A solid is one of the three classical states of matter Solids can be classified into 2 types:

Crystalline (regular geometric lattice) Amorphous (irregular arrangement w/ no pattern/lattice)

All solids have a definite shape and volume, are virtually incompressible, & do not readily flow because the atoms in a solid are tightly bound to each other Hardness, melting point, mechanical characteristics, conductivity of solids can vary Structure and properties related to FORCES BETWEEN THE PARTICLES Forces are all electrostatic (interaction between +ve and ve charges) but vary in strength

Crystals consist of a pattern of repeating cell units in a 3D structure Crystal lattice is a regular, repeating pattern of atoms, ions, or molecules in a crystal

Crystalline solids can be further classified by their distinct properties and chemical bonding
Class of Substance Ionic Metallic Molecular Covalent Network Elements Combined Metal + Nonmetal Metal(s) Nonmetal(s) Metalloids/carbon Examples NaCl(s) , CaCO3(s) Cu(s), CuZn(s) H20(s), CO2(s) C(s) , SiC(s)

Na+ Cl-

Molecular Solids

Covalent Solids

Ionic solids

Metallic solids

NaCl, or table salt is an example of an ionic crystal. The properties of ionic crystals are explained by a 3-D arrangement of positive and negative ions held together by strong, directional ionic bonds.

Ionic compounds are formed when a metal gives up its valence electrons to a nonmetal to gain stability and form ions These ions are held together in a 3D crystal lattice structure because of the simultaneous attraction of an ion by the surrounding ions of opposite charge The distance between the nuclei of adjacent ions in a crystal (interionic distance) is determined by the tendency of the ve- to repel each other Theres a greater force of attraction since its made of full charge ions not partial charge polar molecules, which is why ionic bonding is much stronger than any IMF

Ionic crystals are relatively hard and brittle (SATP), conduct electricity (ONLY in liquid state), & have high melting points (due to high crystal energy) These properties prove that ionic bonds are: Strong electrostatic attractions between ve and +ve ions, require a lot of energy to overcome them(hardness, MP) The greater the charge on the ions, the stronger the attraction; higher mp Also, the smaller the ions, the closer together they are, the greater the attraction, but if ions are bigger, attraction is less and less heat is needed to separate them (Sodium > Rubidium) Directional, packed in a certain way so they split at an angle (brittleness)
-because of the highly directional bonds, if something (pressure) shifts the ion layers slightly, the ions of the same charge repel each other, and the crystal breaks (repels itself to pieces)

And that the lattice is formed of ions (electrical conductivity)

Cannot conduct as a liquid because e- not free to move As a liquid, irons dissociate; e- free to move and conduct

SOLUBLE IN POLAR SOLVENTS

Not soluble in non-polar solvents

The attractions between the solvent molecules and the ions aren't big enough to overcome the attractions holding the crystal together

Gold, copper and silver are examples of metals made up of metallic crystals. The properties of metallic crystals are explained by a 3-D arrangement of metal cations held together by strong, nondirectional bonds created by a sea of mobile electrons.

Metallic crystals refers to elements and alloys of metals X-ray diffraction patterns show that metals have a continuous and compact crystalline structure The electron sea theory is most accepted because it can explain all the properties of metals It states that the properties of metals are the result of the bonding between fixed, positive nuclei, and loosely held, mobile valence electrons The attraction is not localized or directed for specific atoms The electrons acts as a negative glue surrounding the positive nuclei Electron sea model incorporates:
low IE ve- are loosely held Mobility empty valence orbitals Electrostatic sea strong, non directional bonding

Metallic crystals are shiny and silvery Because their valence electrons are subject to the photoelectric effect, where the ve- absorb and re-emit energy from all of visible/near visible light Flexible - ductility (wire) /malleability (sheets) Nondirectional bonds allow planes of atoms to slide over each other without breaking bonds Electrical Conductivity ve- move freely through the metal A battery can force additional e- onto one end of a metal sample and remove e- from the other end Hardness/ high MP (varies due to size of atom) Electron sea around positive nuclei = strong bonding More e- and higher positive charge = stronger metallic bond The strength of the bond varies from metal to metal and depends on the number of electrons which each atom delocalises into the sea of electrons, and on the packing Group 1 metals like sodium and potassium have relatively low melting and boiling points mainly because each atom only has one electron to contribute to the bond, in efficient packing (8 co-ord) Crystalline structure Electron sea holds atomic nuclei together, this produces structures that are continuous and closely packed

