MATERIALS SCIENCE CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

MEC281 MATERIALS SCIENCE CHAPTER 1
THE STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Rasdi bin Deraman Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal UiTM Pulau Pinang
Rasdi Deraman, FKM UiTM NPP 1
Introduction to Materials Science and Engineering

What are Materials?
Materials may be defined as substance of which something is composed or made. We obtain materials from earth crust and atmosphere.
Examples : Silicon and Iron constitute 27.72 and 5.00 percentage of weight of earths crust respectively. Nitrogen and Oxygen constitute 78.08 and 20.95 percentage of dry air by volume respectively.
Why the Study of Materials is Important?

Production and processing of materials constitute a large part of our economy. Engineers choose materials to suite design. New materials might be needed for some new applications.
Example :- High temperature resistant materials. Space station and Mars Rovers should sustain conditions in space. * High speed, low temperature, strong but light.
Modification of properties might be needed for some applications.

Example :- Heat treatment to modify properties.
Rasdi Deraman, FKM UiTM NPP
Materials Science and Engineering

Materials science deals with basic knowledge about the internal structure, properties and processing of materials. Materials engineering deals with the application of knowledge gained by materials science to convert materials to products.
Materials Science Materials Science and Engineering Resultant Knowledge of Structure and Properties
Materials Engineering
Basic Knowledge of Materials
Applied Knowledge of Materials

4
Types of Materials:
Metallic Materials
- Composed of one or more metallic elements. Example: Iron, Copper, Aluminum.- Metallic element may combine with nonmetallic Example: Silicon Carbide, Iron Oxide.
elements.
Polymeric (Plastic) Materials

- Poor conductors of electricity and hence used as - Strength and ductility vary greatly. - Low densities and decomposition temperatures. Examples : Poly vinyl Chloride (PVC), Polyester. Applications : Appliances, DVDs, Fabrics etc.
insulators.
Ceramic Materials
High hardness, strength and wear resistance. Very good insulator. Hence used for furnace lining for heat treating and melting metals. Other applications : Abrasives, construction materials, utensils etc. Example: Porcelain, Glass, Silicon nitride.
Composite Materials
Mixture of two or more materials. Consists of a filler material and a binding material. Materials only bond, will not dissolve in each other. Examples : Fiber Glass ( Reinforcing material in a polyester or epoxy matrix). Concrete ( Gravels or steel rods reinforce in cement and sand). Applications : Aircraft wings and engine, construction.
Electronic Materials
Not Major by volume but very important. Silicon is a common electronic material. Its electrical characteristics are changed by adding impurities. Examples: Applications : Silicon chips, transistors Computers, Integrated Circuits, Sattelites etc.
Atomic Structure And Bonding Structure of Atoms

ATOM
Basic Unit of an Element Diameter : 10 10 m. Neutrally Charged
Nucleus
Diameter : 10 m Accounts for almost all mass Positive Charge
14
Electron Cloud
Mass : 9.109 x 10 28 g Charge : -1.602 x 10 9 C Accounts for all volume
Proton
Mass : 1.673 x 10 24 g Charge : 1.602 x 10 19 C
Neutron
Mass : 1.675 x 10 24 g Neutral Charge
What does an ATOM look like?

Atoms are made of a nucleus that contains protons, neutrons and electrons that orbit around the nucleus at different levels, known as shells.
Protons and neutrons join together to form the nucleus the central part of the atom
Neutron
Nucleon
Proton
+ Electrons move around the nucleus
Electron
Shell @ Orbital @ Energy level Rasdi Deraman, FKM UiTM NPP 9
ATOMIC NUMBER and ATOMIC MASS

Atom can be described using :
1) ATOMIC NUMBER
2) ATOMIC MASS
ATOMIC NUMBER, Z = no. of protons
SYMBOL
ATOMIC MASS , A =
no. of protons (Z) + number of neutrons (N)
The element helium has the atomic number 2, is represented by the symbol He, its atomic mass is 4 and its name is helium.
Atomic Number and Atomic Mass

