Physical Layer Propagation:

UTP and Optical Fiber

Chapter 3 Updated January 2007
Pankos Business Data Networks and Telecommunications, 6th edition

Orientation
Chapter 2
Data link, internet, transport, and application layers Characterized by message exchanges

Chapter 3
Physical layer (Layer 1)
There are no messagesbits are sent individually Concerned with transmission media, plugs, signaling methods, propagation effects Chapter 3: Signaling, UTP, optical fiber, and topologies Wireless transmission is covered in Chapter 5
2

Figure 3-1: Signal and Propagation

Transmitted Signal Propagation

Received Signal (Attenuated & Distorted)

Transmission Medium Sender Receiver

A signal is a disturbance in the media that propagates (travels) down the transmission medium to the receiver If propagation effects are too large, the receiver will not be able to read the received signal 3

Data Representation

Binary-Encoded Data
Computers store and process data in binary representations
Binary means two There are only ones and zeros Called bits

1101010110001110101100111
5

Binary-Encoded Data
Non-Binary Data Must be Encoded into Binary
Text Integers (whole numbers) Decimal numbers Alternatives (North, South, East, or West, etc.) Graphics Human voice etc.

Hello

11011001
6

Binary-Encoded Data
Some data are inherently binary
48-bit Ethernet addresses 32-bit IP addresses Need no further encoding

Figure 3-2: Arithmetic with Binary Numbers

Binary Arithmetic for Whole Numbers (Integers) (Counting Begins with 0, not 1)
Integer 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Binary 0 1 10 11 100 101 110 111 1000

There are 10 kinds of people those who understand binary and those who dont

Figure 3-2: Arithmetic with Binary Numbers, Continued

Binary Arithmetic for Binary Numbers

Basic Rules

0 +0 =0

0 +1 =1

1 +0 =1

1 +1 =10

1 +1 +1 =11

Figure 3-2: Arithmetic with Binary Numbers, Continued

Examples

Binary 1000 +1 =1001 +1 =1010 +1 =1011 +1 =1100

Decimal 8 +1 =9 +1 =10 +1 =11 +1 =12

10

Figure 3-3: Binary Encoding for Alternatives

Encoding Alternatives (Product number, region, gender, etc.) (N bits can represent 2N Alternatives) Number of Alternatives That Can be Encoded with N bits 2 (21) 4 (22) 8 (23) 16 (24) 256 (28) 65,536 (216)

Number of Bits In Field (N) 1 2 3 4 8 16

Each added bit doubles the number of alternatives that can be represented 11

Figure 3-3: Binary Encoding for Alternatives

Bits 1 2 Alternatives 21=2 22=4 Examples Male = 0, Female = 1 Spring = 00, Summer = 01, Autumn = 10, Winter = 11 Keyboard characters for U.S. keyboards. Space=00000000, etc. ASCII code actually uses 7 bits

28=256

12

Powers of 2
Each additional bit doubles the number of possibilities Start with one you know and double or halve until you have what you need E.g., if you know 8 is 256, 10 must be 4 times as large or 1,024. Bits 1 2 3 4 5 6 Alternatives 2 4 8 16 32 64

7
8 10 16

128
256 1,024 65,536
13

Memorize for 1, 4, 8, and 16 bits

Figure 3-3: Binary Encoding for Alternatives Quiz

How many flavors of ice cream can you represent in half a byte of storage? How many bits do you need to represent 64 flavors of ice cream?

How many bits do you need to represent 6 sales districts?

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Figure 3-4: ASCII and Extended ASCII

ASCII Code to Represent Text
ASCII is the traditional binary code to represent text data Seven bits per character 27 (128) characters possible Sufficient for all keyboard characters (including shifted values) Capital letters (A is 1000001) Lowercase letters (a is 1100001)

Each character is stored in a byte The 8th bit in a byte normally is not used
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Figure 3-4: ASCII and Extended ASCII, Continued

Extended ASCII
Used on PCs Uses a full 8 bits per character 28 (256) characters possible Extra characters can represent formatting in word processing, etc.

