Collection of Data

If you wish to know the road up the mountain, you must ask the man who goes back and forth on it.
- Zenrinkusi

Data

Data

Recorded measure of certain phenomena

Information

Body of facts that are in a format suitable for decision making

Collection of Data

Primary Secondary

Classification of qualitative methods

Qualitative Research Procedures

Direct (Nondisguised)

Indirect (Disguised)

Observation

Focus Groups

Depth Interviews

Content Analysis

Projective Techniques

Sociometry

New

Association Techniques

Completion Techniques

Construction Techniques

Expressive Techniques

Choice / Ordering

Framework for data collection

Response Verbal Response Formal Structured Stimulus Structured Questionnaires and Scales Behavioral Structured Experimental Interviews using and Schedules Structured Observation

Formal Unstructured

Open ended Unstructured Unstructured, questions interviews using yet Projective Items interview guides systematic observation Diaries, articles, Conversation Letters, Use of bibliography informants Participant Observation

Informal

Data Collection

How you structure the process?

Operationalise
the concepts

Systematize Objectivity

the questions asked

in responses recorded

Maintain consistency
in overall process

Primary Data

Data gathered and assembled at first hand specifically for the research project at hand

Data collection: Observation Method

YOU SEE, BUT YOU DO NOT OBSERVE.

Sherlock Holmes

Observation

Manner in which observation is organised

Nave | Scientific | Structured/Unstructured | Open/Hidden |Active/Passive Natural/Laboratory | Direct/Indirect

Setting in which observation occurs

Degree of the observed involved in the environment

Participant/Non Participant

Data collection: Observation Method

Scientific Observation

Systematic process of recording the behavioural patterns of the people, objects and occurrences as they are witnessed. Observers presence in known to the participant

Visible Observation

Hidden observation

Observed is unaware that observation is taking place

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Observation Method : Observing Social Setting

Participant Observation

Situation in which an observer gains firsthand knowledge by being in or around the social setting being investigated. A careful definition of units to be observed Information to be recorded Standardization of conditions

Structured Observation

Unstructured Observation
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What Can Be Observed

Phenomena Human behavior or physical action Verbal behavior Example Shoppers movement pattern in a store Statements made by airline travelers who wait in line Facial expressions, tone of voice, and other form of body language

Expressive behavior

What Can Be Observed

Phenomena
Spatial relations and locations

Example
How close visitors at an art museum stand to paintings

Temporal patterns
Physical objects Verbal and Pictorial Records

How long fast-food customers wait for their order to be served

What brand name items are stored in consumers pantries Bar codes on product packages

Observation Method: Observing Physical Objects

Physical-trace evidence

A visible mark on some past events

At Chicago museum of science and Industry, the floor tiles around the hatching-chick exhibit must be replaced by every six weeks.

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Observation Method: Mechanical Observation

Observation techniques that uses video cameras, traffic counters, and other machines to record behaviour.

Television monitoring Monitoring website traffic Psychological reactions

Psycho galvanometer (skin responses) Voice pitch analysis

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Observation Method

Advantages

Information when other methods are not effective Provide data when respondents are unable /unwilling to offer information Approaches reality Offers first hand information Allows collection of wide range of information

Observation Method

Disadvantages

Can not employed in large groups or extensive groups Can not provide information in large groups or extension groups Can not study opinion and attitudes Labourious and time consuming Possibility of observers bias Emotional involvement of observer affects objectivity Can not offer quantitative generalizations

Practice is the best of all instructors.

Publius Syrus

Focus Group Discussion

Unstructured free flowing interview with a small group of people. Start with broad topic and focus in on specific issues 8 to 12 people Relatively homogeneous Similar lifestyles and experiences

The Focus Group

Relatively brief Easy to execute Quickly analyzed Inexpensive Small discussion group will be rarely a representative sample Can not take place in quantitative studies

Caution

Outline for a Focus Group

Establish a rapport Begin with broad topic Focus in on specific topic Generate discussion and interaction

The Moderator

Develops rapport - helps people relax Listening skills Observation skills Flexibility of approach Empathetic yet objectivity of conduction Summary and closure approach

Planning & Conducting FGDs

Define the research objective(s) requiring discussion Split and bulleted into information areas

Identifying the respondent screening/selection criteria

Conducting the FGD Summarizing the findings of the FGD
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Focus group discussions

