Sekaran and Bougie

5th Edition - 2010

Prepared by: Y Anni Aryani Universitas Sebelas Maret

CHAPTER 8
Data collection methods

Chapter Objectives
1.
2.

3.
4.

5.

Know the difference b/w primary and secondary data and their sources. Be conversant with the various data collection methods. Know the advantages and disadvantages of each method. Be able to make logical decisions as to the appropriate data collection methods for specific studies. Be able to demonstrate your skills in interviewing others to collect data.

Chapter Objectives
6. Be able to design questionnaires to tap different variables.
7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Be able to evaluate questionnaires, distinguishing the good and bad questions therein. Be able to identify and minimize the biases in various data collection methods. Be able to discuss the advantages of multi-sources and multi-methods of data collection. Be able to apply what you have learned to class assignments and projects. Understand the issues related to cross-cultural research.

Sources of Data
Primary sources: Individuals Focus groups Panels Unobtrusive methods Secondary

Data collection methods

Interviews Face-to-face Telephone Computer-assisted Questionnaires
Observation

Interviewing

Unstructured and structured interviews. Tips for interviewing. Face-to-face and telephone interviews. Computer-Assisted interviews.

Unstructured and Structured Interviews

Unstructured Interviews. Interviews conducted with the primary

purpose of identifying some important issues relevant to the problem situation, without prior preparation of a planned or predetermined sequence of questions.

Unstructured and Structured Interviews (cont.)

Structured interviews:
Interviews conducted by the researcher with a

predetermined list of questions to be asked of the interviewee.

Training interviews.

Some Tips to Follow in Interviewing

Interviewer. Interviewees. Situational:
Nonparticipants. Trust level and rapport established the physical setting of the interview

The Questioning Technique

Funneling. Unbiased questions. Clarifying issues. Helping the respondent to think through issues. Taking notes.

Face-to-Face and Telephone Interviews

Face-to-Face Interviews:

~ Advantages. ~ Disadvantages. Telephone Interviews: ~ Advantages. ~ Disadvantages.

Face-to-Face Interviews
Advantages:

Researcher can adapt the questions as necessary, clarify, doubts, and ensure that the responses are properly understood, by repeating or rephrasing the questions.
Disadvantages:

the geographical limitations they may impose on the surveys and the vast resources needed if such surveys need to be done nationally or internationally

Telephone Interviews
Advantages:

From the researchers point of view, is that a number of different people can be reached in a relatively short period of time.
Disadvantages:

Respondent could unilaterally terminate the interview without warning or explanation, by hanging up the phone.

Additional Sources of Bias in Interview Data

Strike. Layoffs. and the like.

Computer-Assisted Interviewing
CATI (Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing) and CAPI (Computer-

Assisted Personal Interviewing). Computer-Aided Survey Services.

CATI (Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing)

Used in research organizations, is useful inasmuch as responses to surveys can be

obtained from people all over the world.

CAPI (Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing)

Has an advantage in that it can be selfadministered.

Advantages of Computer Packages

Indexing. Retrieval.

Questionnaires
A pre-formulated written set of questions to which respondents record their answer, usually within rather

closely defined alternatives.

Questionnaires (cont.)
Personally administered questionnaires. Mail questionnaires.

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Guidelines for Questionnaire Design

The wording of the questions. Planning of issues of how the variables will be categorized, scaled, and coded after

receipt of the responses. The general appearance of the questionnaire.

Principles of Wording
Content and purpose of the question. Language and wording of the

questionnaire. Type and form of questions.

Principles of Wording (cont.)

Open-Ended versus Closed questions. Positively and negatively worded questions. Biases in questions.

Biases in Questions
Double-Barreled Questions
Refers to the improper framing of a question

that should be posed as two or more separate questions, so that the respondent can give clear and unambiguous answers.

Ambiguous Questions
Questions that are not clearly worded and likely

to be interpreted by respondents in different ways.

Biases in Questions (cont.)

Recall-Dependent Questions
Questions that elicit from respondents

information that involves recall of experiences from the past that may be hazy in their memory.

Leading Questions
Questions phrased in such a manner as to lead

the respondent to give the answers that the researcher would like to obtain.

Biases in Questions (cont.)

Loaded Questions
Questions that would elicit highly biased emotional

responses from subjects.

Social Desirability
The respondents need to give socially or culturally

acceptable responses to the questions posed by the researcher even if they are not true.

Biases in Questions (cont.)

Length of Questions

Sequencing of Questions

Classification Data of or Personal Information

Age.

