Made of good quality hardened & tempered steel wire of min. tensile strength 70kg/mm2

Overall length = 400 mm

Thickness = 4 mm Wire Black enamelled

Wooden Pegs - Used to establish station points or end points of a line on the ground - Driven by wooden hammer

Measuring tape i) ii) iii) iv) Cloth / linen tape Metallic tape 1 m = 100 divisions (cm) Steel tape - cm, further subdivided Invar tape Reinforced with fine brass, copper/ bronze wires Available in lengths of 10, 15, 20, 30 & 50 m

RANGING ROD Ranging Pole / Picket used for ranging / aligning long lines on ground in field surveying Ranging a straight line means fixing a series of pegs, so that they all lie on a straight line Ranging rods are used for marking points on ground, so that the positions of points are distinctly visible from some distance. made of well seasoned, straight grained timber of circular C/ S (teak, blue pine, sissoo or deodar) RED & WHITE or BLACK & WHITE (200 mm bands) WHITE BAND RED BAND Dia.= 30mm

Cast Iron / Steel Sheet Shoe

OFFSET ROD
Is also a ranging rod with two short, narrow, vertical sighting slots thru the center Hook or groove top to enable pulling/ pushing the chain thru obstructions like hedges. Offset rods are meant for setting out lines approx. at right angles to main line. (Diagram)

PLUMB BOB (used on sloping ground)

Illustration showing how to use a Cross Staff, a surveying instrument with sights at right angles Used to set out right angles in chain surveying

Consists of solid conical piece, with a string attached to it at center Used: to test verticality of ranging rods and To transfer the points to the ground

Unfolding and folding a chain

Ranging a line: means fixing a series of pegs such that they all lie on a straight line (Diagram)

OUTLINE OF CHAIN SURVEYING: 1) Base line is fixed and aligned by ranging 2) Length of line measured (chain) Follower holds zero end of chain, Leader drags chain to intermediate point on the line. Leader marks end of chain by chain pin. Follower holds the zero end at chain pin For locating the details, lateral measurements are taken to the objects. These lateral measurements are called OFFSETS. a) Perpendicular offset b) Oblique offset (Diagram)

Chain Survey of a Area

Mark corners of the Area to be surveyed Take Bearing from first corner (A) to second (B) Measure A-B distance using Chain or Tape Optionally, take Offset Readings en route of: Objects Crossed & Nearby Objects and their Distance & Bearing (may be estimated) At Point B - take a Back Bearing to Point A if 2 or 3 deg off, use average the two readings if > 3 deg off, then redo initial reading Continue each subsequent leg in this way

 Advantages / Suitability of Chain Surveying 1) simple 2) Doesnt require costly equipment 3) Adopted for preparing small areas 4) It can be adopted when ground is fairly level.

Limitations / Unsuitability of chain surveying : 1) cannot be used for large areas 2) cannot be used in areas with a number of details 3) Cannot be used in thick bushy / (up and down) areas 4) Not always accurate

TERMINOLOGIES CHAIN SURVEYING 1. Main Survey Station: Point where two sides of a main triangle meet Tie stations / Subsidiary stations: These are stations selected on main survey lines for running auxiliary lines.

2.

3.

Base Line: Longest of the main survey lines - is the main reference line for fixing the positions of various stations and also to fix the directions of other lines Caution: Accuracy of the entire triangulation critically depends on this measurement hence measure carefully
Check Line: used in the field to check the accuracy of the measurements made Tie Line: Chain line joining the tie stations and subsidiary stations Offset: While survey is carried out, important details such as boundaries, fences, buildings and towers are located with respect to main chain lines by means of lateral measurements. The two types of representing (called OFFSETS) a) Perpendicular offset b) Oblique offset

4.

5.

6.

Layout of Chain Survey (dia. book) A x

90

B PERPENDICULAR OFFSET

A OBLIQUE OFFSET

TRAVERSE SURVEY
E D B C A C 2) Open Traverse E D

F A

POND

B 1) Closed Traverse

2) Measurement of ANGLES
1

2 Included angles

Deflection angles

COMPASS SURVEYING
- To measure angles - Used when no. of base lines are to be run for obtaining details

Lincoln with Surveyor's Compass

PRISMATIC COMPASS

For Rough surveying speed is important, rather than accuracy Used for preliminary survey for road, railway, military purpose, rough traverse, etc. LIMITATION: The results from compass observation may be unrealistic in places where there is more local attraction * due to magnetic rock or iron ore deposits.

* External magnetic influences (magnetic rock, steel structure, railways, iron lamp posts) present in the place of observation Needle will be deflected TO DETECT PRESENCE: 1) Find FB and BB of a line 2) Find FB BB 3) If FB BB 180

PRISMATIC COMPASS

Prismatic Compass on a Tripod

Top View of Compass

SURVEYORS COMPASS Used with a chain when traversing Provides a relatively quick method of measuring horizontal directions in surveying The surveyor's compass is usually the larger and more accurate instrument generally used on a stand or tripod. The prismatic compass is often a small instrument which is held in the hand for observing, and is therefore employed for less accurate work.

