- The basic approach of all scheduling techniques is to from a network of activity and event relationships.

- This network should graphically portray the sequential relations between the tasks in a project. - Tasks that must precede or follow other tasks are then clearly identified in time as well as function. - Such networks are a powerful tool for planning and controlling a project and have the following benefits: * It is a consistent frame work for planning scheduling monitoring and controlling the project. * It illustrates the interdependence of all tasks, work package and work elements. * It denotes theedit Master subtitle style individuals must be times when specific Click to available for work on a given task. - Network Benefits: * It aids in ensuring that the proper communications take place between department and functions. * It determines an expected project completion date . * It identifies so called critical activities that if delayed will delay the project completion time. * It5/21/12 identifies activities with slack that can be delayed for

* It determines the dates on which tasks may be started or must be started if the project is to stay on schedule. * It illustrates which tasks must be coordinated to avoid resource timing conflicts. * It relieves some interpersonal conflict by clearly showing task dependencies. #NETWORK TECHNIQUES : PERT AND CPM With the exception of Gantt charts the most common approach to scheduling is the use of network techniques such as PERT and CPM. PERT: - The program Evaluation and Review Techniques (PERT) was developed by the U.S Navy in 1958. - PERT has been primarily used for research and development projects. CPM: - The critical Path Method (CPM) was developed by DuPont, Inc during the same time period. -CPM was designed for construction projects and has been generally embraced by the construction industry. The two methods are quit similar and are often combined 5/21/12

required by the Project use up resources, and take time to complete. * Event:- The result of completing one or more activities. An identifiable end state occurring at a particular time. Events use no resources. * Network: - The combination of all activities and events define the project and the activity precedence relationships. * Path: - The series of connected activities between any two events in a network. * Critical:- Activities events or path which if delayed will delay the completion of the project. A projects critical path is understood to mean that sequence of critical activities that connect the projects start event to its finish event. An activity can be in any of these conditions: - It may have a successor but no predecessor starts a network. -It may have a predecessor but no successor ends a 5/21/12 network

#DRAWING NETWORKS: - Activity on Arrow (AOA) networks use arrows to represent activities while nodes stand for events. - Activity on Node (AON) networks use nodes to represent activities with arrows to show precedence relationships. - The choice between AOA and AON representation is largely a matter of personal preference.

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1. Controlling Performance:- There are several things that can cause a projects performance to require control: - Unexpected technical problem arise; - Insufficient resources are available when needed; - Insoluble technical difficulties are present; - Quality or reliability problems occur; - Client requires changes in specifications; - Inter-functional complications/ conflicts arise ; -Technological breakthroughs affect the project; - Intra team conflict arise. 2. Controlling Cost: There are several things that can cause a projects cost to required control: - technical difficulties require more resources - The scope of the work increase; - Initial bids or estimates were too low; - Reporting was poor or untimely; - budgeting was inadequate; Corrective control was not exercised in time; - Input price change occurred. 3. Controlling Time: there are several things that can cause a projects schedule to require control: - Technical difficulties took longer than planned to resolve; Initial time estimates were optimistic; - Task sequencing was 5/21/12 incorrect; - Required inputs of material, personnel, or

be controlled; - How it will be measured; - How much deviation will be tolerated; - How to spot and correct potential deviations before they occur. # TYPES OF CONTROL PROCESSES: * No matter what the purpose in controlling a project there are three basic types of control mechanisms that can be used: 1. GO/No-go control; 2. Post control; 3. Cybernetic control,* Sensor based Feedback loop. # GO/No-go Controls: - Take the form of testing to see if some specific precondition has been met; - Most of the control on project management falls into this category; - This type of control can be used on almost every aspect of a project; - Must exercise judgment in the use of go/no-go controls; - Go/no-go controls operate only when and if the controller uses them; - Response to go/no-go controls tends to be neutral or negative; - Barely good enough result are just as acceptable as perfect results; - The system makes it difficult for the worker to take pride in high quality work because the system does not recognize gradations of quality. #INFORMATION REQUIREMENTS: GO/No-go Controls: - The project proposal plans specifications, schedule and budget contain all the information needed to apply go/no-go controls to the 5/21/12 project; - Milestones are the key events that serve as a factor for

* Directed toward improving the chances for future projects to meet their goals; * It is applied through a relatively formal document that contains four distinct sections:- The project objectives; Milestones, checkpoints and budgets; - The final report on project; - Recommendations for performance and process improvement. * Post controls are seen as much the same as a report card; * They may sever as the basis for reward or punishment but they are received too late to change current performance; * Because post controls are placed on the process of conducting a project they may be applied to such areas as communication, cooperation, quality, of project management and the nature of interaction with the client. #CYBERNETIC CONTROLS: * Human response to steering controls tends to be positive; * Steering controls are usually viewed as helpful rather than a source of unwelcome pressure; 5/21/12

