Statistical Process Control

Topics to be Studied

Assignable & Common Causes

Process Improvement and SPC Statistical Foundation of SPC Attribute & Variable data Analysis of Patterns Exercises

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Case Study
Mike was known as one of the best drivers in Flextronics Doumen Campus, One day at work, he was bragging about How Perfectly Straight he could drive at all time, and no matter how the quality of roadway is , but his co-workers asked him to prove it, otherwise, Mike have to invite him for dinner. , , , , . How to prove it? Proving he was a straight driver was going to be a difficult task. Then someone suggested that Mikes truck was always leaking oil, so we can track the oil spots to determine if he was driving straight ? , , Are you sure Mikes co-worker will be treated or who would you Stand guarantee for? ? ?
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The location of leaking oil

3

The story is just beginning. .

Looking at the road surface with Birds-eye View after driving, did Mike drive straight? , ? Hi, Mike, when will you invite me for dinner? Mikes co-worker talked to him. , , ? You are just lucky! Mike answered. : . If you were Mike, how do you justify for yourself? Are you convinced? , ? ?
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Lets go on the study ! Think about this: how does the oil fall ? : ?

This is so-called natural variation or common cause

If the truck was sitting still . . .Would the oil droplets always land in the same place? , ?
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Think about the source of variation

Drop to Drop Variation

Drop to Drop variation + Wind

Drop to Drop variation + Wind + the variation of Steering ,

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Conclusion: What variation is resulted from steering? Does it really affect the straight of driving? Up to now, are you trying to change your opinions or Mikes co-worker should be treated or not? ? ? , ? ?

What is so-called special cause or non-random=assignable cause? ?

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One more story

a. b. The factory scrap level is at a month low of 2% 2% Manager presents an award to the team and hold Ceremony in the cafeteria, refreshments for all! ! Everyone should be proud of what youve accomplished. Manager addressed. : th y S M on l crap Level Tren d

c.

Scrap l evel %

2 2 2 2
J an 22 Feb 22 M th on

22 .

11 .

11 .

M 22 ar-

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This story should be true

However, three consecutive months of scrap increases, then Manager was getting angry and took back the award, even deciding to fire someone who is in charge of this project directly. , ! , . Actions must be taken Manager required. :

Scr ap l evel %

Mn l y S p Le e T n o th cra v l re d 2 2 2 2 2 .2 1 .1 1 .1 1 .1 2 .2 1 .1

Ja - 2 e - 2 a 2 p 2 a - 2 u - 2 n 2F b 2Mr- 2A r- 2My 2J n 2 Mn o th
9

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The story is performing continuously

Unfortunately, the scrap suddenly rises to a value of 2.3% in the next month, General manger decides to take action and a special meeting is called to solve this problem immediately. , 2.3%, . Later on, the manager is fired by general manager, also all responsible person are not sure what to do, but just loot at the trend of scrap level. So they do nothing. , , , ! !
GM talked to manager: Sorry, your soft management made this happen, you have to take the direct responsibility; manager left without any justification. : , , ,

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To be continued But it is very strange that Things are looking-up based on the data collected from the next two months! , although we all knew that nothing had been done to change the system and process , How come? ?
M onthl y Scrap Level Trend Scrap l evel % 2 2 2 2 22 . . 11 11 11 . . . 22 11 . 22 11 . .
Question: Why the scrap level come down without any change to process?

J an- 22 Feb- 22 ar - 22 - 22ay- 22un- 22 ul - 22 M Apr M J J Aug- 22

M onth
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Summary
Someone asked General manager: How do you think about this? I think you have made wrong decision before! Hey, I made my decision based on data - How can I go wrong ? GM replied. : ? !, : , ? Black Belt review the trend of scrap level, talked to General manager: Your decisions were made from observing high and low points as signals. When In reality, it was all noise. Look at the data, there was no significant change in the process., so you made wrong decision to blame our manager Black Belt : ! , , UCL , General manager: ??? .
CL

LCL

What have you learned from the two lessons? Have you had good understanding on Common cause and Special cause?
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Assignable & Common Causes

All processes have inherent variability (Common Causes) and unnatural variability (Assignable Causes). ( ) SPC will allow us to identify the assignable causes in a process so we can act on them, and recognize the causes that are inherent to the process (common). Once you fixed the assignable causes you can go after the inherent variation of the process, this is called Entitlement.
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Typical Control Chart