Converters
Text-to-ASCII and Text-to-Extended ASCII Converters are Readily Available on the Internet
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Figure 3-5: Binary Coding for Graphics Image

Pixels
1. Screen is divided into small squares called pixels (picture elements) 3. JPEG stores one byte per color (24 bits total) This gives 256 intensity levels for each color or 16.8 million colors overall (2563) 17

2. Each pixel has three dotsred, green, and blue. Sometimes a black dot too

Signaling

Figure 3-6: Data Encoding and Signaling

Data Now is the Male or Female Graphics Human Voice 1. First, data must be converted to binary, as we have just seen Binary Encoding

BinaryEncoded Data 1101010 Signaling

2. Second, bits must be covered Into signals (voltage changes, etc.).

Voltage change, etc. 19

Figure 3-7: On/Off Binary Signaling

Clock Cycle Light Source Off= 0 On= 1 On= 1 Off= 0 On= 1 Off= 0 On= 1

Optical Fiber

During each clock cycle, light is turned on for a one or off for a zero.

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Figure 3-8: Binary Signaling in 232 Serial Ports

In a clock cycle,

15 Volts
0 3 Volts 0 Volts -3 Volts 1 -15 Volts

Clock Cycle

3 to 15 volts represents a -2 to -15 volts is a zero

1
This type of signaling is used in 232 serial ports.

21

Figure 3-9: Relative Immunity to Errors in Binary Signaling

Transmitted Signal (12 Volts)

15 Volts 0 3 Volts 0 Volts -3 Volts 1 -15 Volts

Received Signal (6 volts)

Despite a 50% drop in voltage, the receiver will still know that the signal is a zero

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Binary and Binary Signaling

In binary signaling, there are two states This can represent a single bit per clock cycle. In digital signaling, there are a few bits per clock cycle2, 4, 8, 16, 32, With more states, several bits to be sent per clock cycle Note that all binary transmission (2 states) is digital (few states) But not all digital transmission is binary
11

11 10 01 00

10
01 Clock Cycle 00 23 01

Figure 3-10: 4-State Digital Signaling

Box Clock Cycle 11 11 10 01 00 Client PC 10 01 00 Server 01

Digital signaling has a FEW possible states per clock cycle (4 in this slide) This allows it to send multiple bits per clock cycle This increases the bit transmission rate per clock cycle It reduces error resistance because differences between states are smaller 24

Quiz
Box

Which Is Binary? Which Is Digital?

2. Number of Fingers 1. Calendar 4. Day of the Week 5. Gender Male or Female
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3. On/Off Switch

Figure 3-10: 4-State Digital Signaling, Continued

Box

Equation 3-1: Bit rate = Baud rate * Bits sent per clock cycle
Baud rate is the number of clock cycles per second If the clock cycle is 1/1000 of a second, the baud rate is 1,000 baud Bit rate is then the number of clock cycles per second times the number of bits sent per clock cycle If the three bits are sent per clock cycle, the bit rate is 3,000 bps or 3 kbps

26

Figure 3-10: 4-State Digital Signaling, Continued Equation 3-2: States = 2Bits
Bits is the number of bits to be sent per clock cycle States is the number of states needed to send that many bits
Box

Bits to be Number of sent per states clock cycle required

1 2 2 4

Doubling the number of states transmits one more bit per clock cycle. Rapidly diminishing returns to adding states

3
4

8
16

27

Figure 3-10: 4-State Digital Signaling, Continued

Example:
The clock cycle is 1/100,000 second The baud rate is 100 kbaud (not kbauds) You want a bit rate of 500,000 kbps

Box

Solution:
You have to send 5 bits per clock cycle (baud) This will require 32 states States = 2bits States = 25 States = 32
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Figure 3-10: 4-State Digital Signaling, Continued

Example:
Suppose there a system has 8 states Suppose that the clock cycle is 1/10,000 second How fast can the system transmit?

