Miscellaneous Detectors

November 11, 2003

Prof. Tsi-chian Chao
Thermoluminescent Dosimeters
(TLD)
Glow Curve
Readout Cycle

Pre-heat period
Without light integration to discriminate against
unstable low-temperature traps
Read period
Spanning the emission of the part of the glow
curve to be read as a measure of the dose
Annealing period
During which the remainder of the stored
energy is dumped without light integration
Cool-down period
After the heater-pan power is turned off
Trap Stability
Annealing
Apply after TLD signals have been read
To avoid trap configuration change
TL phosphors give best performance as
dosimeters if they receive uniform,
reproducible, and optimal heat treatment
before and after use
Ex. LiF (TLD-100)
400
0
C for 1 h, quick cooling, then 80
0
C for 24
h
Advantages
Wide useful dose range
From a few mrad to ~10
3
rad linearly
Dose-rate independence
0-10
11
rad/s
Small size
Chips, rods, powder
Commercial availability
Reusability
Can be reused many times
Advantages
Economy
Reusability reduces cost
Availability of different types with
different sensitivities to thermal neutrons
TLD-700 (
7
LiF)
Sensitive to photons only
TLD-100 (93%
7
LiF + 7%
6
LiF)
Sensitive to both neutrons and
photons
TLD-600 (96%
6
LiF)
Sensitive to neutrons only
Advantages
Readout convenience
Readout rapidly (<30 s)
Automation compatibility
Automatic reader for mass amount
of TLDs
Accuracy and precision
Reproducibility of 1-2 %
1-2 % accuracy through individual
calibration and averaging of several
dosimeters in a cluster
Disadvantages
Lack of uniformity
Sensitivity varies from batch to batch,
even from dosimeter to dosimeter of the
same batch
Storage instability
Sensitivity varies with time
Fading
Gradual loss of the latent TLD signal
Disadvantages
Light sensitivity
Sensitive to lightespecially to UV,
sunlight, or fluorescent light
Spurious TL
Scraping, chipping, or surface
contamination by dirt or humidity can
cause spurious TL readings
Loss of a reading
No second chance at getting a reading


Disadvantages

Memory of radiation and thermal
history
Sensitivity increased or decreased
after receiving a large dose of
radiation
Reader instability
Reader constancy is difficult to
maintain over long time periods

Photographic Dosimetry
Exposure
Radiation hits photographic emulsion and generate
ion pairs near AgBr grains then converting Ag+ ions
to Ag atoms
Chemical processing
Developing
in the chemical process all of the Ag+ converted
to Ag atoms, leaving behind an opaque
microscopic grain of silver
Stop bath
Hypo

Optical Density of Film
) / ( log . .
0 10
I I D O =
Energy Dependence
Increased response for
energy < 200 keV due to
photoelectric effect
Use of filter to eliminate this
over response
Advantages
Spatial resolution
Unrivaled in spatial resolution
Reading Permanence
The record is permanent
Commercial availability
Geometry
Thin and flat shape allow simple use
Can approach B-G cavity dimensions
Linearity vs. dose
Dose-rate independence
Disadvantages
Wet chemical processing
Require careful control of wet-chemical development
process
Energy dependence of X rays
Over-response for energy below 300 keV due to
photoelectric interactions with silver bromide grains
sensitivity to hostile environments
Double-valued response functions
Over-saturate of film response cause double-valued
response
Blindness to low-energy neutrons
Chemical Dosimetry
Chemical Dosimetry
Basic Principles
Radiation interacts with water
produce chemically active primary products (free
radicals, such as H
2
& H
2
O
2
) in about 10
-10
s or less
initially distributed heterogeneously, close to the
charged-particle tracks
by 10
-6
s, diffuse to become more homogeneous,
simultaneous with their chemical interactions with the
solutes present
Chemical Dosimetry
Radiation chemical yield (G-value)
Defined as the number of chemical entities produced,
destroyed, or changed by the expenditure of 100 eV of
radiation energy
in moles/J
Calculation of absorbed dose



AM (mole/liter)
the change in molar concentration of product X due to the
irradiation
(g/cm
3
or kg/liter): solution density
) ( X G
M
D

A
=

Chemical Dosimetry
Popular example
Fricke Ferrous Sulfate Dosimeter
Fe
2+
Fe
3+
oxidation reaction
Composition
0.001 M FeSO
4
or Fe(NH
4
)
2
(SO
4
)
2
and 0.8 N H
2
SO
4


Chemical Dosimetry
Advantages
Z,
en
/ & similar to water
Liquid dosimeters can be made similar in shape
and volume to the studied object
Absolute dosimetry possible
Different chemical dosimeters can be used to
cover various dose ranges: 10-10
10
rad
Linear dose response vs. dose in useful ranges
Chemical Dosimetry
Disadvantages
Lack of storage stability prevents commercial
availability, requiring wet chemistry in the users
lab
Useful dose ranges too high for personnel
monitoring or small source measurements
Some degree of dose-rate and LET dependence
Dependence on the temperature of the solution
during irradiation and during the readout
procedure
Calorimetric Dosimetry
Calorimetric Dosimetry
Direct measurement of the full energy imparted to
matter by radiation
Closest of any method for absolute dose
measurement


AT: temperature change
h: thermal capacity (cal/g
0
C or J/kg
0
C)
o: thermal defect
The fraction of E that dose not appear as hear, due to
competing chemical reactions
h
D
hm
E
T
) 1 ( ) 1 ( o o
=

= A
Calorimetric Dosimetry
Advantages
Absolute dosimetry
Closest of any method being a direct
measurement of the energy involved in the
absorbed dose
Almost any material can be employed in the
sensitive volume
Dose-rate independent
No LET dependence
Relatively stable against radiation damage
Calorimetric Dosimetry
Disadvantages
Temperature rise small, limiting measurement to
relatively large doses
Apparatus bulky, difficult to transport and set up
For low dose rates, thermal leakage limits the
accuracy and precision achievable
Thermal defect problem