 Molecular solids are made up of one or more non-metals Non metals come together and form covalent bonds by sharing electrons to be more stable Can be polar or non-polar molecular crystals The covalent bonds holding the molecules together are very strong, but physical properties of the substance are dependant on the intermolecular forces - forces attracting one molecule to its neighbours, which are weaker

Solid carbon dioxide is an example of a molecular crystal. The properties of molecular crystals are explained by a 3D arrangement of neutral molecules held together by relatively weak intermolecular forces.

they normally have a low MP, are soft, and are non-conductors Properties can be explained by IMF: Low MP/
You don't have to break any covalent bonds in order to melt or boil a molecular substance. lack of hardness London, dipole-dipole, H bonds are weak
Attraction between molecules is not strong

Lack of conductivity individual particles are neutral molecules, even in molten state, molecules to not break up into ions

CRYSTAL Molecular

PARTICLES Molecules

FORCE/BOND PROPERTIES London, dipole-dipole, hydrogen -soft -low MP -non-conductors - like dissolves like in terms of solubility

EXAMPLE H20(s), CO2(s) (ice, solid carbon dioxide)

Crystals consist of a pattern of repeating units X-ray analysis shows that they have a crystal lattice like ionic compounds but the molecules are packed as closely as size/shape allows (more complicated)

Quartz and Amethyst are examples of CNC. The properties of network covalent crystals are explained by a 3-D arrangement of atoms held together by strong, directional covalent bonds.

Covalent network crystals are among the hardest materials on earth they are also brittle (rarely brake, dont bend under pressure), have high melting points (higher than ionic/molecular crystals), are insoluble, & are non-conductors These solids consist of large networks of covalent bonds that form a long-range, regular crystalline structure, called a covalent network Most covalent networks involve the elements and compounds of carbon and silicon

 Hard - the individual bonds in a covalent network crystal (ex. C-C bond) are not that strong on their own, the overall bonding in the large macromolecule is very strong High MP - To melt a covalent network crystal, many bonds must be broken with lots of energy Lack of conductivity electrons are held tightly between the atoms or in covalent bonds, they are not free to move through the network Many are insoluble in water and organic solvents There are no possible attractions which could occur between solvent molecules and carbon atoms which could outweigh the attractions between the covalently bound carbon atoms.

Solids that are arranged in 3-D arrays because of their covalent bonds The strong bonds in these solids cause them to have very high melting and boiling points, solids at room temperature, hard, insoluble and are non-conductors of electricity (Eg Diamond, Quartz, silicon carbide)

Belongs to 3-D dimensional group The silicon atoms form a tetrahedral shape when bonded to four oxygen atoms Quartz is used for metal ions within substances that produces well known stones such as emerald, amethyst and garnet SiO2(s) - (in the form of quartz) has a regular network covalent crystalline structure which makes it hard and gives it a high MP But as glass, it is not crystalline because it lacks order, and does not have the properties of a covalent network crystal (it is purposely cooled to a rigid state) Although they have the same formula, their properties are GREATLY effected by the structure their molecules form

Solids that form 2-D network sheets, the sheets are held by covalent bonds The layers are held by weak Van der Waals forces These solids have high melting and boiling points, however they are soft enough to be used as lubricant Eg( Graphite, Mica)

2-Dimensional sheets of silicate The weak forces between the layers of mica is why this substance breaks easily

Solids that only form one dimensional networks Forces between the chains are very weak However they have high melting and boiling points, are solids at room temperature and are insoluble

Belong to 1-Dimensional network solids group, asbestos are very stringy Asbestos were used in fire extinguishers to put out fires, however studies have now shown that asbestos can lead to lung cancer

Elements that can exist with different physical forms and properties but will all have the exact same chemical properties. Eg( Diamond, and Graphite)

Carbon is able to bond to many different molecules and can bond with itself to form pure carbon substances Carbon can form 3-D tetrahedral arrangements (diamonds), layers of sheets (graphite) large spherical molecules (buckyballs) and long thin tubes (nanotubes) The structures of eight allotropes of carbon:
(A) Diamond [3D, network covalent structure] (B) Graphite [2D, covalent plates] (graphene is a single of graphite) (C) Lonsdaleite (D) C60 [0D, molecules] (Buckminsterfullerene or buckyball) (E) C540 Fullerene (F) C70 Fullerene (G) Amorphous carbon (H) Single-walled carbon nanotube [1D, tubes] (buckytube).