Advantages

Disadvantages

Idea generation

Group dynamics Scientific process Statistical analysis Moderator/investigator bias

Group dynamics
Process advantage Reliability & validity

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Survey Method

Communication approach: surveying people and recording their responses for analysis. Survey method: a research technique in which information is gathered from a sample or population by questionnaire or interview

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Gathering Information via Surveys

Quick Inexpensive Efficient Accurate Flexible

Errors in Survey Method

Random sampling error

The difference between the result of a sample and the result of a census conducted using identical procedures A statistical fluctuation that occurs because of chance variation in the elements of a selected sample

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Errors in Survey Method

Systematic (non-sampling) error

Error resulting from some imperfect aspect of the research design that causes response error or from mistake in the execution of research; error raising from sample bias; mistakes in recording responses..

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Errors in Survey Method

Non response error

The statistical difference between a survey (that includes only those who responded) and a perfect survey (that would also include those failed to respond). Survey error that occurs when respondents tend to answer questions in a certain direction

Response bias

Deliberate falsification Unconscious bias

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Errors in Survey Method

Administrative error

An error caused by the improper administration or execution of a research task. Interviewer error Data processing error

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Errors in Survey Method

Non response error
Random Sampling error Respondent error Response bias Data processing error Administrative error Interviewer error Interviewer cheating Deliberate falsification

Total error

Unconscious Misinterpretation

Systematic error (bias)

Time Period for Surveys

Cross-sectional Time Series (Longitudinal)

Data collection: Survey Method

Personal interview method

Direct communication in which an interviewer asks respondents questions in a face to face situation. Advantages

Opportunity for feed back Probing (verbal probing) Length of the interview Item non response Visual aid Door to door interviews
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Data collection: Survey Method

Telephone Interview Mail Surveys

Schedules and Questionnaires Structured and non structured questionnaires Question content

Should this question be asked? Is the question of proper scope and coverage? Can the participant adequately answer this question, as asked? Will the participant willingly answer this question, as asked?

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Data collection: Survey Method

Internet Surveys Indirect Investigation Information through Correspondents

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Pre-testing

A trial run with a group of respondents to iron out fundamental problems in the instructions of survey design

Questionnaire: Merits

Since mailed, less expensive Completed at respondents convenience Greater assurance at anytime Prevent bias and errors caused by interviewer Conceive objective opinion respondents can refer data/files etc for answering Wider coverage as researches approaches directly.

Questionnaire: Demerits

Does not allow probing, prompting or clarification of questions Identity of the respondent / context not known Not assured whether question order followed Does not allow additional data to be collected Absence of field supervision leads to partial response Not sure that the questionnaire is filled by the respondent itself / their own opinion.

Content Analysis

Obtains data by observing and analyzing the content of advertisements, letters, articles, etc. It is an approach to the analysis of documents and texts that seeks to quantify content in terms pre determined categories and in a systematic and replicable manner. A method for summarizing any form of content by counting various aspects of the content
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Content Analysis

Content analysis is a research tool used to determine the presence of certain words or concepts within texts or sets of texts. Researchers quantify and analyze the presence, meanings and relationships of such words and concepts, then make inferences about the messages within the texts, the writer(s), the audience, and even the culture and time of which these are a part.
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Content Analysis

Process of Content Analysis

Selecting content for analysis Units of content Preparing content for coding Coding the content Counting and weighting Drawing conclusions
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Data collection: Projective techniques

A man is least himself when he talks in his own person; when given a mask he will tell the truth.
--Oscar Wilde

Data collection: Projective techniques

Used to expose hidden attitudes and motivations in respondents which they would not offer to the moderator if questioned directly. Allow respondents to project their subjective or true opinions and beliefs onto other people or even objects Normally used during individual or small group interviews
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Projective techniques: Approaches

Word association test Sentence completion test Thematic apperception test (TAT) Third-person techniques

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Projective techniques: Approaches

Word association test: Types

A list of words or phrases can be presented in random order to respondents, who are requested to state or write the word or phrase that pops into their mind; Respondents are asked for what word or phrase comes to mind immediately upon hearing certain brand names; Similarly, respondents can be asked about slogans and what they suggest; Respondents are asked to describe an inanimate object or product by giving it "human characteristics" or associating descriptive adjectives with it.
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Word Association Examples

RAIN SHIP

DARK WATER WINDOW

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Projective techniques: Approaches

Sentence completion test

respondents are given incomplete sentences and asked to complete the thought. "People who visit museums are" "Taking a holiday in the mountains is."

