Heat treatment

Influence of alloying element additions on eutectoid temperature and eutectoid carbon content.

Hardenability Concepts
The goal of heat treatment of steel is very often to attain a satisfactory hardness. The important microstructural phase is then normally martensite, which is the hardest constituent in low-alloy steels. The hardness of martensite is primarily dependent on its carbon content as is shown in If the microstructure is not fully martensitic, its hardness is lower.

Relationship between hardness, carbon content, and amount of martensite

Grossmann Hardenability Test

A number of cylindrical steel bars of different diameters are hardened in a given cooling medium. By means of metallographic examination, the bar that has 50% martensite at its center is singled out and the diameter of this bar is designated as the critical diameter (D0). This D0 value is valid for the particular cooling medium used as well as its cooling intensity. An ideal cooling situation is when the surface of the test bar is immediately cooled to ambient temperature, that is, an infinite cooling rate at the surface.

Jominy End-Quench Test

A round bar specimen that is 100 mm (4 in.) in length and 25 mm (1 in.) in diameter is used. The specimen is heated to the austenitizing temperature of the steel with a holding time of 20 min. One endface of the specimen is quenched by spraying it with a jet of water. This causes the rate of cooling to decrease progressively from the quenched end along the length of the bar. When it is cool, two diametrically opposite flats that are 0.4 mm (0.015 in.) deep and parallel to the axis of the bar, are ground and the hardness is measured along the flats. The hardness values are plotted on a diagram at specified intervals from the quenched end. To get good reproducibility, the time and temperature of austenitizing, the grinding of the flats to avoid burning, and the placement of the specimen in the hardness tester should be carefully controlled. It is also important to protect the specimen against decarburization. Less critical are the water temperature, the diameter of the spraying nozzle, the height of the water jet, and the time to move the specimen from the furnace to the fixture.

 Hardening procedure for Jominy end-quench specimen

Reproducibility of Jominy test by nine laboratories on one heat of 4068 steel

 The rate of cooling at different distances from the quenched end is approximately independent of the steel used because the thermal conductivity and heat capacity of hardenable steels do not vary very much and the heat transfer at the cooled end is steel independent. Therefore, the Jominy bar presents a range of cooling curves that can be used to estimate a CCT diagram.

Relationship between IT, CCT, and Jominy Curves

Relationship of CCT (heavy lines) and IT (light lines) diagrams of eutectoid steel. Four cooling rates from different positions on a Jominy endquench specimen are superimposed on the CCT diagram

Normalizing
Heat-treating process that is often considered from both thermal and microstructural standpoints. In the thermal sense, normalizing is an austenitizing heating cycle followed by cooling in still or slightly agitated air. Typically, the work is heated to a temperature about 55 C (100 F) above the upper critical line of the iron - iron carbide phase diagram

STRESS-RELIEF HEAT TREATING

used to relieve stresses that remain locked in a structure as a consequence of a manufacturing sequence. This definition separates stress-relief heat treating from postweld heat treating in that the goal of postweld heat treating is to provide, in addition to the relief of residual stresses, some preferred metallurgical structure or properties For example, most ferritic weldments are given postweld heat treatment to improve the fracture toughness of the heat-affected zones (HAZ). Moreover, austenitic and nonferrous alloys are frequently postweld heat treated to improve resistance to environmental damage.

 Stress-relief heat treating is the uniform heating of a structure, or portion thereof, to a suitable temperature below the transformation range (Ac1 for ferritic steels), holding at this temperature for a predetermined period of time, followed by uniform cooling Stress-relief heat treating can reduce distortion and high stresses from welding that can affect service performance. The presence of residual stresses can lead to stresscorrosion cracking (SCC) near welds and in regions of a component that has been cold strained during processing. Furthermore, cold strain per se can produce a reduction in creep strength at elevated temperatures.

Sources of Residual Stress

Bending Quenching Grinding Welding
Examples of the causes of residual stresses: (a) Thermal distortion in a structure due to heating by solar radiation. (b) Residual stresses due to welding. (c) Residual stresses due to grinding.

 Partial iron-iron carbide phase diagram showing typical normalizing range for plain carbon steels

 Comparison of time-temperature cycles for normalizing and full annealing. The slower cooling of annealing results in higher temperature transformation to ferrite and pearlite and coarser microstructures than does normalizing.

The purpose of normalizing

Normalization may increase or decrease the strength and hardness of a given steel in a given product form, depending on the thermal and mechanical history of the product. Actually, the functions of normalizing may overlap with or be confused with those of annealing, hardening, and stress relieving. Improved machinability, grain-structure refinement, homogenization, and modification of residual stresses are among the reasons normalizing is done. Homogenization of castings by normalizing may be done in order to break up or refine the dendritic structure and facilitate a more even response to subsequent hardening. Similarly, for wrought products, normalization can help reduce banded grain structure due to hot rolling, as well as large grain size or mixed large and small grain size due to forging practice.