Educational level.
Marital status. Income.

Cross-Cultural Research
Special issues in instrumentation for cross-cultural research. Issues in data collection.

Special Issues in Instrumentation for Cross-Cultural Research

Vocabulary equivalence.

Idiomatic equivalence.
Conceptual equivalence.

Issues in Data Collection

Response equivalence. Timing of data collection. The status of the individual collecting.

Principles of Measurement
The scales and scaling techniques used in measuring concepts, as well as the

assessment of reliability and validity of the measures used.

General Appearance or Get Up of The Questionnaire

A good introduction, well-organized

introductions, and neat alignment of the questions are all important.

Important Aspect of Questionnaires

A good introduction. Organizing questions, giving instructions and guidance, and good alignment.

Personal data.

Important Aspect of Questionnaires (cont.)

Information on income and other sensitive personal data. Open-ended question at the end. Concluding the questionnaire.

Personally Adminstered Questionnaire

Advantages:
Can establish rapport and motivate respondent. Doubts can be clarified. Less expensive when administered to groups of

respondents. Almost 100% response rate assured. Anonymity of respondent is high.

Personally Adminstered Questionnaire (cont.)

Disadvantages:
Organizations may be reluctant to give up

company time for the survey with groups of employees assembled for the purpose.

Mail Questionnaires
Advantages:

Anonymity is high. Wide geographic regions can be reached. Token gifts can be enclosed to seek compliance. Respondent can take more time to respond at convenience. Can be administered electronically, if desired.

Mail Questionnaires (cont.)

Disadvantages:
Response rate is almost always low. a 30% rate is

quite acceptable. Cannot clarify questions. Follow-up procedures for non-responses are necessary.

Electronic Questionnaires
Advantages:

Easy to administer. Can reach globally. Very inexpensive. Fast delivery. Respondents can answer at their convenience like the mail questionnaire.

Electronic Questionnaires (cont.)

Disadvantages:
Computer literacy is a must. Respondents must have access to the facility. Respondent must be willing to complete the

survey.

Other Methods of Data Collection

Observational surveys. Structured versus unstructured observational studies. Advantages and disadvantages of observational studies. Biases in observational studies.

Observational Surveys
Nonparticipant-observer. Participant-observer.

Nonparticipant-Observer

The researcher can collect data in the role of a researcher without trying to become an integral part of the organizational system.

Participant-Observer
The researcher can also play the role of the participant-observer. The researcher enters the organization of the research setting, actually becoming a part of the work team.

Structured versus Unstructured Observervational Studies

Structured Observational Studies:

Where the observer has a predetermined set of categories of activities or phenomena planned to be studies.

Structured versus Unstructured Observervational Studies (cont.)

Unstructured Observational Studies:

Observing events that are happening may also be a part of the plan as in many qualitative studies, the observer will record almost everything that is observed.

Advantages of Observational Studies

The data obtained through observation of events.

It is easier to note the effects of environmental influences on specific outcomes. It is easier to observe certain groups of individuals.

Disadvantages of Observational Studies

It is necessary for the observer to be physically present.

This method of collecting data is slow, tedious and expensive.

Disadvantages of Observational Studies (cont.)

Observer fatigue could easily set in, which might bias the recorded data. Observers have to be trained in what and how to observe, and ways to avoid observer bias.

Data Collection Through Mechanical Observation

There are situations where machines can provide data by recording the events of interest as they occur, without a researcher being physically present.

Projective Methods
Word-association techniques. Sentence completion.

Thematic Apperception Tests (TAT).

Inkblot test.

Secondary Data
Information gathered by someone other than researcher conducting the current

study.

Multimethods of Data Collection

Because almost all data collection methods have biases associated with them, colleting

data through multi-methods and from multiple sources lends rigor to research.

Ethics in Data Collection

Ethics and the researcher. Ethical behaviors of respondents.

Ethics and The Reseacher

Treating the information given by respondent. Researchers should not misrepresent the nature of the study to subjects, especially in lab experiments. Personal or seemingly intrusive information should not be solicited.

Ethics and The Reseacher (cont.)

No one should be forced to respond to the survey. Nonparticipant observers should be as nonintrusive as possible. In lab studies, the subjects should be debriefed with full disclosure of the reason.

Ethics Behaviors of Respondents

The subject, once having exercised the choice to participate in a study, should

cooperate fully in the task ahead. The respondent also has an obligation to be truthful and honest in the responses.

 Thanks !