Overview of Mechanical Engineering

for Non-MEs
Part 2: Mechanics of Materials
.
9
Torsion
Overview of Mechanical Engineering

3 - 2
Contents
Introduction
Torsional Loads on Circular Shafts
Net Torque Due to Internal Stresses
Axial Shear Components
Shaft Deformations
Shearing Strain
Stresses in Elastic Range
Normal Stresses
Torsional Failure Modes
Sample Problem 3.1
Angle of Twist in Elastic Range
Statically Indeterminate Shafts
Sample Problem 3.4
Design of Transmission Shafts
Stress Concentrations
Plastic Deformations
Elastoplastic Materials
Residual Stresses
Example 3.08/3.09
Torsion of Noncircular Members
Thin-Walled Hollow Shafts
Example 3.10
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Torsional Loads on Circular Shafts
Interested in stresses and strains of
circular shafts subjected to twisting
couples or torques
Generator creates an equal and
opposite torque T on the shaft
(action-reaction principle)
Shaft transmits the torque to the
generator
Turbine exerts torque T on the shaft
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Net Torque Due to Internal Stresses
( )
} }
= = dA dF T t
Net of the internal shearing stresses is an
internal torque, equal and opposite to the
applied torque,
Although the net torque due to the shearing
stresses is known, the distribution of the
stresses is not.
Unlike the normal stress due to axial loads, the
distribution of shearing stresses due to torsional
loads can not be assumed uniform.
Distribution of shearing stresses is statically
indeterminate must consider shaft
deformations.
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Axial Shear Components
Torque applied to shaft produces shearing
stresses on the faces perpendicular to the
axis.
The existence of the axial shear components is
demonstrated by considering a shaft made up
of axial slats.


Conditions of equilibrium require the
existence of equal stresses on the faces of the
two planes containing the axis of the shaft.
The slats slide with respect to each other
when equal and opposite torques are applied
to the ends of the shaft.
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From observation, the angle of twist of the
shaft is proportional to the applied torque and
to the shaft length.
L
T

|
|
Shaft Deformations
When subjected to torsion, every cross-section
of a circular shaft remains plane and
undistorted.
Cross-sections of noncircular (non-
axisymmetric) shafts are distorted when
subjected to torsion.
Cross-sections for hollow and solid circular
shafts remain plain and undistorted because a
circular shaft is axisymmetric.
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Shearing Strain
Consider an interior section of the shaft. As a
torsional load is applied, an element on the
interior cylinder deforms into a rhombus.
Shear strain is proportional to twist and radius
max max
and

c L
c
= =
L
L AA arch
|
| = = = or ) (
'
It follows that
Since the ends of the element remain planar,
the shear strain is equal to angle of twist.
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Stresses in Elastic Range
J
c
dA
c
dA T
max
2
max
t

t
t
}
=
}
= =
Recall that the sum of the moments from
the internal stress distribution is equal to
the torque on the shaft at the section,
4
2
1
c J t =
( )
O center inertia of moment
dA J
c c J
=
=
=
}
2
4
1
4
2 2
1

t
and
max
J
T
J
Tc
t t = =
The results are known as the elastic torsion
formulas,
Multiplying the previous equation by the
shear modulus,
max

G
c
G =
max
t

t
c
=
From Hookes Law,
t G =
, so
The shearing stress varies linearly with the
radial position in the section.
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Normal Stresses
Elements with faces parallel and perpendicular
to the shaft axis are subjected to shear stresses
only. Normal stresses, shearing stresses or a
combination of both may be found for other
orientations.
( )
max
0
0 max
45
0 max 0 max
2
2
2 45 cos 2
o
t
t
o
t t
= = =
= =
A
A
A
F
A A F
Consider an element at 45
o
to the shaft axis,
Element a is in pure shear.
Note that all stresses for elements a and c have
the same magnitude
Element c is subjected to a tensile stress on
two faces and compressive stress on the other
two.
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Torsional Failure Modes
Ductile materials generally fail in
shear. Brittle materials are weaker in
tension than shear.