ANNEALING
a generic term denoting a treatment that consists of heating to and holding at a suitable temperature followed by cooling at an appropriate rate, primarily for the softening of metallic materials. Generally, in plain carbon steels, annealing produces a ferrite-pearlite microstructure Steels may be annealed to facilitate cold working or machining, to improve mechanical or electrical properties, or to promote dimensional stability. The choice of an annealing treatment that will provide an adequate combination of such properties at minimum expense often involves a compromise.

 A fully annealed 1040 steel showing a ferritepearlite microstructure. Etched in 4% picral plus 2% nital.

Critical Temperatures
The critical temperatures that must be considered in discussing annealing of steel are those that define the onset and completion of the transformation to or from austenite. For a given steel, the critical temperatures depend on whether the steel is being heated or cooled. Critical temperatures for the start and completion of the transformation to austenite during heating are denoted, respectively, by Ac1 and Ac3 for hypoeutectoid steels and by Ac1 and Accm for hypereutectoid steels.

Subcritical Annealing
Subcritical annealing does not involve formation of austenite. The prior condition of the steel is modified by such thermally activated processes as recovery, recrystallization, grain growth, and agglomeration of carbides. In as-rolled or forged hypoeutectoid steels containing ferrite and pearlie, subcritical annealing can adjust the hardnesses of both constituents, but excessively long times at temperature may be required for substantial softening. The subcritical treatment is most effective when applied to hardened or cold-worked steels, which recrystallize readily to form new ferrite grains

lntercritical Annealing
Austenite begins to form when the temperature of the steel exceeds A1. The solubility of carbon increases abruptly (nearly 1%) near the A1 temperature. In hypoeutectoid steels, the equilibrium structure in the intercritical range between A1 and A3 consists of ferrite and austenite, and above A3 the structure becomes completely austenitic. However, the equilibrium mixture of ferrite and austenite is not achieved instantaneously. In hypereutectoid steels, carbide and austenite coexist in the intercritical range between A1 and Acm; and the homogeneity of the austenite depends on time and temperature. The degree of homogeneity in the structure at the austenitizing temperature is an important consideration in the development of annealed structures and properties. The more homogeneous structures developed at higher austenitizing temperatures tend to promote lamellar carbide structures on cooling, whereas lower austenitizing temperatures in the intercritical range result in less homogeneous austenite, which promotes formation of spheroidal carbides.

 Austenite formed when steel is heated above the A1 temperature transforms back to ferrite and carbide when the steel is slowly cooled below A1. The rate of austenite decomposition and the tendency of the carbide structure to be either lamellar or spheroidal depend largely on the temperature of transformation. If the austenite transforms just below A1, it will decompose slowly. The product then may contain relatively coarse spheroidal carbides or coarse lamellar pearlite, depending on the composition of the steel and the austenitizing temperature. This product tends to be very soft. However, the low rate of transformation at temperatures just below A1 necessitates long holding times in isothermal treatments, or very slow cooling rates in continuous cooling, if maximum softness is desired. Isothermal treatments are more efficient than slow continuous cooling in terms of achieving desired structures and softness in the minimum amount of time.

Supercritical or Full Annealing

A common annealing practice is to heat hypoeutectoid steels above the upper critical temperature (A3) to attain full austenitization. The process is called full annealing. In hypoeutectoid steels (under 0.77% C), supercritical annealing (that is, above the A3 temperature) takes place in the austenite region (the steel is fully austenitic at the annealing temperature). However, in hypereutectoid steels (above 0.77% C), the annealing takes place above the A1 temperature, which is the dual-phase austenite-cementite region

 The iron-carbon binary phase diagram showing region of temperatures for full annealing

 Hypereutectoid steels can be made extremely soft by holding for long periods of time at the austenitizing temperature. Although the time at the austenitizing temperature may have only a small effect on actual hardnesses (such as a change from 241 to 229 HB), its effect on machinability or cold-forming properties may be appreciable. Long-term austenitizing is effective in hypereutectoid steels because it produces agglomeration of residual carbides in the austenite. Coarser carbides promote a softer final product. In lower-carbon steels, carbides are unstable at temperatures above A1 and tend to dissolve in the austenite, although the dissolution may be slow.

QUENCHING
The process of rapidly cooling metal parts from the austenitizing or solution treating temperature,typically from within the range of 815 to 870 C (1500 to 1600 F) for steel.

The liquid quenchants

Oil that may contain a variety of additives Water Aqueous polymer solutions Water that may contain salt or caustic additives gaseous quenchants are inert gases including helium, argon, and nitrogen These quenchants are sometimes used after austenitizing in a vacuum.