Box

Solution:
With four states, 3 information bits can be sent per clock cycle (8=2X) [Equation 3-2] X=3 With a clock cycle of 1/10,000, baud rate is 10,000 baud The bit rate will be 30 kbps (3 bits/clock cycle times 10,000 clock cycles per second). [Equation 3-1]
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UTP Propagation
Unshielded Twisted Pair wiring

Figure 3-12: 4-Pair UTP Cord with RJ45 Connector

3. RJ-45 Connector

1. UTP Cord

Industry Standard Pen 2. 8 Wires Organized as 4 Twisted Pairs

UTP Cord

31

RJ-45 Jacks and Connectors

RJ-45 Jack
RJ-45 Jack

RJ-45 Jack

RJ-45 Connectors 32

Figure 3-11: Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Wiring, Continued

UTP Characteristics
Inexpensive and to purchase and install
Dominates media for access links between computers and the nearest switch

33

Figure 3-13: Attenuation and Noise

Power

1. Signal

Signals in UTP attenuate with propagation distance. If attenuation is too great, the signal will not be readable by the receiver.

Distance

34

Figure 3-14: Decibels

Attenuation is Sometimes Expressed in Decibels (dB) The equation for decibels is
dB = 10 log10(P2/P1) Where P1 is the initial power and P2 is the final power after transmission If P2 is smaller than P1, then the answer will be negative

35

Figure 3-14: Decibels, Continued

Example
Over a transmission link, power drops to 37% of its original value P2/P1 = 37/100 = .37 (37%/100%) LOG10(0.37) = -0.4318 10*LOG10(0.37) = -4.3 dB (negative, reflecting power reduction through attenuation)

In calculations, the Excel LOG10 function can be used

36

Figure 3-14: Decibels, Continued

There are two useful approximations 3 dB loss is a reduction to very nearly 1/2 the original power
6 dB loss is a decrease to 1/4 the original power 9 dB loss is a decrease to 1/8 the original power

10 dB loss is a reduction to very nearly 1/10 the original power

20 dB loss is a decrease to 1/100 the original power
37

Figure 3-13: Attenuation and Noise, Continued

Power Signal Noise Spike Error Noise Distance Noise is random unwanted energy within the wire Its average is called the noise floor Random noise spikes cause errors -A high signal-to-noise ratio reduces noise error problems As a signal attenuates with distance, damaging noise spikes become more common Noise Floor

Signalto-Noise Ratio (SNR)

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Limiting UTP Cord Length

Limit UTP cord length to 100 meters
Limits attenuation to being a negligible problem
Limits noise problems being a negligible problem Note that limiting cord lengths limits BOTH noise and attenuation problems

100 Meters Maximum Cord Length

39

Figure 3-11: Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Wiring, Continued

Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) (Fig. 3-15)
Electromagnetic interference is electromagnetic energy from outside sources that adds to the signal
From fluorescent lights, electrical motors, microwave ovens, etc. The problem is that UTP cords are like long radio antennas.

They pick up EMI energy nicely

When they carry signals, they also send EMI energy out from themselves
40

Figure 3-15: Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) and Twisting

Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)

Twisted Wire Interference on the Two Halves of a Twist Cancels Out

41

Figure 3-16: Crosstalk Interference and Terminal Crosstalk Interference

Untwisted at Ends

Signal

Crosstalk Interference

Terminal Crosstalk Interference

Terminal crosstalk interference Normally is the biggest EMI problem for UTP 42

Figure 3-16: Crosstalk Interference and Terminal Crosstalk Interference, Continued

EMI is any interference
Signals in adjacent pairs interfere with one another (crosstalk interference). This is a specific type of EMI
Crosstalk interference is worst at the ends, where the wires are untwisted. This is terminal crosstalk interferencea specific type of crosstalk EMI
EMI Crosstalk Interference Terminal Crosstalk Interference

43

Figure 3-11: Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Wiring, Continued

Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) (Fig. 3-15)
Terminal crosstalk interference dominates interference in UTP
Terminal crosstalk interference is limited to an acceptable level by not untwisting wires more than a half inch (1.25 cm) at each end of the cord to fit into the RJ-45 connector This reduces terminal crosstalk interference to a negligible level.
1.25 cm or 0.5 inches 44

UTP Limitations
Limit cords to 100 meters
Limits BOTH noise AND attenuation problems to an acceptable level

Do not untwist wires more than 1.25 cm (a half inch) when placing them in RJ-45 connectors
Limits terminal crosstalk interference to an acceptable level

Neither completely eliminates the problems but they usually reduce the problems to negligible levels
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Figure 3-17: Serial Versus Parallel Transmission

One Clock Cycle 1. Serial 1 bit Transmission (1 bit per clock cycle) 2. Parallel Transmission (1 bit per clock cycle per wire pair) 4 bits per clock cycle on 4 pairs 1 bit 1 bit 1 bit 1 bit Parallel transmission increases speed. But it is only workable over short distances. Parallel is not 4. It is more than one.

46

Figure 3-18: Wire Quality Standards

Wiring Quality Standards
Rated by Category (Cat) Numbers

Category Standards are Set by ANSI/TIA/EIA and ISO/IEC

In the United States, the TIA/EIA/ANSI-568 governs UTP and optical fiber standards In Europe and many other parts of the world, the standard is ISO/IEC 11801 The two sets of standards are close but not identical
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Figure 3-18: Wire Quality Standards

UTP Categories 3 and 4
Early data wiring, which could only handle Ethernet speeds up to 10 Mbps

UTP Categories 5 and 5e

Most wiring installed today is Category 5e (enhanced)

Cat 5e and Cat 5 can handle Ethernet up to 1 Gbps

Most wiring sold today is Cat 5e

48

Figure 3-18: Wire Quality Standards

UTP Category 6
Relatively new No better than Cat 5 or Cat 5e at 1 Gbps Developed for higher Ethernet speeds of 10 Gbps But can only span 55 meters at that speed Book says cannot be used. This is an error. Errors

Category 6A (Augmented)
Able to carry Ethernet signals at 10 Gbps up 100 meters
The book said 55 meters, but this is an error
49

Figure 3-18: Wire Quality Standards

Category 7 STP
Shielded twisted pair (STP) rather than unshielded twisted pair (UTP)
Metal foil shield around each pair to reduce crosstalk interference Metal mesh around all four pairs to reduce crosstalk from other cords

STP is expensive and awkward to lay Can 10 Gbps Ethernet to 100 meters
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Optical Fiber Transmission

Light through Glass
Better than UTP: More Easily Spans Longer Distances at High Speeds

Figure 3-19: UTP in Access Lines and Optical Fiber in Trunk Lines

1. Workgroup Switches Link Computers to the Network Workgroup Switch UTP Access Line

2. UTP dominates access lines between stations and their workgroup switches UTP Access Line

UTP Access Line 52

Figure 3-19: UTP in Access Lines and Optical Fiber in Trunk Lines, Continued
1. Core switches connect other switches Fiber Trunk Fiber Trunk Fiber Trunk Core

Core Switch

Fiber Trunk
Core Switch

Core Switch

Fiber Trunk

2. Fiber dominates trunk lines between switches

53

Figure 3-20: Optical Fiber Transceiver and Strand

3. Cladding 125 micron diameter

Strand

Transceiver 1. (Transmitter/Receiver) Light Source 5. 850 nm, Perfect internal reflection at 1,310 nm, core/cladding boundary; and 1,550 nm No signal loss, so low attenuation

2. Core 8.3, 50 or 62.5 micron diameter 4. Light Ray 54

Figure 3-22: Two-Strand Full-Duplex Optical Fiber Cord with SC and ST Connectors

Cord
A fiber cord has two-fiber strands for full-duplex (twoway) transmission

Two Strands

SC Connectors ST Connectors 55

Figure 3-22: Pen and Full-Duplex Optical Fiber Cord with SC and ST Connectors

SC Connectors (Push in and Snap)

ST Connectors (Bayonet: Push in and Twist)

56

Figure 3-23: Frequency and Wavelengths

2. Wavelength Distance between comparable points in successive cycles (Measured in nanometers for light) 1. Amplitude Power, Voltage, etc. Wave

Amplitude

1 Second 3. Frequency is the number of cycles per second. 1 Hz = 1 cycle per second In this case, there are two cycles in 1 second, so frequency is two hertz (2 Hz).