When subjected to torsion, a ductile
specimen breaks along a plane of
maximum shear, i.e., a plane
perpendicular to the shaft axis.
When subjected to torsion, a brittle
specimen breaks along planes
perpendicular to the direction in
which tension is a maximum, i.e.,
along surfaces at 45
o
to the shaft
axis.
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Shaft BC is hollow with inner and outer
diameters of 90 mm and 120 mm,
respectively. Shafts AB and CD are solid
of diameter d. For the loading shown,
determine (a) the minimum and maximum
shearing stress in shaft BC, (b) the
required diameter d of shafts AB and CD
if the allowable shearing stress in these
shafts is 65 MPa.
Sample Problem 3.1
SOLUTION:
Cut sections through shafts AB
and BC and perform static
equilibrium analyses to find
torque loadings.
Given allowable shearing stress
and applied torque, invert the
elastic torsion formula to find the
required diameter.
Apply elastic torsion formulas to
find minimum and maximum
stress on shaft BC.
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SOLUTION:
Cut sections through shafts AB and BC
and perform static equilibrium analysis
to find torque loadings.
( )
CD AB
AB x
T T
T M
= =
= =

m kN 6
m kN 6 0 ( ) ( )
m kN 20
m kN 14 m kN 6 0
=
+ = =

BC
BC x
T
T M
Sample Problem 3.1
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Apply elastic torsion formulas to
find minimum and maximum
stress on shaft BC.
( ) ( ) ( ) | |
4 6
4 4 4
1
4
2
m 10 92 . 13
045 . 0 060 . 0
2 2

=
= =
t t
c c J
( )( )
MPa 2 . 86
m 10 92 . 13
m 060 . 0 m kN 20
4 6
2
2 max
=

= = =

J
c T
BC
t t
MPa 7 . 64
mm 60
mm 45
MPa 2 . 86
min
min
2
1
max
min
=
= =
t
t
t
t
c
c
MPa 7 . 64
MPa 2 . 86
min
max
=
=
t
t
Given allowable shearing stress and
applied torque, invert the elastic torsion
formula to find the required diameter.
m 10 9 . 38
m kN 6
65
3
3
2
4
2
max

= = =
c
c
MPa
c
Tc
J
Tc
t t
t
mm 8 . 77 2 = = c d
Sample Problem 3.1
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3 - 14
Angle of Twist in Elastic Range
Recall that the angle of twist and maximum
shearing strain are related,
L
c|
=
max
In the elastic range, the shearing strain and shear
are related by Hookes Law,
JG
Tc
G
= =
max
max
t

Equating the expressions for shearing strain and

solving for the angle of twist,
JG
TL
= |
If the torsional loading or shaft cross-section
changes along the length, the angle of rotation is
found as the sum of segment rotations

=
i i i
i i
G J
L T
|
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Given the shaft dimensions and the applied
torque, we would like to find the torque reactions
at A and B.
Statically Indeterminate Shafts
From a free-body analysis of the shaft,


which is not sufficient to find the end torques.
The problem is statically indeterminate.
ft lb 90 = +
B A
T T
ft lb 90
1 2
2 1
= +
A A
T
J L
J L
T
Substitute into the original equilibrium equation,
A B
B A
T
J L
J L
T
G J
L T
G J
L T
1 2
2 1
2
2
1
1
2 1
0 = = = + = | | |
Divide the shaft into two components which
must have compatible deformations,
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Sample Problem 3.4
Two solid steel shafts are connected
by gears. Knowing that for each shaft
G = 11.2 x 10
6
psi and that the
allowable shearing stress is 8 ksi,
determine (a) the largest torque T
0

that may be applied to the end of shaft
AB, (b) the corresponding angle
through which end A of shaft AB
rotates.
SOLUTION:
Apply a static equilibrium analysis on
the two shafts to find a relationship
between T
CD
and T
0
.
Find the corresponding angle of twist
for each shaft and the net angular
rotation of end A.
Find the maximum allowable torque
on each shaft choose the smallest.
Apply a kinematic analysis to relate
the angular rotations of the gears.
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SOLUTION:
Apply a static equilibrium analysis on
the two shafts to find a relationship
between T
CD
and T
0
.

