OFFSHORE TERMINALS (OT)

Definition: OT means a port facility for loading and /

or unloading cargo at which the berthing facility is not in direct contact with shore but is connected via vessels, trestle, causeway, tramway, tunnel pipeline or other means. Offshore terminals are classified generally as offshore piers (sea islands), multibuoy moorings, and singlebuoy mooring facilities. Each of these systems has three principal parts: A means for holding the tanker in position. A means for transferring the cargo from the tankers manifold to manifold on the loading platform or on the sea bottom. An underwater pipeline between the manifold and shore.

Sea Islands (offshore Piers):

A fixed berth consisting of a platform with unloading facilities connected to; shore by submarine pipelines, and breasting and mooring dolphins comprises a sea island. The breasting dolphins take the impact load during berthing and the loads imposed while moored. The mooring dolphins contains bollards or quick-release hooks to which the ships wire are connected. These wires hold the ship in a fairly fixed envelope and permit the use of loading arms.

Multiple-Buoy Mooring:
Three to seven moored buoys are installed in a general semicircular patterns around the stern of a tanker. The ships anchors are normally used for the mooring points forward. The buoys are oriented in the direction of prevailing wind and waves. The tanker ties up with the help of her own anchors and mooring launch. This system is used in relatively calm waters and locations where wind and waves are consistently from one direction. In this system, the ship is held in position rigidly. The connection to the ships manifold is made by the use of submerged hoses that are lifted from the sea bottom once the ship is moored. Submarine pipeline connect the pipeline and manifold (PLEM) to shore.

Fixed Berth:

The simplest version of this facility is the finger pier, built out into deep water. In a protected area this is the most preferred system from an operational point of view. Its use is restricted to comparatively sheltered areas where deep water lies close to shore.

Single-Buoy Mooring

are very common for; mooring VLCCs. The types in use are: Catenary anchor-leg mooring (CALM) Single anchor-leg mooring (SALM) Single point tower with rotating trussed arm Single point tower with floating hose. Two most common types are the CALM and SALM systems.

CALM System:
This facility is a moored buoy to which a tanker is connected by a mooring line. Cargo transfer takes place from the buoy to the tanker through a floating hose that is connected to the ships manifold and to a fluid swivel on the buoy. The connection PLEM is made by an under buoy hose. The buoy is fixed but a turntable on top of the buoy, to which the mooring line is connected allows the tanker to weathervane about the buoy in response to changes in wave, current and wind. Other characteristics of the CALM system are: Uses four to eight anchored catenary chain legs The buoy always stays on the surface of the water The buoy stays fixed during operations - only the turntable mounted on the buoy turns

SALM System:
A typical SALM consists of a mooring buoy at the sea surface held to a mooring base on the sea floor by a single anchor leg. The buoy is drawn down against its buoyancy by tension in the anchor leg. Tankers are moored by mooring lines to the buoy, and a mooring swivel in the anchor leg allows the tanker to swing around the mooring point. At the SALM, the tanker is free to weathervane, that is to align itself with the predominant wind, waves and currents. To transfer cargo through the mooring, a fluid swivel is mounted concentrically about the anchor leg, either on the top of the base or on the top of a riser pivoted at the base and forming part or the anchor leg. A submarine pipeline, carrying cargo to or from the mooring, is jointed to the base or to bottom or the riser by hoses. Cargo hoses connected to an arm on the fluid swivel rise to the surface where they float and extend to the tanker manifold. Other SALM characteristics are: It has a base which is piled to hold against mooring line loads. Its hose connection is made below the active wave zone. The buoy turns with the weathervaning ship. The buoy is designed to submerge with increasing mooring line loads.

Design Considerations Offshore Terminals

Offshore terminals are designed for the same loads normally expected at any port facility plus other additional loads that exist because of the exposed location of the terminal. One major consideration is the rate of corrosion of metal elements and the erosion of other materials. However, in general, following loads and forces are considered in the design of offshore terminals / structures. Dead load of structure and equipment Line loads Impact loads associated with live loads Wind forces Wave forces Ship berthing forces Ship mooring forces Hydrostatic pressure Buoyant forces Lateral earth forces Earthquake forces Vibratory loads

ONSHORE TERMINALS
An onshore terminal may be describes as docking facilities for the shore loading and unloading of petroleum. However, a full description would include the following terms and respective definitions in as much as they form the general scenario in which onshore oil terminals are installed and operated.
Channel: The buoyed, dredged and policed fairway through which ships proceed from the sea to their or from one berth to another within a harbor. Berth: The water area, at the waterfront edge or a wharf, reserved for a ship. Harbor: An area or water affording a natural or artificial haven for ships. In a more limited sense, an area separated by natural or artificial indentations of shore line from the main body of water, as the area within two headlands or points between which run the main ship channels leading to an open sea. Harbor facilities: Those aids or conveniences provided for ships as opposed to those offered by ports for cargo. These facilities include : channels, anchorages, anchorage basins, mooring posts, mooring basins, dry docks, ship repair plants, tug boats, etc. Port: A harbor plus terminal facilities. Also, a harbor provided with terminal and transfer facilities that enable it to be used in commerce. It involves some amount of development for purposes of commerce and physically, if there are marked indentions of shore lines, ports may exist without harbors. Port facilities: Waterfront terminals, including structures, equipment and aids for loading/unloading cargo. Other facilities included are wharves, pier, sheds, warehouses, rail roads, water or street connections, etc. Terminal: The end of a movement in transportation. Also, the buildings, structures and equipment at the end of a transportation movement for the transfer, delivery and storage of cargo.

Design Considerations Onshore Terminals

Docking facilities for the loading and unloading of oil, typically consists of wharves, piers, bulkheads, or mooring berths with equipment for handling cargo hoses that connect the ships manifold with pipelines on the dock. Some of the preliminary factors are : Size of the tankers that will use the terminal. The quantity and characteristics of the crude oils to be handled. The rate of loading and unloading the cargo. Ballast and bunkering facilities that are to be provided i.e. utility requirements. Storage requirements.

Planning the Fixed-Structure Berthing Facility

Depth of Berth: As for offshore terminals, the depth needed is the draft of the maximum ship plus an allowance of about 10 % for under keel clearance. This allowance is variable and is a function of wave height, length and direction. In general the dock should not be broadside to the prevailing wave front. It is also better to have the ship anchored parallel to the direction of the prevailing winds or, if this is not possible, aligned so that the wind is holding the ship off the deck.

Site Selection
Preliminary site investigations are generally restricted to a local check of charts, geological maps and meteorological information together with the taking of small numbers of borings if dredging is needed. Final investigations need a full-site survey; with current observations on spring and tides as well as borings over the likely sites of the main components of berthing structure.