57

Light Wavelengths
Light signals are measured by wavelength Light wavelengths measured in nanometers (nm)

There are three fiber wavelength windows with good propagation characteristics
850 nm

1310 nm 1550 nm

Shorter wavelength allows cheaper transceivers

Longer-wavelength light travels farther

58

Figure 3-24: Carrier Fiber and LAN Fiber

LAN Fiber
Uses multimode fiber, which has a thick core diameter of 50 or 62.5 microns
Less expensive than single-mode fiber (later)

62.5 micron fiber is more common in the US but does not carry signals as far as 50 micron fiber
Also uses inexpensive 850 nm transceivers

Multimode fiber with 850 nm signaling cannot span the kilometer distances needed by carriers, but can span the 200-300 meters needed in LAN fiber cords
59

Figure 3-24: Multimode and Single-Mode Optical Fiber

Mode 2 Light Source (Usually Laser) Core Mode 1 Arrives Later

Multimode Fiber

In thicker fiber, light only travels in one of several allowed modes. Different modes travel different distances and arrive at different times (See that Mode 1 light takes longer to arrive than Mode 2 light.) If distance is too long, modes from successive light pulses will overlap. This is modal distortion. If it is too large, signals will be unreadable. Modal distortion is the main limitation on distance in multimode fiber. 60

Figure 3-24: Carrier Fiber and LAN Fiber

LAN Fiber
All multimode fiber today is graded-index multimode fiber
The index of refraction decreases from the center of the core to the cores outer edge.
Lower Higher Incidence of Refraction

61

Figure 3-24: Carrier Fiber and LAN Fiber

LAN Fiber
Graded-index multimode fiber Light speed increases when the index decreases The central mode (Mode 2) is slowed High-angle modes (Mode 1) are speeded up Modal dispersion between the modes is reduced
Mode 2 (Slowed)

Mode 1 (Speeded Up Near Edge of Core)

Lower Modal Dispersion

62

Figure 3-24: Carrier Fiber and LAN Fiber

LAN Fiber
UTP quality is measured by category number. Multimode Fiber Quality Measured as modal bandwidth (MHz.km or MHz-km) More modal bandwidth is better Increases the speeddistance product

With greater mobile bandwidth, can go faster, farther, or some combination of the two
63

Figure 3-24: Carrier Fiber and LAN Fiber

LAN Fiber
Example: 1000BASE-SX Ethernet
Uses inexpensive 850 nm light With 62.5 micron fiber and 160 MHz-km modal bandwidth, maximum distance is 220 m With 62.5 micron fiber and 200 MHz-km bandwidth, maximum distance is 275 m

Some vendors with higher-than-standard modal bandwidth can carry traffic farther
64

Figure 3-24: Carrier Fiber and LAN Fiber

LANs and WAN carriers use different types of fiber Carrier Fiber
Carrier fiber must span long distances

This requires expensive long-wavelength laser light sources (1,310 and 1,550 nm)
It also requires expensive single-mode fiber with a very narrow core (8.3 microns)

65

Figure 3-24: Multimode and Single-Mode Optical Fiber , Continued

Single Mode Light Source Single-Mode Fiber Light enters only at certain angles called modes Single-mode fiber cores are so thin that only one mode can propagatethe one traveling straight through Cladding Core

No modal dispersion (discussed earlier), so can span long distances without this distortion
Expensive but necessary in WANs 66

Figure 3-24: Carrier Fiber and LAN Fiber

Carrier Fiber
Main propagation effect for single-mode fiber is attenuation, which is very low For 850 nm light, attenuation is around 2.5 dB/km At 1,310 nm, attenuation is lowerabout 0.8 dB/km