COMPARISON
PRISMATIC COMPASS 1) Magnetic Needle and graduated dial attached together Prism and box rotate 2) Graduations marked CLOCKWISE SURVEYORs COMPASS 1) Magnetic needle remains freely suspended, stationery while dial is attached to box 2) Graduations marked 0 90 in all 4 quadrants

3) Readings observed thru PRISM eyepiece from SOUTH END of compass

4) ZERO reading is marked on SOUTH END of instrument 5) Mirror attached to object vane for sighting objects at higher elevation or depression 6) Can be held in hand while taking observations

3) Readings taken by directly looking at dial immediately below NORTH END of needle.
4) ZERO reading marked on NORTH & SOUTH END. 5) No such mirror

6) Needs a TRIPOD

BEARING
Bearing is the horizontal angle between the reference meridian and survey line 1) TRUE BEARING: * True bearing of a line is the angle which a line makes with the true north / geographical north * measured always in CLOCKWISE direction * range of measurement: 0 - 360 2) MAGNETIC BEARING: * angle a line makes with magnetic north * measured in CLOCKWISE direction * range of measurement: 0 - 360 3) WHOLE CIRCLE BEARING (W.C.B) * any angle measured in between 0 - 360 directly * The magnetic and true bearing are just whole circle bearings. 4) REDUCED BEARING (R.B) / QUADRANTAL BEARING * Based on Quadrantal system * wherein any angle is measured with respect to North South line, towards East or West (Refer Dia.)

5) FORE BEARING (F.B): * Angle measured from a survey station to another station * in the direction in which survey is conducted 6) BACK BEARING (B.B): * Bearing taken from next station to its preceding station, from which the fore bearing was taken.
RULES FOR CONVERSION OF W.C.B R.B 1) WCB = 0 - 360 ; RB : (0 - 90, Quadrant) eg. N 20 30 E 2) O for WCB starts from NORTH, CLOCKWISE. 3) Always take RB with respect to NORTH - SOUTH line 4) In RB, to convert FB BB or vice versa, Replace N S, SN, E W, W E, (without changing the numerical values) RULE for converting BB to FB: BB = FB 180 { +ve if FB < 180, - ve if FB > 180}

TRAVERSING WITH COMPASS AND CHAIN

In Compass Surveying, instrument is set at each station successively FB and BB of each line are noted in a field note book Errors in this survey tend to compensate as each bearing is observed independently Distance between successive stations are measured using a chain Offset points are located by chaining OR by angular measurements with compass.

LEVELLING

Art of determining relative heights of points (vertical plane) on the earths surface OBJECTIVES: 1) Levelling provides accurate network of heights, covering the entire area of the project 2) A good network of levels provides excellent idea of the existing terrain for the engineer, who can plan & design his project keeping in view the ECONOMY and SAFETY.

TERMINOLOGY - LEVELLING

LEVEL SURFACE: Surface NORMAL to direction of GRAVITY at ALL points - Every point on the level surface will be equidistant from the center of the earth HORIZONTAL PLANE: Plane TANGENTIAL to Level surface at any point VERTICAL PLANE: Plane which contains VERTICAL LINE at a place - Vertical line r to Level surface DATUM SURFACE: Arbitrary surface with reference to which the heights (elevation) of points are measured and compared REDUCED LEVEL (RL): is the height above or below the datum BACK SIGHT (BS): is the first staff reading taken after setting the instrument in any position. This will always be a reading on a point of known height FORE SIGHT (FS) : is the last staff reading taken on a point before shifting the instrument. This will always be a point whose height has to be determined

INTERMEDIATE SIGHT (IS): refers to any staff reading taken on a point of UNKNOWN elevation, after the BS and before the FS. Necessary if it is needed to take more than 2 readings from the same position of instrument. CHANGE POINT (CP): indicates shifting the instrument. Both the BS and FS are taken on a change point BENCH MARKING (BM): is a fixed point of reference of known elevation. The reduced level of bench mark is used to determine the reduced level of other points Bench marks are classified as: a) Great Trigonometrical Survey (GTS) bench marks b) Permanent bench marks Horizontal groove c) Arbitary bench marks d) Temporary bench marks

BM 100.000
Point of reference

BM indicated on a FLAT surface

BM indicated on a vertical surface

BM

BS O1

IS FS B BS O2 FS C

Explanatory figure of a levelling operation

PRINCIPLE OF LEVELLING (Refer Fig. 8.15 M.S.Palanichamy)

Left Side View

Right Side View

Dumpy means short & thick More stable than other types

LEVELLING INSTRUMENT DUMPY LEVELS

LEVELLING INSTRUMENT:

LEVELLING STAFF

CLASSIFICATION OF LEVELLING
1) Simple Levelling: (Dia. Refer MSP) 2) Differential Levelling: (Dia. Refer MSP)

METHOD - CALCULATING REDUCED LEVELS

a) Height of Collimation (Height of Instrument method) b) Rise and Fall method
Height of Collimation Rise and Fall method