Using x-ray diffraction we can see that diamonds have carbon atoms in a large tetrahedral network with a Carbon bonded to 4 other Carbon atoms. Diamond is one of the strongest substances in the world due to strong covalent bonds. Its properties can be explained by the 3-D arrangement of atoms held together by strong, directional covalent bonds that from a network

Using x-ray diffraction we can see that diamonds have carbon atoms in a large tetrahedral network with a Carbon bonded to 4 other Carbon atoms. Its properties can be explained by the 3-D arrangement of atoms held together by strong, directional covalent bonds that from a network Diamond is one of the strongest substances in the world due to strong covalent bonds.
It is so hard it can be used to make drill bits, and to cut other diamonds
VERY HIGH MP

Diamonds do not have delocalized electrons so they do not conduct electricity

The planes inside the crystal of a diamond allows light to be reflected, giving the diamond its sparkle.

Unlike most CNC graphite can conduct electricity and acts as a lubricant but still has a high MP/is hard Graphite belongs to the 2-D network solids X-ray diffraction shows that graphite is made of hexagonal sheets of sp2 hybridized carbon atoms These planar sheets are strong covalent networks but the bonding between the sheets is weak London dispersion forces, which allows for graphite's lubricating properties (layers of graphite are able to slide past each other) The delocalized electrons in graphite move freely allowing electricity to pass through. When we write with a pencil we are splitting the layers of graphite, not breaking the sheets

Transistors are used in almost everything electronic (a solid state sandwich of crystalline semi conductors)
In a semiconductor an atom only requires a small amount of energy to jump to the next highest energy level Semiconductors, are very useful and are used for many things such as power cells in satellites and for the ISS

These semiconductors are able to convert electricity to light, heat to electricity and vice versa
Transistor -> increases flow of electricity; resistor impedes (decreases) it

Basically in a conductor empty orbitals and valence orbitals are at same energy so e- can easily be transported throughout the solid In an insulator there is a large energy gap between empty/valence orbitals so e- cannot easily get to these conducting orbitals In a semi conductor there is a small energy gap between the valence/empty orbitals; thermal energy can easily promote some e- into the empty orbitals to provide conductivity

By adding chemicals to semiconductors we can make them work in different ways. This is called doping Semiconductors in transistors are covalent crystals that have been manipulated (silicon or germanium + small quantity of group 13/15 element) For example, doping silicon with a small fraction of phosphorus, (which has one more ve-) , there are more e- for conduction, increasing the conductivity Or with Boron (one ve- less than silicon) in this case, since there is one less electron, an electron vacancy or hole is created As an electron fills this hole, it leaves a new hole, and this keeps going on (hole goes opposite the electrons) the charge moves along resulting in conduction

CRYSTAL Ionic

PARTICLES Ions (+/-)

FORCE/BOND PROPERTIES Ionic bonding -hard -brittle -high MP -conductor (as liquid/aq state) -many are water soluble -characteristic lustre -soft to hard -flexible (ductile, malleable) -conductors -dissolve in other metals to form alloys -soft -low MP -non-conductors - like dissolves like in terms of solubility

EXAMPLE NaCl(s) (table salt)

Metallic

Cations (+) surrounded by sea of electrons (-) Molecules

Metallic bonding

Au(s) , Ag(s) , Cu(s) (coinage metals)

Molecular

London, dipole-dipole, hydrogen

H20(s), CO2(s) (ice, solid carbon dioxide)

Covalent Network

Atoms

Covalent

-very hard -very high MP -non-conductors -insoluble in most liquids

C(s) , SiO2(s) (carbon, silicon dioxide)

Metallic Crystals Network Crystals Molecular Crystals

* Ionic crystals are formed when metals and non-metals (or polyatomic ions) react.