Atomic Number = Number of Protons in the nucleus Unique to an element Example :- Hydrogen = 1, Uranium = 92 Relative atomic mass = Mass in grams of 6.203 x 1023 ( Avagadro Number) Atoms. Example :- Carbon has 6 Protons and 6 Neutrons. Atomic Mass = 12. One Atomic Mass unit is 1/12th of mass of carbon atom. One gram mole = Gram atomic mass of an element. Example :-
One gram Mole of Carbon
12 Grams Of Carbon
6.023 x 1023 Carbon Atoms

11
Periodic Table
12
ISOTOPES
Atoms which have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. Atoms which have the same atomic number but different mass number. Eg : Hydrogen has 3 isotopes.
Different mass number
1 1H
Natural Isotope Hydrogen 1 (hydrogen)
2 1H
Proton 1
(D)
Mass number 1 0
3 1H
(T)
Same atomic no. @ no. of protons Neutron
Hydrogen 2 (deuterium)
Hydrogen 3 (tritium)
13
ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS OF THE ELEMENTS

Electron configuration the ways in which electrons are arranged around the nucleus of atoms.
The Pauli principle can be used to show the maximum number of electron permitted in any sub-shells. Electron capacity = 2n2
14
Based on the Aufbau principle, which assumes that electrons enter orbitals of lowest energy first.
SubNo. of shells electrons s 2 p 6 d 10 f 14
1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s2, 3d10, 4p6, 5s2, 4d10, 5p6, 6s2, 4f14, 5d10, 6p6, 7s2, 5f14, 6d10, 7p6
Each orbital holds a max. of 2 electrons.
16
The number of available electron states in some of the electrons shells and sub-shells.
17
ATOMIC BONDING
Chemical bonding between atoms occurs since there is a lower potential energy of atoms to achieve more stability arrangements than they exist as an individual atoms. Chemical bonds can be divided into 2 categories : 1) Primary Inter-atomic Bonding: Metallic, Ionic and Covalent 2) Secondary Atomic Bonding Van der Waals
a)
Ionic Bonding
Ionic bonding is due to electrostatic force of attraction between cations (+ ve charge) and anions (- ve charge). Ionic bonds are nondirectional. It can form between metallic and nonmetallic elements. Electrons are transferred from electropositive to electronegative atoms.
Electropositive Electronegative Electron Element Atom Transfer
Cation +ve charge
Electrostatic Attraction
Anion -ve charge

19
IONIC BOND
Ionic Bonding - Example
Ionic bonding in NaCl

Sodium Atom Na=11
I O N I C B O N D Rasdi Deraman, FKM UiTM NPP
Chlorine Atom Cl=17
Chlorine Ion Cl -
20
b)
Covalent Bonding
Large interatomic forces are created by the sharing of electrons to form directional bonds. In Covalent bonding, outer s and p electrons are shared between two atoms to obtain noble gas configuration. Takes place between elements with small differences in electronegativity and close by in periodic table. In Hydrogen, a bond is formed between 2 atoms by sharing their 1s1 electrons Electron Overlapping
Pair Electron Clouds
H +H
1s1 Electrons
H H
Hydrogen Rasdi Deraman, FKM UiTM NPP Molecule
21
Covalent Bonding - Examples

In case of F2, O2 and N2, covalent bonding is formed by sharing p electrons
Fluorine gas (Outer orbital 2s2 2p5) share one p electron to attain noble gas configuration.
F + F
F F
F F
Bond Energy=160KJ/mol
Oxygen (Outer orbital - 2s2 2p4) atoms share two p electrons
O + O
O=O
Bond Energy=28KJ/mol
Nitrogen (Outer orbital - 2s2 2p3) atoms share three p electrons
HH
N N + N Deraman, FKM UiTM NPP N Rasdi
Bond
22 Energy=54KJ/mol
Covalent Bonding in Benzene

Chemical composition of Benzene is C6H6. Chemical composition of Benzene is C6H6. The Carbon atoms are arranged in hexagonal ring. The Carbon atoms are arranged in hexagonal ring. Single and double bonds alternate between the atoms. Single and double bonds alternate between the atoms. H
C C C C
C
Structure of Rasdi Deraman, FKM UiTM NPP Simplified Notations Benzene 23
Covalent Bonding in Carbon

A carbon atom can form symmetrically toward the corners of a tetrahedron.
24
c)

Metallic Bonding
Atoms in metals are closely packed in crystal structure. Loosely bounded valence electrons are attracted towards nucleus of other atoms. Electrons spread out among atoms forming electron clouds. These free electrons are reason for electric Positive Ion (ion cores) conductivity and ductility. Since outer electrons are shared by many atoms, metallic bonds are Non-directional bonding. The electron cloud act as glue to hold the ion cores together.
Valence electron charge 25 cloud
Metallic Bonds (Cont..)