Control Chart
Assignable Causes
UCL=2 2 .2 2 MU=-2 2 2 .2 2 2 -2 .2 -2 .2 Subgroup 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 22 2 22 2 UCL=2 2 .2 2 R=2 2 .2 2 LCL=2 2 .2 2 LCL=-2 2 .2 2

2 .2

Ranges

Means

2 .2

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Types of Variation
Common Causes:

-In statistical control - -Natural or typical process variations

-

Assignable Causes:

me Ti

-Unpredictable (hour-to-hour, day-to-day, week-to-week) - -Goal: Detect and eliminate assignable causes
- :
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Types of Variation If only common causes of variability are present, then the process output is constant and predictable over time ,

me Ti

If only special causes of variability are present, the process output is neither Constant, nor Predictable ,

me Ti
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Variation vs. Specifications

Process In-Control and Capable LSL=Lower specification limit

(The typical process variability has been reduced and now meets process specs)

e im T

USL=Upper specification limit

Process In-Control but not Capable (out of specs)

(Only typical process variability, but excessive)

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Purpose of Control Charts

1. To improve the process Most processes are not under statistical control Attentive use of control charts can identify assignable causes Control charts only detect processes out-of-control, not why the process is out of control 2. What happens after an out-of-control situation occurs is the core of a successful SPC program. 3. If you are not going to react, do not start a SPC program.

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Process Improvement and Control Charts Input Output

Process
Measurement System 4. Verify and Monitor

1. Detect Assignable Cause

3. Implement Corrective Action

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2. Identify Root Cause Why? Why? Why? Why? Why?

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Benefits of Control Chart Systems Proven technique for improving productivity Effective in defect prevention Prevent unnecessary process adjustments Provide diagnostic information Provide information about process capability
Component of SPC Chart
A B C C B A

Sample Quality Characteristic

Upper Control Limit + 2 + 1 Center Line - 1 - 2 Lower Control Limit

Sample Number or Time

A=Zone between 3 and 2 B=Zone between 2 and 1 C=Zone between 1 and CL

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Data points distribution on chart

According to 3Sigma concept, about 99.73% of data points will be between +3Sigma and 3Sigma

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Do you really know SPC? SPC

Test 1. One Point Beyond Zone A=3Sigma 3Sigma
x
UCL

Test 2. Nine Points in a Row on One Side of the Center Line 9

UCL

A B C C B A Test 3. Six Points in a Row Steadily Increasing or Decreasing 6

x

A B C C B A

CL
x

LCL

LCL

Test 4. Fourteen Points in a Row Alternating Up and Down 14

UCL

UCL

A B C C B A

x
LCL

A B C C B A

LCL
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Do you really know SPC? SPC

Test 5. Two Out of Three Points in a Row in Zone A or Beyond 3 2 A
x x

Test 6. Four Out of Five Points in a Row in Zone B and Beyond 5 4 B

UCL

UCL

A B C C B A
x

A B C C B A

LCL

LCL

Test 7. Fifteen Points in a Row in Zone C (Above and Below Centerline) 15 C ( )

UCL

Test 8. Eight Points in a Row on Both Sides of Centerline with None-in Zone C 8 ( C )
UCL

A B C C B A

A B C C B A

LCL
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LCL
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Components of a Control Chart

Upper Control Limit

Sample Mean
61 5

X-bar Chart for KVOP

UCL=61 3.6

605 X=599.1 595

Centre Line

Lower Control Limit

585 0 1 0 20

LCL=584.6

Sample Number

A control chart is a graphical display of a quality characteristic that has been measured from a sample versus the sample number, it contains a centre line which is the average value of the characteristic.The other horizontal lines represent the Upper Control Limit(UCL) and Lower Control Limit (LCL).

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Statistical Basics
General Model for Centre Line and Upper and Lower control limits for variables chart

UCL = X + k Centre Line=X LCL = X - k

_

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Statistical Principles
Central Limit Theorem plays a big role in SPC. It allows us to analyse almost any population (the distribution of the sample mean will be normal) and determine whether or not assignable causes are present. ( The control limits are set at +/- 3. Remember 99.73% of the data is between +/- 3, so you expect 1 of every 370 points to be beyond control limits. That does not mean that the process is out of control. If you dont have points beyond control limits something is wrong (Long term). +/- 3 99.73% +/- 3 Binomial and Poisson distribution are the base for attribute data charts.
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Control Charts Original Data