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Sentence Completion
People who drink beer are ______________________ A man who drinks light beer is ___________________ Imported beer is most liked by ___________________ A woman will drink beer when____________________

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Projective techniques: Approaches

Thematic apperception test (TAT)

respondents are shown one or more pictures and asked to describe what is happening, what dialogue might be carried on between characters and/or how the "story" might continue.

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Thematic apperception test (TAT)

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Thematic apperception test (TAT)

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Balloon Test

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Inkblot test

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Projective techniques: Approaches

Third-person techniques

To elicit deep seated feelings and opinions held by respondents, that might be perceived as reflecting negatively upon the individual. Role Plays

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Sociometric Analysis
Sociometry involves measuring the choice, communication and interpersonal relations of people in different groups. The computations made on the basis of these choices indicate the social attraction and avoidance in a group. Sociometric measures

Sociometric indices Sociometric matrix

Sociogram
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Secondary Data

Data that have been previously collected for some purpose. Recorded by someone else. Sources of Secondary Data

Books and Publications Government sources Media sources Commercial sources Unpublished sources
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Uses of secondary data

Problem identification and formulation stage: past data and information on the topic under study. Can be extremely useful in developing a conceptual framework for investigation. Hypotheses designing: earlier work done on the topic and market data as well as industry trends and market facts. Could help in developing assumptions that can be translated into testable hypotheses for the study. Sampling considerations: respondent-related databases are important sources of respondent statistics and relevant contact details. Primary base: can be used to design questionnaires for the primary study. Validation and authentication board: earlier records and studies as well as data pools. Can also be used to support or validate the information collected through primary sources. 58

Drawbacks of secondary data

Applicability of data: the purpose for which the information was earlier collected was unique to that study and thus the information might not be absolutely applicable or relevant for the current study objective. Accuracy of data: the source and data credibility is a serious issue of concern when using past data and records.
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Authentication of secondary data

Methodology check: in terms of sampling frame used, data collection tools and methods of analysis and hypotheses testing Accuracy check: establishing source credibility. Misrepresentation of data Topical check: recency of findings and similarity environment under study with past study of the

Financial check: the cost of accessing past or recorded data in terms of the relevance for the study
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Internal data sources

Company records: historical as well as current manufacturing information, process and policy documents Employee records: demographic data sets, performance appraisals & grievance data

Sales data: cash register receipts, salespersons call records, sales invoices and sales reports
Other sources: customer databases, CRM data, warranty records, etc.

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External data sources

Published data: data that is in on public domains, which could be compiled by public or private sources

Government sources: census data, other documented and

available government publications

Other data sources: essentially non-government sources like books, periodicals, guides and directories, Indices and standardized non-government statistical data
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Evaluating Secondary Data

Does the data help to answer questions set out in the problem definition?
Yes No

STOP

Does the data apply to the time period of interest?

No

Applicability to project objectives

Yes

Does the data apply to the population of interest?

Yes

Can the data be re No worked?

Do the other terms and variable classifications presented apply?

Yes

No

S No T O P
If yes, Continue

No

Are the units of measurement comparable?

Evaluating Secondary Data

Is the cost of data acquisition worth it?
No

STOP

Accuracy of the data

Is using the data worth the risk? No
No Yes

Yes

Yes

Is there a possibility of bias?

No
No

STOP

Can the accuracy of data collection be verified?

Yes

STOP

Use Data

STOP

Computerized databases

Based on content of information: reference data bases, source databases Based on storage and recovery mechanisms: online data bases, CD-ROM databases

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Syndicate data sources

Household/ individual dataconducted on individual consumers. They are usually of the following types Surveys: are usually one-time assessments conducted on a large representative respondent base. Product purchase panels: These specially selected respondents groups periodically record certain identified purchases, generally related to household products and groceries. Media-specific panels: media panels are created for collecting information related to promotion and advertising. They generally make use of different kinds of electronic equipments to automatically record consumer viewing behavior.
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Syndicate data sources

Institutional syndicated datathe second group of syndicated sources collect information from organizations and institutions. Retailer audits: for various product/service categories periodically recorded data is available to track the movement of stocks at the retail end.

Wholesaler audits: these measure warehouse movement. Participating operators include wholesalers, super and hyper markets and frozen-food warehouses.
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Thank you

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