Overall energy of individual atoms are lowered by metallic bonds Minimum energy between atoms exist at equilibrium distance a0 Fewer the number of valence electrons involved, more metallic the bond is. Example:- Na Bonding energy 108KJ/mol,
Melting temperature 97.7oC
Higher the number of valence electrons involved, higher is the bonding energy. Example:- Ca Bonding energy 177KJ/mol,
Melting temperature 851oC
2) Secondary Atomic Bonding: Van der Waals
Occur when there is no exchanging @ sharing of electrons, eg : inert gases. The atom behaves like a dipole.
Characteristic of BONDING
28
Crystal Structures
Atoms, molecules, or ions are arranged in repetitive 3-D pattern, in long range order (LRO) give rise to crystal structure. Properties of solids depends upon crystal structure and bonding force. Generally, fluid substances form crystals when they undergo a process of solidification. Under ideal conditions, the result may be a single crystal, where all of the atoms in the solid fit into the same lattice. However, many crystals form simultaneously during solidification, leading to a polycrystalline solid.
STRUCTURE OF SOLIDS
Amorphous
Crystal
No recognizable long-range order
Atoms are disordered No lattice
Entire solid is made up of atoms in an orderly array
All atoms arranged on a common lattice
Turbine blades
Polycrystalline
Completely ordered In segments
Different lattice orientation for each grain

30
The Space Lattice and Unit Cells

An imaginary network of lines, with atoms at intersection of lines, representing the arrangement of atoms is called space lattice. Unit cell is that block of atoms which repeats itself to form space lattice. Materials arranged in short range order are called amorphous materials.
Space Lattice
Unit Cell
31
Crystal Systems and Bravais Lattice

According to Bravais (1811-1863), fourteen standard unit cells can describe all possible lattice networks.
Cubic Unit Cell
a=b=c
= = = 900 Simple Body Centered
Face centered
Tetragonal
a =b c
= = = 900
Body Centered 32
Simple
Types of Unit Cells (Cont..)

Orthorhombic
a b c
= = = 900 Simple Base Centered
Body Centered Face Centered
Rhombohedral
a =b = c
= = 900
Simple
Types of Unit Cells (Cont..) Hexagonal

a b c
= = = 900
Simple
Monoclinic
a b c
= = = 900
Simple
Base Centered
Triclinic
a b c
= = = 900
Simple
34
Simple Cubic (SC) Crystal Structure

Represented as one atom at each corner of cube. Each atom has 8 nearest neighbors. Therefore, coordination number is 8.
35
Body Centered Cubic (BCC) Crystal Structure

Represented as one atom at each corner of cube and one at the center of cube. Each atom has 8 nearest neighbors. Therefore, coordination number is 8. Examples : Chromium (a=0.289 nm) Iron (a=0.287 nm) Sodium (a=0.429 nm)
36
BCC Crystal Structure (Cont..)

Each unit cell has eight 1/8 atom at corners and 1 full atom at the center. Therefore each unit cell has (8x1/8 ) + 1 = 2 atoms Atoms contact each other at cube diagonal Therefore, lattice constant a BCC =
4R 3
Face Centered Cubic (FCC) Crystal Structure

FCC structure is represented as one atom each at the corner of cube and at the center of each cube face. Coordination number for FCC structure is 12 Atomic Packing Factor is 0.74 Examples : Aluminium (a = 0.405) Gold (a = 0.408)
38
FCC Crystal Structure (Cont..)
Each unit cell has eight 1/8 atom at corners and six atoms at the center of six faces. Therefore each unit cell has
(8 x 1/8)+ (6 x ) = 4 atoms
Atoms contact each other across cubic face diagonal

Therefore, lattice 2 constant a = Rasdi Deraman, FKM UiTM NPP
4R
39
ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR

Atomic packing factor (APF) is defined as the efficiency of atomic arrangement in a unit cell.
What is the APF for SC, FCC and BCC?