2 2

2 2

Frequency

2 2

2 2

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Exp 2
2 2

2 2

Sample Mean Distribution

Frequency

2 2

2 2

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Mean

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Sampling
1. Sample Size Variables chart: 5 if possible 5 Attributes Chart: 30 or more depending on percentages 30 2. Sample Frequency - The more frequent, the better. However this is not economically feasible. - - Should be based on type of manufacturing and types of assignable causes that can occur. - Recommendation: 10 times the number of out of control situations in the process. Example: We chart a process for a week and we find 2 out of control situations every shift (10 hour /shift) that would mean that we need a sample every half an hour. (10 x 2 = 20 times in 10 hours) - 10 2 (10 / ) 10 10*2=20 3. Subgroups Take parts consecutively and of constant size. ,
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Analysis of Patterns on Control Charts

Anything outside the upper or lower control limits is obviously out-of-control Otherwise we look for pattern recognition. There are many rules for out-of-controls, but few where an operator can actually take action. Limit the patterns to only those where operators can take action. Each of the following are signs that a process shift or trend has begun. 7 points in a row on one side of the average. 7 7 points in a row that are consistently increasing or decreasing. 7 More than 2/3 of the points lie close to the process average. 2/3 Fewer than 2/3 of the points lie close to the process average. 2/3

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Where to Put Charts

1) Place charts only where necessary 2) Identify process with high RPNs from the FMEA FMEA RPN 3) Identify processes that are critical based on DOEs DOE 4) Identify processes that are critical and cannot be mistake proofed 5) If a chart has been implemented, do not hesitate to remove it if it is not valueadded 6) In early investigations, place charts on Output variables 7) After investigations, place charts on critical Input Variables 8) The goal: Monitor and control inputs and, over time, eliminate the need for SPC charts on outputs

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Control Chart Roadmap

Select the appropriate variable control Select the data collection point Select Type of Control Chart Establish basis for subgrouping Determine sample size and frequency Determine measurement method/criteria / Determine gage capability Perform initial capability study to establish control limits Set up forms for charting data Prepare procedures Train personnel

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Setting and Changing Limits

Develop initial control limits through a short term capability study. Remove all outliers from the data. Do not recalculate control limits unless process has significantly improved or based on a predetermined revision period. Control chart limits are not constantly updated with new data. The goal is to improve the process over time to narrow the control limits. When do you widen the limits?
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Control Charts for Variables Data

1. X-bar

Measures the aim or centre of the process Monitors the change in the Mean of the variable across time
2. Range

Monitors variability of the process over time

3. Sigma

Similar to Range Chart Uses the sample estimate of Sigma

4. Individuals

Similar to X-bar Plots individual points instead of the Mean 4. Moving Range Similar to Range chart New range is plotted with each consecutive point Used with the Individuals chart
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Nature of the X-bar and R Charts

Most sensitive (powerful) chart for tracking process excursions in the mean and the variation Assumes normal distribution of individuals Subgroups means tend to produce normal distribution because of the central limit theorem , Three sigma limits used based on the sample size. 3Sigma Minimum sample size of 30 required to establish control limits 30

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Control Chart for Individuals

Extension of the X-bar chart Individual observations plotted Used when subgrouping is impractical Not as sensitive as the X-bar chart Fewer sensitivity rules should be used with this chart

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Control Charts for Attribute data

1. p chart p This chart is used to track the proportion of defective product in each subgroup, variable sample size. 2. np chart np Same as previous, charts the number of defective product in each subgroup, but constant sample size. 3. c chart c This chart is used to track the number of defects in a sample, constant sample size. (One unit can have more than one nonconformity) , 4. u chart u Charts number of defects per unit sampled in each subgroup, sample size is variable.

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Xbar-R Chart Example:

Suppose you work at an automobile manufacturer in a department that assembles engines. One of the parts, a camshaft, must be 600 mm 2 mm long to meet engineering specifications. There has been a bad problem with camshaft length being out of specification - a problem which has caused poor-fitting assemblies down the production line and high scrap and rework rates. Your supervisor wants to run X and R charts to monitor this characteristic, so for a month, you collect a total of 100 observations (20 samples of 5 camshafts each) from all the camshafts used at the plant, and 100 observations from each of your suppliers. First you will look at camshafts produced by Supplier 2. 600 mm 2 mm , 100 20 , 2 Open the worksheet CAMSHAFT.MTW (Minitab Data).