( )
( )
0
0
8 . 2
in. 45 . 2 0
in. 875 . 0 0
T T
T F M
T F M
CD
CD C
B
=
= =
= =

Apply a kinematic analysis to relate

the angular rotations of the gears.
C B
C C
B
C
B
C C B B
r
r
r r
| |
| | |
| |
8 . 2
in. 875 . 0
in. 45 . 2
=
= =
=
Sample Problem 3.4
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Find the T
0
for the maximum
allowable torque on each shaft
choose the smallest.
( )
( )
( )
( )
in. lb 561
in. 5 . 0
in. 5 . 0 8 . 2
8000
in. lb 663
in. 375 . 0
in. 375 . 0
8000
0
4
2
0
max
0
4
2
0
max
=
= =
=
= =
T
T
psi
J
c T
T
T
psi
J
c T
CD
CD
AB
AB
t
t
t
t
in lb 561
0
= T
Find the corresponding angle of twist for each
shaft and the net angular rotation of end A.
( )( )
( ) ( )
( )( )
( ) ( )
( )
o o
/
o o
o
6 4
2
/
o
6 4
2
/
2.22 26 . 8
26 . 8 95 . 2 8 . 2 8 . 2
95 . 2 rad 514 . 0
psi 10 2 . 11 in. 5 . 0
. in 24 in. lb 561 8 . 2
2.22 rad 387 . 0
psi 10 2 . 11 in. 375 . 0
. in 24 in. lb 561
+ = + =
= = =
= =

= =
= =

= =
B A B A
C B
CD
CD
D C
AB
AB
B A
G J
L T
G J
L T
| | |
| |
|
|
t
t
o
48 . 10 =
A
|
Sample Problem 3.4
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Stress Concentrations
The derivation of the torsion formula,


assumed a circular shaft with uniform
cross-section loaded through rigid end
plates.
J
Tc
=
max
t
J
Tc
K =
max
t
Experimental or numerically determined
concentration factors are applied as
The use of flange couplings, gears and
pulleys attached to shafts by keys in
keyways, and cross-section discontinuities
can cause stress concentrations
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Thin-Walled Hollow Shafts
Summing forces in the x-direction on AB,


shear stress varies inversely with thickness
( ) ( )
flow shear
0
= = = =
A A = =

q t t t
x t x t F
B B A A
B B A A x
t t t
t t
( ) ( )
tA
T
qA dA q dM T
dA q pds q ds t p dF p dM
2
2 2
2
0
0
=
= = =
= = = =
} }
t
t
Compute the shaft torque from the integral
of the moments due to shear stress
}
=
t
ds
G A
TL
2
4
|
Angle of twist (from Chapter 11)
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Example 3.10
Extruded aluminum tubing with a rectangular
cross-section has a torque loading of 24 kip-
in. Determine the shearing stress in each of
the four walls with (a) uniform wall thickness
of 0.160 in. and wall thicknesses of (b) 0.120
in. on AB and CD and 0.200 in. on CD and
BD.
SOLUTION:
Determine the shear flow through the
tubing walls.
Find the corresponding shearing stress
with each wall thickness .
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SOLUTION:
Determine the shear flow through the
tubing walls.
( )( )
( )
in.
kip
335 . 1
in. 986 . 8 2
in. - kip 24
2
in. 986 . 8 in. 34 . 2 in. 84 . 3
2
2
= = =
= =
A
T
q
A
Find the corresponding shearing
stress with each wall thickness.

With a uniform wall thickness,
in. 160 . 0
in. kip 335 . 1
= =
t
q
t
ksi 34 . 8 = t
With a variable wall thickness
in. 120 . 0
in. kip 335 . 1
= =
AC AB
t t
in. 200 . 0
in. kip 335 . 1
= =
CD BD
t t
ksi 13 . 11 = =
BC AB
t t
ksi 68 . 6 = =
CD BC
t t
Example 3.10