At 1,550 nm, attenuation falls even lowerabout 0.2 dB/km

Longer wavelengths carry farther but cost more

Carrier fiber uses wavelengths of 1,310 or 1,550 nm

67

Figure 3-24: Carrier Fiber and LAN Fiber

Noise and Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) Are Not Problems for Either LAN or Carrier Fiber

Noise from moving electrons cannot interfere with light signals

EMI would have to be light signals
Wrapping the cladding in an opaque covering prevents light from coming in

68

Figure 3-24: Carrier Fiber and LAN Fiber

Corporate LAN Multimode Fiber Only 200-300 meters Much Lower ($) Multimode ($) Usually 850 nm ($) Carrier (WAN) Single-Mode Fiber Many kilometers Very high ($$$$) Single-mode ($$$$)

Needed Distance Cost Fiber Type Wavelength Typical Core Propagation Limit

Usually 1,310 or 1,550 nm ($$$$) 50/62.5 microns ($) 8.3 microns ($$$) Modal Distortion Attenuation No. Only attenuation matters
69

Is Modal Bandwidth Yes Important?

Topology

Figure 3-26: Major Topologies

Topology
Network topology refers to the physical arrangement of a networks computers, switches, routers, and transmission lines Topology is a physical layer concept

Different network (and internet) standards specify different topologies

Point-to-Point Topology (Telephone Modem Communication, Private Lines)

71

Figure 3-26: Major Topologies, Continued

Star (Modern Ethernet)

Example: Pat Lees House in Chapter 1a

72

Figure 3-26: Major Topologies, Continued

Extended Star or Hierarchy (Modern Ethernet)
B

A C

Only one possible path between any two computers For computers X and Y, the path is XBACDY

Y Z 73

Figure 3-26: Major Topologies, Continued

Mesh (Routers, Frame Relay, ATM) A

Path ABD

C D

Multiple alternative paths between two computers

Path ACD

74

Figure 3-26: Major Topologies, Continued

Ring (SONET/SDH)

75

Figure 3-26: Major Topologies, Continued

Bus Topology (Broadcasting) Used in Wireless LANs

76

Topics Covered

Topics Covered
Binary Data Encoding
Inherently binary data (IP addresses, etc.)

Integers (binary arithmetic)

Alternatives (N bits can represent 2N Alternatives) Text (ASCII and Extended ASCII)

Graphics (pixels, bits per pixel color)

For transmission the sender converts bits to signals (on/off, voltage levels, etc.)
78

Topics Covered, Continued

Digital Transmission (Box)
A few states instead of just two states (binary) All binary transmission is digital transmission Only some digital transmission (transmission with two states) is binary In the box: bit rates and baud rates

79

Topics Covered, Continued

UTP
4-pair UTP cords and RJ-45 connectors and jacks Attenuation (often expressed in decibels) and noise Limit UTP cords to 100 meters Electromagnetic interference, crosstalk interference, and terminal crosstalk interference Limit wire unwinding to 1.25 cm (a half inch) to limit terminal crosstalk interference Serial versus parallel transmission
80

Topics Covered, Continued

Optical Fiber
On/off light pulses from transceiver
Core and cladding; perfect internal reflection Dominates for trunk lines among core switches 2 fiber strands/fiber cord for full-duplex transmission SC and ST connectors are the most common Carriers use single-mode fiber and long wavelengths LANs use multimode fiber and short wavelengths
81

Topics Covered, Continued

Multimode Optical Fiber Distance Increases With
Greater Wavelength 850 nm < 1310 nm < 1550 nm windows

But larger-wavelength transceivers cost more

Smaller Core Diameter 50 microns > 62.5 microns

Greater Modal Bandwidth (MHz.km)

Measure of multimode fiber quality
82

Topics Covered, Continued

Topologies
Organization of devices and transmission links
Physical layer concept Point-to-point, star, hierarchy, ring, etc.

83