1) It is more rapid, saves time and labour 2) Adopted for reduction of levels for longitudinal or cross sectional levelling works 3) There is no check on the RL of intermediate stations 4) Only 2 arithmetic checks ie., BS - FS = Last RL First RL

1) Laborious as staff reading of each station is compared to get RISE or FALL. 2) Adopted for determining difference in levels of two points where precision is required 3) There is complete check on RL of intermediate stations 4) 3 arithmetic checks ie., BS - FS = Last RL First RL = Rise - Fall

DETERMINATION OF AREAS

1) 2)

By dividing the area into number of TRIANGLES Areas between Survey Line and Boundaries a) Trapezoidal rule A = d/2 [First ordinate + Last Ordinate + 2 (Sum of intermediate ordinates) ]

b) Simpsons rule A = d/3 [ First ordinate + Last ordinate + 2 (sum of odd ordinates) + 4 (sum of even ordinates) ]

BRICKS
Bricks are obtained by moulding clay in rectangular blocks of uniform size, then by drying and burning these blocks in brick kilns.

QUALITIES OF GOOD BRICKS: 1) should have perfect edges, well burnt in kilns, copper colored, free from cracks , with proper rectangular shape and std. size (19 x 9 x 9) 2) Should give clear ringing sound, when struck with each other 3) Must be homogeneous, void free 4) Percentage absorption of water by weight < 20 - for Ist class brick & 22 % - IInd class brick, when soaked in cold water for 24 hrs. 5) Should be sufficiently HARD. Avg. Wt.,: 3 3.5 Kg 6) Should not break when dropped from a height of 1m. 7) Should not show deposits of SALT, when immersed in water and dried.

CLASSIFICATION OF BRICKS: 1) Ist class : table mounted, std. shape, comply with all good qualities of bricks, used for superior and permanent works. 2) IInd class: ground moulded and burnt in kilns, surface of brick rough & irregular 3) IIIrd class: ground moulded and burnt in clamps. They are NOT hard, but Rough with irregular and distorted edges. - Gives dull sound when struck with each other. 4) Overburnt bricks irregular shape and dark color. Used as aggregates for concrete in foundations, floors, roads, etc.,. USES OF BRICKS: Construction of walls, Hollow bricks used for insulation purpose, Fire bricks made of fire clay, used as refractory material, CONSTITUENTS OF BRICK: 1) ALUMINA: 20 30% Al2O3 2) SILICA: Exists in clay in free or combined form. (50 60% Silica), prevents cracking, shrinking and warping 3) LIME: < 5% , (prevents shrinking in raw bricks) 4) OXIDE OF IRON: < 5% , Gives RED color to bricks. 5) MAGNESIA: Gives YELLOW tints to bricks. Reduces Shrinkage

STONES
Are obtained from ROCKS.

QUALITIES OF GOOD STONE: 1) Crushing strength of stone > 100 N/mm 2) Uniform color 3) Durable 4) Easily carvable 5) Fracture sharp and clear 6) For road resist wear and tear 7) Acid and Fire resistant USES OF STONES: 1) In construction of buildings 2) For Foundations, walls, floors, etc., 3) Ballasts in railways

CEMENT
Obtained by burning @ very high temp. (Calcareous + Argillaceous materials) Calcined product is known as CLINKER Small quantity of GYPSUM is added to CLINKER and is pulverised into very fine powder known as CEMENT. On SETTING, cement resembles a variety of SANDSTONE found in PORTLAND in England, and is therefore called PORTLAND CEMENT.
GOOD QUALITIES OF CEMENT: 1) Uniform color 2) Cool when felt with hand 3) Free from lumps 4) When ignited, cement should not loose >4% of its weight 5) Sulphur < 2.75% 6) Magnesia < 5% TYPES : Quick Setting Cement, Hydrophobic cement, Coloured cement, High Strength cement

CONCRETE
Is a mixture of (cement, sand, crushed rock and water) - which when placed in a skeleton of forms and allowed to cure, becomes hard such as stone. Properties of Concrete: 1) High compressive strength 2) Free from corrosion 3) Hardens with age 4) As it is weak in tension, steel reinforcement is placed in it to take up the tensile stresses. This is termed as Reinforced Cement Concrete 5) Has tendency to be porous

Uses of Concrete: 1) Concrete can be made impermeable by using hydrophobic cement. 2) In massive structures such as dams and bridges 3) Prestressed concrete is a relatively new type of concrete, which is used in many constructions particularly in construction of bridges.

STEEL SECTIONS

Steel is very ductile and has elastic properties Mild Steel having Carbon content : 0.1 0.25% is used for structural work MARKET FORMS:

STEEL BARS Length: 10 12 m, Dia: 6 32mm

STEEL PLATES Rolled plates have max. area = 30 m2 Thickness = 5 28 mm < 5 mm (Sheets)

FLATS : Much longer than plates and shorter width

ANGLE SECTIONS Used in construction of steel roof trusses, Steel columns, steel beams and stiffners

FLANGE

Web

CHANNEL SECTIONS

I Section Popularly known as Rolled Steel (R.S) Joists or beams

T - Section

DIAMOND MESH

RIBBED MESH EXPANDED METAL