for the project manager to use in controlling the project are: 1. Variance analysis; 2. Trend projection curve; 3. Critical ratio; 4. Control chart; 5. Benchmarking. # Variance Analysis and Trend Projection: * Some of the most important tools available for the project manager to use in controlling the project are variance analysis and trend projection; * A budget plan or expected growth curve of time or cost for a certain task is plotted; * Actual values are plotted as a dashed line the work is actually finished; * At each point in time a new projection from the actual data is used to forecast what will occur in the future. #Critical Ratio Control Charts: * The critical ratio is made up of two parts: 1. The ratio of actual progress to scheduled progress; 2. The ratio of budgeted cost to actual cost. * The critical ratio is a good measure of the general health of the project; * By combining two ratios, it weights them equally, allowing a bad ratio to be offset by a good ratio. #Benchmarking: * A recent addition to the arsenal of project control tools is benchmarking; * Benchmarking makes comparisons to best in class practices across organizations; * 5/21/12 Some successful organization have been benchmarked on their

# THE PLANNING MONITORINGFEEDBACK PLANNING/ SCHEDULING CONTROLLING CYCLE: LOOP * The planning monitoring controlling cycle is continuously in Customer Develop Verify Specs process until the project is completed. This process should be Needs Functional w/ Customer perceived as closed Specs system. * In a closed loop system loop revised plans and schedules should follow corrective actions; * The Resourceof the planning expose the elements to Specs details Design Specs to Functional be controlled. Estimates Engineering to design Specs
REPORT/MONITOR FEEDBACK LOOPS
Specs Project Plan and Schedule Implement Monitor & Control PM TEAM FEEDBACK LOOPS Stakeholder Feedback

MANAGEMENT FEEDBACK LOOPS

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setting up any monitoring system is to identify the key factors to be controlled; * The project manager must define precisely which specific characteristics of performance, cost and time should be controlled; * Exact boundaries must then be established within which control should be maintained; * The best source od items to be monitored is the project action plan; * The monitoring system is a direct connection between planning and control; * It is common to focus monitoring activities on data that are easily gathered- rather than important; * Monitoring should concentrate primarily on measuring various facets of output rather than intensity of activity. * The measurement of project performance usually poses the most difficult data gathering problem. #DATA FORMS: * It is necessary to define precisely what pieces of information should be gathered and when; * A large proportion of all data collected take one of the following forms: - Frequency counts (tally of occurrence of an event, complaints, number of times a project report is late); - Raw numbers ( dates, dollars, time etc); - Subject numeric ratings (subjective estimates made by knowledgeable individuals or 5/21/12 group); - Indicators (indirect measure of performance, speed of

Interest/decision; - Special analysis- Lessons Learned. * Exception reports are useful in two cases: 1. they are directly oriented to project- management decision making and should be distributed to the team members who will have a prime responsibility for decisions; 2. They may be used when a decision is- made on an exception basis and it is desirable to inform other managers as well as to document the decision. *Special analysis reports are used to disseminate the result of special studies conducted as a part of the project: These reports may also be used in response to special problems that arise during the project; - Usually they cover matters that may be of interest to other project managers or make use of analytic methods that might be helpful on other projects. # COMMONREPORTING PROBLEMS: There are three common difficulties in the design of project reports: 1. There is usually too much detail both in the reports themselves and the input being solicited from workers; 2. 5/21/12 Poor interface between the project information system and

# THE EARNED VALUE ANALYSIS: * One way of measuring overall performance of a project is by using an aggregate performance measure called earned value. * A serious difficulty with comparing actual expenditures against budgeted or baseline is that the comparison fails to take into account the amount of work accomplished relative to the cost incurred. The earned value of work performed those task in progress is found by multiplying the estimated percent completion for each task by the planned cost for that task. * The result is the amount that should have been spent on the task so far. This can then be compared with the actual amount spent. * The concept of earned value combines cost reporting and aggregate performance reporting into one comprehensive chart.
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chart follow two primary guidelines: 1. A negative is means there is a deviation from plan- not good; 2. The cost variances are calculated as the earned value minus some other measure. * EV- Earned value: budgeted cost of work performed; *AC Actual cost: actual cost of work performed; * PV- Planned value: budgeted cost of work scheduled; * ST- Scheduled timeScheduled time for work performed; * AT- Actual time: actual time of work performed. *EV-AC= Cost variance (CV, over run is negative); *EV-PV= Schedule variance (SV, behind is negative); *ST-AT= Time variance (TV, delay is negative); * If the earned value chart shows a cost overrun or performance under run, the project manager must figure out what to do to get the system back on target; * Option may include borrowing resources or holding a meeting of project team members to suggest solutions or notifying the client that the project may be late or over budget; * Variances are also formulated as ratios rather than differences: - Cost Performance Index(CPI)= EV/AC; - Schedule Performance Index(SPI)= EV/PV; - Time Performance Index(TPI)= ST/AT 5/21/12

