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Human skills, appreciations, and reasonings in all their variety, as well as human hopes, aspirations, and values, are generally recognized to depend for their development largerly on the events called LEARNING (Gagne, 1985, p.1)
I. PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
Basic Concepts - The Nature of Human learning Two characteristics of learning account for its importance in development : 1. Human learning is not simply acquiring isolated bits of information. 2. Complex skills that are learned build on prior learning ( human learning is cumulative ).
The Diversity of Learning Learning is not a single process ( Gagne, 1970, 1972 ). Effort to force-fit all learning principles into a single description is one error in the development of learning principles. Conception of human learning must not be restricted to the learning found in the lab or school only, but should apply also to, for example, carpenters, astronauts, politicians, housewives, and word-processing operators (Gagne, 1984, p.378).
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- A Definition of Learning 1. Learning is the mechanism by which an individual becomes a competently functioning member of society (Gagne, 1977a). 2. Learning is the set of cognitive processes that transforms the simulation from the environment into several phase of information processing necessary for acquiring a new capability (Gagne & Briggs, 1979, p.43).
3. Should require different instructional treatments, prerequisites, and processing requirement by learners. 4. Factors identified as affecting the learning of each category should generalize to tasks within the category but not across categories (with the exception of reinforcement).
The framework of learning described by Gagne consist of : 1. The five varieties of learning - Verbal information - Intellectual skills - Cognitive strategies - Motor skills - Attitudes (see table 6.1 and figure 6.1)
2. The cognitive processing phase Referred to as internal conditions of learning. Internal learning condition are composed of : - The learners internal states that are required for the particular capability to be acquired. Internal states consist of the prerequisite skills and attitudes that influence the new learning. - The set of cognitive processes involved in learning.
Internal prerequisites : - Supportive prerequisites are the capabilities that facilitate learning. Regardless of the type of outcome. - Essential prerequisites are particular skills that become an integral part of new learning (Gagne & Briggs, 1979, p.106)
3. The environmental supports for learning, referred to as external conditions of learning
Gagne has identified nine stages of processing that are essential to learning and must be executed in sequential order. The nine phases are categorized into three stages : - Preparation for learning - Acquisition and performance - Transfer of learning (see table 6.2)
2. Learning Hierarchies Learning hierarchies are organized set of intellectual skills only. Within intelectual skills, four kinds of discrete psychological capabilities have been identified. They are discrimination learning, concept learning (concrete and defined concepts), rule learning, and higher-order rule learning (problem solving).
The two organizations of capabilities that represent complex learning are procedures and learning hierarchies
Instruction should be planned to facilitate the learning of an individual student. Both immediate and long range phases are included in the design of instruction Instructional planning should not be haphazard or provide merely a nurturing environment, it has to influence human development as much as possible and should be designed systematically.
6 Components of instruction
1. 2. 3.
4.
5. 6.
Designing Performance Objectives Preparation for Learning Acquisition and Performances Retrieval and Transfers Applicability to the learning varieties The Role of Media in Instructions
Information
Motor skill Attitude Cognitive strategy Intellectual skills a. Discriminate b. Concept c. Rule d. Higher order rule
States, define
Executes, perform Choose, select Originate/create Select Identifies Demonstrates Generate/produce
Learning Phase
1. Attending
Instructional Events
Gain Learners attention through unusual event, questions or change of stimulus
4. Selective perception of stimulus features 5. Semantic encoding 6. Retrieval and responding 7. Reinforcement
Present distinctive stimulus features Providing learning guidance Elicit/ bring about performance Provide feedback Assess performances
Transfer of learning
Helps the learner transform the new capability into a code for alter recall (remember) Makes the difference between learning that is facile and learning that is hard (or effective or ineffective)
1.
Function of Feedback
Provide students with necessary corrections or Provide reinforcement by confirming that the objective has been achieve
Instruction provides for assessment of the new learning followed by cue for retrieval and transfer.
2.
For assessment, new situations or examples should be presented to students to be certain that learning is not restricted to only a few examples
3.
4.
Teachers and instructional designers select verbal statements, questions, objects and other stimuli to stimulate the learners' internal processing.
2. 3.
Terms of media is conjures up images of computer-assisted instruction, instructional television, video, etc. Media approach is to choose a media form and then plan instruction 2 Deficiencies of media approach are: Research of media utilization indicates that no one medium is universally superior to all others for every type of learning outcome for learner Arbitrary (subjective) selection of media can result in the omission of essential instructional events.
Computer instructions, interactive televisions and interactive video disc are for intellectual skills 2. Characteristic of learners. age, and extent of reading comprehension 3. Review the choices for the capability of providing the required instructional events 4. Practical factors such as costs, size of the groups.
3 important steps in designing Instruction for complex skill: 1. Defining each capability to be learned in the form of performance objectives 2. Selecting appropriate instructional events 3. Providing for the cumulative nature of human learning
Classroom Issues
1.
Learner Characteristics consists of 3: a. Individual differences The effectiveness of instruction is influenced by several kinds of individual differences among students (including differences in cognitive strategies and rate of learning)
Classroom Issues
b. Readiness is viewed as individuals relevant capabilities. Its not a matter of maturation nor gradual internatilization of logical thoughts, however to the availability of essential prerequisite capabilities. Readiness includes the lower skills in the hierarchy of intellectual skills and the essential rules, concepts and part skills in procedures.
Classroom Issues
c. Motivation designing effective instruction includes the identification of students motives and guide of those motives into productive activities that accomplish educational goals.
Classroom Issues
2. Cognitive process and Instructions Learning how to learn skill this skill is cognitive strategies which refers to the ways that the individual manages his or her learning to achieve their potential
Classroom Issues
3. Teaching Problem Solving. It requires 2 things: a. The necessary rules are already acquired by the learner b. A problem situation is presented to the learner that he or she has not encountered before Thus, solution engages in discovery learning which they must select from memory the appropriate rules and combine them
Classroom Issues
4. Social context for learning. This methods recommended by Gagne on the focus on the design of instructional system rather than on the development of models of teaching. Model of teaching teachers in the role of conducting or managing instruction for some identified group. Instructional system in contrast often include sets of materials and activities for which the pacing and management of instructions may reside on the learner.
Classroom Issues
4. Relationship to other Perspectives.
a)
b)
Learners acquire responses and environmental events (event of instructions are very essentials internal capabilities and require different internal states Like operant, the sequence of instruction in the condition of learning is teachers directed and managed moves toward a predetermined outcome.
b)
c)
Instructions is designed for specified goals and objectives Development of instruction utilizes media and instructional technologies Pilot tryout, material revisions and field testing of the materials are an integral part of the design process.
3. 4.
Write or select performance objectives Select instructional events for each of the performance objective Select media for instructional evens Develop tests for the objectives