State in Pakistan: An Evolutionary and Comparative Perspective

Defining state: compulsory political organization with a centralized government that maintains a monopoly of the legitimate use of force within a certain territory (Max Weber)

State institutions: centralized bureaucracy; military and religious organizations; legal system Inception of state in the Indian subcontinent Partition as the watershed event?

Tracing the creation of state in South Asia: Differing Muslim and Hindu interpretations The Decline of Mughal empire and the accompanying changes in societal landscape set the stage for post-colonial state Changes in class structure in 18th century were manipulated by the British to establish colonial control especially in the north west

Rise of empires in South Asia: creation of large states exerting control over huge regions is a historical aberration The life span of large empires was mostly short Small, localized, regional political units were the norm

Decline of Mughal empire led to the creation of British colonial empire in the subcontinent

The hegemonic, life threatening tendencies of the post-colonial state are continuation of this historical pattern

Competing historical interpretations: British, Hindu and Muslim narratives

Mughal empire as the conquest state: pursuit of rent, revenue and surplus to support military, paramilitary and upper social layers of agrarians classes

Extravagant constructions and life-styles of the ruling classes in Mughal empire The Mughal economy: Subordination of capitalist classes to ruling elites; presence of a strong communication infrastructure and commercial commodities

Dominance of agrarian hierarchy and state elites caused stagnation

Comparison with post-colonial state: changed nomenclature; professionalization yet persistent authoritarianism and corruption Decline of Mughal empire had economic underpinnings

Flourishing of rent-seeking classes

Rebellion by landed aristocracy in Punjab Sikhs take charge of the rebellion against Mughal empire British adapted to this system in Punjab in mid-nineteenth century

Permanent Settlement of Bengal (1797) was an instance of British pressurizing the local power-wielders through rent-seeking These politico-economic policies caused the revolt in 1857-58 The British empire in Punjab: cooptation of the militarized agrarian elites

British colonial state in Sind: cooptation and alliance-making with upper agrarian elites Exclusion from growing military classes Societal structure remained the same Rise of hydraulic society and canal colonization from 1880s

Creation of irrigation system in the Indus Basin; settlement of co-opted groups in canal tracts Canal colonization laid the foundations of post-colonial state and society in Pakistan Consequences of canal colonization were the strengthening of landholding elites

The British allotted lands to their strategic allies (as much as eighty percent of the land was given to small number of feudals) The proprietary rights of these groups were recognized by the British (Alienation of Lands Act 1901 in Punjab)

Rise of martial classes

Enhancement of bureaucratic powers through control over the irrigation system Punjab as the epicenter of British military efforts Winners and losers of British colonization Continuation of class structure

Landless peasantry and rise of strong military state after independence Congresss alliance with upper agrarian and urban middle and commercial classes in India Lack of political and electoral activity after 1947 helped to entrench the powers of dominant classes in Pakistan

Basic democracies and nationalization continued the same trends Presence of dominant classes in major political parties Alteration between civilian and military rule have not changed the socio-economic profile of Pakistani society