Quenching Process
Direct quenching Time quenching Selective quenching Spray quenching Fog quenching Interrupted quenching

 Direct quenching refers to quenching directly from the austenitizing temperature and is by far the most widely used practice. The term direct quenching is used to differentiate this type of cycle from more indirect practices which might involve carburizing, slow cooling, reheating, followed by quenching. Time quenching is used when the cooling rate of the part being quenched needs to be abruptly changed during the cooling cycle. The change in cooling rate may consist of either an increase or a decrease in the cooling rate depending on which is needed to attain desired results. The usual practice is to lower the temperature of the part by quenching in a medium with high heat removal characteristics (for example, water) until the part has cooled below the nose of the timetemperature-transformation (TTT) curve, and then to transfer the part to a second medium (for example, oil), so that it cools more slowly through the martensite formation range. In some applications, the second medium may be air or an inert gas. Time quenching is most often used to minimize distortion, cracking, and dimensional changes. Selective quenching is used when it is desirable for certain areas of a part to be relatively unaffected by the quenching medium. This can be accomplished by insulating an area to be more slowly cooled so the quenchant contacts only those areas of the part that are to be rapidly cooled.

 Spray quenching involves directing high-pressure streams of quenching liquid onto areas of the workpiece where higher cooling rates are desired. The cooling rate is faster because the quenchant droplets formed by the high-intensity spray impact the part surface and remove heat very effectively. However, low-pressure spraying, in effect a flood-type flow, is preferred with certain polymer quenchants. Fog quenching utilizes a fine fog or mist of liquid droplets in a gas carrier as the cooling agent. Although similar to spray quenching, fog quenching produces lower cooling rates because of the relatively low liquid content of the stream. Interrupted quenching refers to the rapid cooling of the metal from the austenitizing temperature to a point above the Ms where it is held for a specified period of time, followed by cooling in air. There are three types of interrupted quenching: austempering, marquenching (martempering), and isothermal quenching. The temperature at which the quenching is interrupted, the length of time the steel is held at temperature, and the rate of cooling can vary depending on the type of steel and workpiece thickness.

 Comparison of cooling rates and temperature gradients as workpieces pass into and through martensite transformation range for a conventional quenching and tempering process and for interrupted quenching processes. (a) Conventional quenching and tempering processes that use oil, water, or polymer quenchants. (b) Marquenching, which uses either salt or hot oil as a quenchant. (c) Austempering, which uses a salt as a quenchant. (d) Isothermal quenching, which uses either salt or hot oil as a quenchant.

TEMPERING OF STEEL
a process in which previously hardened or normalized steel is usually heated to a temperature below the lower critical temperature and cooled at a suitable rate, primarily to increase ductility and toughness, but also to increase the grain size of the matrix. Steels are tempered by reheating after hardening to obtain specific values of mechanical properties and also to relieve quenching stresses and to ensure dimensional stability.

Principal Variables
Tempering temperature Time at temperature Cooling rate from the tempering temperature Composition of the steel, including carbon content, alloy content, and residual elements

Structural Changes
Based on x-ray, dilatometric, and microstructural studies, there are three distinct stages of tempering, even though the temperature ranges overlap
Stage I: The formation of transition carbides and lowering of the carbon content of the martensite to 0.25% (100 to 250 C, or 210 to 480 F) Stage II: The transformation of retained austenite to ferrite and cementite (200 to 300 C, or 390 to 570 F) Stage III: The replacement of transition carbides and low-temperature martensite by cementite and ferrite (250 to 350 C, or 480 to 660 F)

 Effect of tempering temperature on room-temperature mechanical properties of 1050 steel. Properties summarized are for one heat of 1050 steel that was forged to 38 mm (1.50 in.) in diameter, then water quenched and tempered at various temperatures. Composition of heat: 0.52% C, 0.93% Mn

 Effect of tempering temperature on the mechanical properties of oilquenched 4340 steel bar. Singleheat results: ladle composition, 0.41% C, 0.67% Mn, 0.023% P, 0.018% S, 0.26% Si, 1.77% Ni, 0.78% Cr, 0.26% Mo; grain size, ASTM 6 to 8; critical points, Ac1, 730 C (1350 F); Ac3, 770 C (1415 F); Ar3, 475 C (890 F); Ar1, 380 C (720 F); treatment, normalized at 870 C (1600 F), reheated to 800 C (1475 F),quenched in agitated oil; cross section, 13.46 mm (0.530 in.) diam; round treated, 12.83 mm (505 in.) diam; round tested; as-quenched hardness, 601 HB.

 Notch toughness as a function of tempering temperature for 4140 (UNS G41400) ultrahighstrength steel tempered 1 h