* Systems can be easily misused or inappropriately applied as can any tools * The most common error with current project software is managing the PMIS rather than the project itself. This & other such problems are described below: - Computer paralysis: loss of touch with projects realities due to excessive computer involvement - PMIS verification: Verifying that real problem exist yet are not acted upon - Information overload: Too many reports too detailed - Project isolation: PMIS reports replace useful & frequent communication among PM, team members & Top management - Computer dependence: Waiting for the computer reports rather than avoiding problems in the first place. -PMIS misdirection: unequal coverage cause some areas over managed & other under managed. # CHOOSING SOFTWARE: * Characteristics of generally desirable attributes in project management software: - Friendliness to learn & Use; - Schedule for automatic recalculation of deliverables; - Calendars with job shop; - Budget to include planning monitoring cycle; - Reports in individualizing formats; 5/21/12 Graphics to show schedule & interactions; - Charts to show

* Met goals; - Unsuccessful * Failed tests; - Superseded * External event. Extinction by Murder:- Political assassination; - Merge red redundancy. #PROJECT ADDITION: * Project becomes a part of organization New functionally, - Protected status; * Transfer of assets People, Equipment, * Addition of responsibilities Budgets; - Practices and procedures; - P&L. #PROJECTINTEGRATION: * Most common; * Most Complex; * Project outcome Become: - Part of acquiring Organization; Redistribution of Residual Resources: ~ Equipment; ~ Capital Improvements; ~ Follow on Support # PROJECT STARVATION:* Budget Decrement; * Reallocation of Resources Away from Project Business condition; - Political Considerations, * Active w/o Activity. # THE IMPLEMENTATION PROCESS: Duties of a termination Manager: - Complete all remaining work; - Notification to & acceptance by client; - Complete documentation (accurately!); Final payments; - redistribute assets; - Legal Review; - Files & Records; - Follow on support. #FINAL REPORT: * Historical group; * Project biography: - The 5/21/12 Good, the bad and the Ugly; * Previous documents: - project plan, -

included in final report are: -Administrative performance: review of administrative practices highlight well or poor practices. project performance: compare what the project achieved with what the project tied to achieve. Organization structure: how the structure aided or impeded the progress of the project. Project and administrative teams: confidential report interpersonal communication & cooperation & future involvement. Techniques of project management. # PROJECT AUDITING DEFINED: The project audit is a thorough examination of the management of a project its methodology and procedures its records its properties its budgets and expenditures and its degree of completion. # PURPOSE OF EVALUATION: The purposes of project audit are 1. Consideration of project success, 2. Help translating the achievement of the projects goals into a contribution to the parent organizations goals i.e. aiding the project in achieving its organizations main objectives 5/21/12 and also aimed at. 3. Achieving unspecified sometimes

approach the audit in an objective and ethical manner. Must assume responsibility for what is included and excluded from consideration in the report. The auditor/ evaluator must maintain political and technical independence during the audit and treat all materials as confidential. The auditor/ evaluator needs permission to enter the system. the first step is to allow the auditor qualified access information about the project. # STEPS TO CARRY OUT AN AUDIT: - Assemble a small team of experienced experts; - Familiarize the team with the requirements of the project; - Audit the project on site; - after the completion debrief the projects management; - Produce a written report according to a pre specified format; - distribute the report to the project manager and project team for their response, - Follow up to see if the recommendations have been implemented. RESOURCE ALLOCATION #EXPEDITING A PROJECT: * The critical path method & fast tracking is the two ways to expedite a project; * The critical path method; * The critical path method is a network constructed in the same manner as PERT; * It considers the possibility of adding resources to tasks to shorten their duration thereby;* FastTracking: -Another way to expedite a project; - It refers to 5/21/12 overlapping the design and build phases of a project; - Because

# CRITICAL PATH METHOD: * CPM includes a way of relating the project schedule to the level of physical resources allocated to the project. * This allows the project manager to trade time for cost, or vice versa, * In CPM two activity times and two costs are specified appropriate for each activity, * The first time / cost combination is called normal and the second set is referred to as crash, * Normal times are normal in the same sense as the m time estimate of the three times used in PERT. #THE RESOURCE ALLOCATION PROBLEM: * A shortcoming of most scheduling procedures is that they do not address the issues of resource utilization and availability. * Scheduling procedures tend to focus on time rather than physical resources, * Schedules should be evaluated not merely in terms of meeting project milestones, but also in terms of the timing and use of scarce resources, * A fundamental measure of the project managers success in project management is the skill with which the trade offs among performance, time, and cost are managed, * If all three variables time, cost specifications are fixed, the system is over determined; * In this case the project manager has lost all flexibility to perform the trade-offs that are so necessary to the successful completion of projects; 5/21/12

#RESOURCE LEVELING : WHY? - Resource leveling aims to minimize the period by period variations in resource loading by shifting tasks within their slack allowances. - The purpose is to create a smoother distribution of resource usage. - Several advantages include: * Less hands on management is required; * May be able to use a just in time inventory policy; - Resource leveling is a procedure that can be used for almost all projects, whether or not resources are constrained. - When resources are leveled the associated costs also tend to be leveled.

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