DENSITY, r
Density of metal =
rv
Mass/Unit cell Volume/Unit cell
14
41
Example: Copper (FCC) has atomic mass of 63.54 g/mol and atomic radius of 0.1278 nm. Determine: a) the density of copper. b) the APF of copper.
a=
4R
=
4 0.1278nm
2 2 Volume of unit cell = V= a3 = (0.361nm)3 = 4.7 x 10-29 m3
FCC unit cell has 4 atoms. Mass of unit cell = m =
rv
42
Characteristics of Selected Elements at 20C
43
Isotropy and Anisotropy

Isotropy: when the properties of a material are the same in all directions, the material is said to be isotropic. Anisotropy : when the properties of a material vary with different crystallographic orientations, the material is called to be anisotropic. Rolling direction
Longitudinal Long Transverse
Short Transverse
44
Miller Indices
Miller Indices are used to refer to specific lattice planes of atoms in a crystal. Why Miller indices is important? To determine the shapes of single crystals, the interpretation of X-ray diffraction patterns and the movement of a dislocation , which may determine the mechanical properties of the material. Miller Indices
M. I of a DIRECTION
M. I of a PLANE
MILLER INDICES OF A DIRECTION

How to determine crystal direction indices? i) Determine the length of the vector projection on each of the three axes, based on :
ii) These three numbers are expressed as the smallest integers. iii) Place a bar over the Negative indices and enclose with square parentheses
EXAMPLE : CRYSTAL DIRECTION INDICES

Axis Head (H) Tail (T) Projection (H-T) Reduction Enclose [ Axis Head (H) X Y Z X Y Z
1/3
]
Tail (T) Projection (H-T) Reduction Enclose [
47
Miller Indices of a Plane - Procedure

Choose a plane that does not pass through origin Determine the x,y and z intercepts of the plane Find the reciprocals of the intercepts
Fractions? Place a bar over the Negative indices
Clear fractions by multiplying by an integer to determine smallest set of whole numbers
Enclose in round parenthesis Eg: crystal plane for x, y and z axes (111).
Miller Indices - Examples

Axis Intercept Reciprocal Reduction Enclose Axis Intercept Reciprocal Reduction Enclose X 1 1 X Y Z 1
0 1 (1 0 1) Y Z
z
)
x
49
Exercise: Determine the Miller Indices plane for the following figure below?
50
Quiz # 1 03/08/2009 a) Plane A intersects with x-axis and y-axis at and 1/3 respectively. It is also parallel to the z-axis. Determine the Miller Indices and sketch plane A in a cubic unit cell to support the answer. b) Determine the direction Indices for vector Q in figure below.
51
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Physical properties are properties that can be recorded without changing the identity of the substance such as solubility in water, volume, length, colour, odour, melting point, mass, etc. Example: Metals have relatively high melting points and remain in the liquid state over a wide temp. range. Metals conduct electricity and heat. Metals are usually shiny when polished.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Generally, the common mechanical properties of metals are as follows: Toughness - the ability to resist / withstand repeated bending. Ductility a property of material which can be easily drawn into wires Brittle a property of material which easily breaks when subjected to impacts. Hardness - resistance to scratching or indentation. Elasticity - ability to return to its original shape. Plasticity - does not return to its original shape.
A stressstrain curve is a graph derived from measuring load (stress ) versus extension (strain ) for a sample of a material tested using tensile machine. Typical regions that can be observed in a stress-strain curve are: Elastic region, Yielding, Strain Hardening, Necking &Failure
STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
STRESS-STRAIN CURVE (Cont)
55
HARDNESS
Hardness is defined as a measure of the resistance of a material to permanent deformation (plastic deformation). The hardness of a material is measured by forcing an indenter into its surface. The indenter can be either a ball, pyramid or cone type which is made of a material much harder than the material being tested such as hardened steel, tungsten carbide or diamond.
56
Indenter Knoop (HK) A very small rhombic pyramidal diamond.
Load Between 1 and 1000 g
Applications Measure the hardness of small specimen, very hard brittle materials (ceramic), very thin sections and small elongated areas.
Vickers (HV)
A very small square pyramidal diamond.
Between 1 and 1000 g
Measure the hardness of small specimen, thin materials and small rounded areas. More sensitive to measurement errors than Knoop test Less sensitive to surface conditions than Knoop test
Steel parts.
Brinell (HB)
Hardened steel or tungsten carbide ball. Hardness-Width of indentation.
Use much higher loads than Rockwell.
Rockwell (HR)
Conical diamond or hardened steel balls.
Hardness-Depth of penetration.
An initial minor load (10kg) followed by a larger major load (60, 100 or 150 kg)
Measuring many materials from soft bearing metals to carbides.
57
End of the Chapter 1
58
Projek Usahasama antara UiTM-Golden Hope Academy
Kemudahan Yang Disediakan:

Jaminan Pekerjaan. Biasiswa disediakan. Asrama disediakan. Makanan harian disediakan. Tenaga Pengajar yang
Diploma Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Palm Oil Mill Technology
Bertauliah. Pelajar akan ditempatkan di Kampus Golden Hope Academy, Carey Island, Banting Selangor Syarat Permohonan: D.E. Keterangan Lanjut: Terbuka kepada semua pelajar semester 4 Cara Permohonan: En. Juri Saedon EM 110 UiTM Sila dapatkan borang Tel: 03 5543 5167 permohonan 03 Pejabat FKM, P.P CGPA 2.50 dan keatas dengan lulus semua Fax: di 5543 5160 Tarikh tutup permohonan: E-mail: juri41@yahoo.com Rasdi Deraman, FKM UiTM NPP kursus sehingga semester 4. 16 Feb 2007
59

MATERIALS SCIENCE CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Исходное описание:

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

MATERIALS SCIENCE CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

MEC281 MATERIALS SCIENCE CHAPTER 1

THE STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Introduction to Materials Science and Engineering

Why the Study of Materials is Important?

Modification of properties might be needed for some applications.

Rasdi Deraman, FKM UiTM NPP

Materials Science and Engineering

Basic Knowledge of Materials

Applied Knowledge of Materials

Polymeric (Plastic) Materials

Rasdi Deraman, FKM UiTM NPP

Atomic Structure And Bonding Structure of Atoms

What does an ATOM look like?

ATOMIC NUMBER and ATOMIC MASS

ATOMIC NUMBER, Z = no. of protons

Atomic Number and Atomic Mass

One gram Mole of Carbon

6.023 x 1023 Carbon Atoms

Rasdi Deraman, FKM UiTM NPP

Rasdi Deraman, FKM UiTM NPP

Same atomic no. @ no. of protons Neutron

Rasdi Deraman, FKM UiTM NPP

ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS OF THE ELEMENTS

Rasdi Deraman, FKM UiTM NPP

Each orbital holds a max. of 2 electrons.

Rasdi Deraman, FKM UiTM NPP

Rasdi Deraman, FKM UiTM NPP

Cation +ve charge

Anion -ve charge

Rasdi Deraman, FKM UiTM NPP

Ionic Bonding - Example

Ionic bonding in NaCl

Chlorine Atom Cl=17

Covalent Bonding - Examples

Oxygen (Outer orbital - 2s2 2p4) atoms share two p electrons

Nitrogen (Outer orbital - 2s2 2p3) atoms share three p electrons

N N + N Deraman, FKM UiTM NPP N Rasdi

Covalent Bonding in Benzene

Covalent Bonding in Carbon

Rasdi Deraman, FKM UiTM NPP

Rasdi Deraman, FKM UiTM NPP

Valence electron charge 25 cloud

Metallic Bonds (Cont..)

2) Secondary Atomic Bonding: Van der Waals

Rasdi Deraman, FKM UiTM NPP

No recognizable long-range order

Atoms are disordered No lattice

Entire solid is made up of atoms in an orderly array

All atoms arranged on a common lattice

Different lattice orientation for each grain

The Space Lattice and Unit Cells

Crystal Systems and Bravais Lattice

= = = 900 Simple Body Centered

Types of Unit Cells (Cont..)

= = = 900 Simple Base Centered

Body Centered Face Centered

Types of Unit Cells (Cont..) Hexagonal

Simple Cubic (SC) Crystal Structure

Rasdi Deraman, FKM UiTM NPP

Body Centered Cubic (BCC) Crystal Structure

Rasdi Deraman, FKM UiTM NPP

BCC Crystal Structure (Cont..)