Alveoli are the primary sites of exchange of gases.

Exchange of gases also take place between blood and tissues also

O2 and CO2 are exchanged in these sites by simple diffusion which is based on pressure/concentration gradient. Factors that affect diffusion are Solubility of the gases Thickness of the membrane

Respiratory Gas

CO 2

O2

Partial pressure159 the individual pressure exerted independently by a is Atmospheric Air 0.3 particular gas within a mixture of gasses. The air we breath is a Alveoli 40 104 mixture of gasses: primarily nitrogen, oxygen, & carbon dioxide. Deoxygenated 45 40 However, the total pressure generated by the air is due in part to Blood nitrogen, in part to oxygen, & in part to carbon dioxide. That part of Oxygenated 40 95 the total pressure generated by oxygen is the 'partial pressure' of Blood oxygen, while that generated by carbon dioxide is the 'partial Tissue 40 pressure' of45carbon dioxide. A gas's partial pressure, therefore, is a measure of how much of that gas is present in a particular region.
Respiratory Gas
O2 CO2

Atmospheric Air
159 0.3

Alveoli
104 40

Deoxygenated Blood
40 45

Oxygenated Blood
95 40

Tissue
40 45

The solubility of CO2 is more when compared to O2, the amount of CO2 that can diffuse through the diffusion membrane is more than that of O2 at a unit partial pressure. The diffusion membrane is made up of three layers they are Thin Squamous epithelium of alveoli Endothelium of alveolar capillaries Basement substance between the epithelium of alveoli and Endothelium of alveolar capillaries The diffusion membrane is so small and its thickness is much less than a millimeter. Therefore all the conditions in our body are favourable for diffusion of O2 from alveoli to tissues and that of CO2 from tissues to alveoli

Oxygen is carried in blood: 1 - bound to hemoglobin (98.5% of all oxygen in the blood) 2 - dissolved in the plasma (1.5%) Because almost all oxygen in the blood is transported by hemoglobin, the relationship between the concentration (partial pressure) of oxygen and hemoglobin saturation (the % of hemoglobin molecules carrying oxygen) is an important one. Hemoglobin saturation is the extent to which the hemoglobin in blood is combined with O2 and it depends on PO2 of the blood

Haemoglobin is the iron-containing oxygen-transport metalloprotien in the red blood cells of all vertebrates. Hemoglobin in the blood carries oxygen from the respiratory organs to the rest of the body (i.e., the tissues) where it releases the oxygen to burn nutrients to provide energy to power the functions of the organism, and collects the resultant carbon dioxide to bring it back to the respiratory organs to be dispensed from the organism. O2 binds with Hb in a reversible manner to form oxyhaemoglobin Each haemoglobin molecule can carry a maximum of four molecules of O2. Every 100 ml of oxygenated blood can deliver around 5 ml of O2 to the tissues under normal physiological conditions. Binding of oxygen with haemoglobin is primarily related to partial pressure of O2. Other factors that affect the binding of O2 with Hb are Partial pressure of CO2 Hydrogen ion concentration Temperature

A sigmoid curve is obtained when percentage saturation of haemoglobin with O2 is plotted against the pO2. This curve is called the Oxygen dissociation curve and is highly useful in studying the effect of factors like pCO2, H+ concentration, etc., on binding of O2 with haemoglobin.

 In the alveoli, where there is high pO2, low pCO2, lesser H+ concentration and lower temperature, the factors are all favourable for the formation of Chemical forms in which CO2 is transported: oxyhaemoglobin Dissolved state [7%] Bicarbonate [70 %] In the tissues, where low pO2, high pCO2, high H+ concentration and higher Carbaminohemoglobin [23%] temperature exist, the conditions are favourable for dissociation of oxygen from the oxyhaemoglobin. CO2 is carried by haemoglobin as carbamino-haemoglobin (about 20-25 per cent). This This clearly indicates that O2 gets bound to is a major factor the lung surface binding is related to the partial pressure of CO2. pO2haemoglobin in which could affect this and When pCO2 is high the tissues. binding.gets dissociated atand pO2 is low as in the tissues, more binding of carbon dioxide
occurstissue sitewhen the pCO2pressure of CO2 is high as into catabolism, CO2 diffuses At the whereas, where partial is low and pO 2 due the alveoli, dissociation of CO2 bloodcarbamino-haemoglobin forms place.3 and H+,. At the alveolar site where into from (RBCs and plasma) and takes HCO pCO2 is low, the very highproceeds in the of the enzyme, carbonic anhydrase and minute RBCs contain a reaction concentration opposite direction leading to the formation of CO2 and Hof the same is present in the plasma too. the tissue level and transported to the quantities 2O. Thus, CO2 trapped as bicarbonate at This enzyme facilitates the following alveoli is in both directions. 2 . Every 100 ml of deoxygenated blood delivers approximately reaction released out as CO 4 ml of CO2 to the alveoli.

ARespiration is regulatedsituated adjacent to the rhythm centre which is highly chemosensitive area is by the neural system. A specialized centre hydrogen ions. Increase in these sensitive to CO2 andpresent in the medulla region of substances can activate this the brain called respiratory rhythm centre is centre, which in turn can signal the rhythm centre to make necessary adjustments inprimarily responsible forby which these substances can be eliminated. Receptors the respiratory process this regulation. Another centre present in the Pons region of the brain associated with aortic arch and carotid artery also can recognise changes in CO2and + concentration and send can moderate the Hcalled pneumotaxic centrenecessary signals to the rhythm centre for remedial functions of the respiratory rhythm centre. Neural actions. signal from this centre can reduce the duration artery also can recognise changes Receptors associated with aortic arch and carotidof ininspiration +and thereby alter the respiratory rate. CO2and H concentration and send necessary signals to the rhythm centre for remedial actions.

Asthma: It is a common chronic inflammatory disease of the airways characterized by variable and recurring symptoms, reversible airflow obstruction,and bronchospasm. Symptoms include wheezing, coughing, chest tightness, and shortness of breath. Emphysema : It is a long-term, progressive disease of the lungs that primarily causes shortness of breath. Emphysema is a chronic disorder in which alveolar walls are damaged due to which respiratory surface is decreased. One of the major causes of this is cigarette smoking. Occupational Respiratory Disorders: In certain industries, especially those involving grinding or stone-breaking, so much dust is produced that the defense mechanism of the body cannot fully cope with the situation. Long exposure can give rise to inflammation leading to fibrosis (proliferation of fibrous tissues) and thus causing serious lung damage. Workers in such industries should wear protective masks.eg: Berylliosis, Siderosis