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Individuals Example
In the following example, Weight contains the weight in pounds of each batch of raw material. 1. Open the worksheet Weight.MTW (Minitab data). 2. Choose Stat > Control Charts > Individuals. 3. In Variable, enter Weight 4. Click Tests. Check the first four tests. Click OK in each dialog box.

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Attribute Chart Example

Suppose you work for a linen manufacturer. Each 100 square yards of fabric is allowed to contain a certain number of blemishes before it is rejected. For quality control, you want to track the number of blemishes per 100 square yards over a period of several days, to see if your process is behaving predictably. You would like the control chart to show control limits at 1, 2, as well as 3 above and below the centre line. 100 , 1, 2 3 1 Open the worksheet Control chart.MTW. 2 Choose Stat > Control Charts > C. 3 In Variable, enter Blemish 4 Click S Limits In Sigma limit positions, enter 1 2 3 5 Check Place bound on lower sigma limits at and enter 0 in the box. Click OK in each dialog box.

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Choosing the proper method

1. Variable data. Cpk=1.5 RPN=40 and test is inexpensive, What method of charting would you use? Cpk=1.5 RPN=40 , ? 2. Variable data. Cpk<1 RPN=100, Test is inexpensive. What kind of Chart? , Cpk<1 RPN=40 , ? 1. X-Bar/R

2. 100% inspection; get capable 100% ,

3. Variable data. Cpk=1.5 RPN=100 , test is inexpensive, What kind of chart? , Cpk=1.5 RPN=100 , ?

3. You want to know what is driving the RPN to decide on method RPN

4. Variable data. Cpk=1.5 RPN=10 Test is expensive and destructive, What method of charting would you use? , Cpk=1.5 RPN=10 , ? 5. Variable data. Cpk=1.5 RPN=80 Severity=8 test is expensive and destructive, What method of charting would you use? , Cpk=1.5 RPN=80 Severity=8 , 5. Individuals chart; decrease frequency of sampling; be strict about rules ?

4. no-chart control

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Choosing the proper method

6. Variable data. Cpk=1.5 RPN=100 Detection=10 Test is expensive and destructive, What method of charting would you use? , Cpk=1.5 RPN=100 Detection=10 , ?
Why are you testing/charting? Work on detection methods

7. Attribute data: Yield=70% Characteristic is cosmetic and important to the customer. Attribute R&R= 100%. What method of charting would you use? , =70% , R&R= 100%, 100% inspection; certification of new inspectors; np chart 100% np ? 8. Attribute data: Yield=70% Characteristic is cosmetic and important to the customer. Attribute R&R= 50%. What method of charting would you use? , =70% , R&R= 50%, No charts; start defining the attribute; train operator; assign problem owner; keep checking yield chart ?

9. Attribute data: Yield=99% Characteristic is cosmetic and important to the customer. Attribute R&R= 100%. What is the charting method? , =99% , R&R= 100%, Np / p chart at 100% inspection Np / p- , 100% ?

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Choosing SPC Charts

Choosing The Correct Control Chart Type Type of data
Attributes
Defects
Counting defects or defectives?

Variables
Defectives

No

Rational subgroup?

Yes

Constant sample size?

No

Yes

C
Constant Subgroup Size?
No

I-MR

Xbar-R

Yes

nP

P
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Another way used to choose the correct control chart

Can you mistake proof the defect? NO Tracking system Output or input? Improvement or run/stop? Improvement Yes Continuous data? No Can you measure more than one defect per unit? Yes Do NOT use SPC; implement MP

Input Manual Individuals and moving range charts

Output

Run/Stop Pre-control

Automatic Process in control?

No Yes Past as important as present? Yes No EWMA chart Yes CuSum chart Xbar and sigma chart No % defective (% of bad parts)

Yes

Is sub-group size > 8 and sigma easily computed? No Xbar and Range chart

Defect/unit

Sample size constant? No P chart

Sample size constant?

Yes nP chart

Yes C chart

No U chart

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Another way used to choose the correct control chart

?
NO Yes

SPC,

?
Automatic Manual

Input

Output Yes

No

Yes

No

No Yes No

Yes

?
Yes No Yes

8 ?
No

?
Yes No

?
Yes No

NP

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Calculation of Control Limit

Control chart for Attribute Data Many quality characteristics are observed and expressed as attributes, even most of the quality characteristics can be measured, it is sometimes not practical o r economical to use variable control charts , , Some commonly used control charts for attributes are: : 1. 2. 3. 4. a) b) a) P chart-Control chart for fraction defective P - Np chart-Control chart for number of defectives Np - C chart-control chart for number of defects C - U chart-control chart for number of defects per unit U - The use and interpretation of attribute control charts are similar to variable control charts Larger sample size required compare to variable charts. (usually >=50) , >=50 Less information
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Notes:

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P-chart
P chart may be used to control the fraction defective of a process, which is usually used when sample size are not fixed and this chart is based on Binomial Distribution P , ( ),

Notes k = designates the subgroup for which the calculation is done, k = 1,2,3, , m = # of subgroups nk = is the size of subgroup k and Nk is the number of defectives in subgroup k If the subgroup size varies, a different set of control limits will have to be calculated for each subgroup
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Np chart
The np chart is an attribute chart that plots a direct count of the number of nonconforming (defective) units in a subgroup. Same as P chart, this chart also is based on Binomial Distribution

Note: Nk = the number of defectives in subgroup k m = the number of subgroups

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C chart
There are many cases when we have t o work with the number of defects than with defective (example: number of touch-up points required in a PCB board after wave soldering process) , which is an attribute chart that plots a direct count of the number of nonconformities (defects) in a sample. It is a practical alternative when all samples are of the same size. Also this chart is based on Poisson distribution

Note: ck = the number of defects in subgroup k m = the number of subgroups

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U-Chart
The u chart is an attribute chart that plots the average number of nonconformities per unit in a sample, which is used when the subgroup size varies and also this chart is based on Poisson distribution

Notes k = designates the subgroup for which the calculation is done, k = 1,2,3, , nk = is the size of subgroup k , ck is the defect count per subgroup m = number of subgroups If the subgroup size varies, a different set of control limits will have to be calculated for each subgroup
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X-bar R
The Range, or R Chart monitors the variability within subgroup over time. The center line of the chart is represented by the long-term average of the ranges, or R-bar.

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X-bar-s
Sometimes, the sub-group size is larger and we can easily compute the process Sigma ( standard deviation), then X-bar s can be used instead of the range in variables control charts, then the X-bar & s Control Chart limits can be calculated as follow:

Std Dev

X bar

LCL = B2s CL = s UCL = B2s

1 = s / c2

LCL = X A 2s CL = X UCL = X + A 2s

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I-MR Chart
In some circumstances, only individual values can be taken. Control charts can still be created. They are called Individuals & Moving Range charts, or I MR Chart Because the charted X values are actual process points, specifications may be placed on the chart.

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Appendix for Constant

N
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

A2
1.880 1.023 0.729 0.577 0.483 0.419 0.373 0.337 0.308 0.285 0.266 0.249 0.235 0.223 0.212 0.203 0.194 0.187 0.180 0.173 0.167 0.162 0.157

A3
2.659 1.954 1.628 1.427 1.287 1.182 1.099 1.032 0.975 0.927 0.886 0.850 0.817 0.789 0.763 0.739 0.718 0.698 0.680 0.663 0.647 0.633 0.619

d2
1.128 1.693 2.059 2.326 2.534 2.704 2.847 2.970 3.078 3.173 3.258 3.336 3.407 3.472 3.532 3.588 3.640 3.689 3.735 3.778 3.819 3.858 3.895

C4
0.7979 0.8862 0.9213 0.9400 0.9515 0.9594 0.9650 0.9693 0.9727 0.9754 0.9776 0.9794 0.9810 0.9823 0.9835 0.9845 0.9854 0.9862 0.0969 0.9876 0.9882 0.9887 0.9892

B3
0 0 0 0 0.030 0.118 0.185 0.239 0.284 0.321 0.354 0.382 0.406 0.428 0.448 0.466 0.482 0.497 0.510 0.523 0.534 0.545 0.555

B4
3.267 2.568 2.266 2.089 1.970 1.882 1.815 1.761 1.716 1.679 1.646 1.618 1.594 1.572 1.552 1.534 1.518 1.503 1.490 1.477 1.466 1.455 1.445

D3
0 0 0 0 0 0.076 0.136 0.184 0.223 0.256 0.283 0.307 0.328 0.347 0.363 0.378 0.391 0.403 0.415 0.425 0.434 0.443 0.451

D4
3.267 2.575 2.282 2.115 2.004 1.924 1.864 1.816 1.777 1.744 1.717 1.693 1.672 1.653 1.637 1.622 1.608 1.597 1.585 1.575 1.566 1.557 1.548

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