By: Name: Tiara Indah Rainy 09330124 /5C

The atoms of all elements are made up of three

particles called protons, neutrons, and electrons. The protons and neutrons are at the centre or nucleus of the atom. The electrons orbit the nucleus. The protons and neutrons both have a mass of about one atomic mass unit 1u 1,66x1027 kg By comparison, the mass of an electron is very small about 1 2000 1 u. of

Atoms and ions Atoms are uncharge because they contain equal numbers of protons and electrons. An atom loses one or more electrons so that it does not contain an equal number of protons and electrons , it becomes charged is called an ion. Proton number and nucleon number The Proton number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom (atomic number Z) The nucleon number is the number of protons together with the number of neutrons in the nucleus (mass number A )

 Nuclear representation

The nucleus of one form of sodium contains 11 protons

and 12 neutrons. Therefore the proton number Z is 11 + 12 = 23 A nucleus can be represented as nucleon_ number X proton _ number Where X is the chemical symbol. Isotopes Isotopes are different forms of the same element (that is, with the same proton number ) but with a different nucleon number.

 Radioactive is the unstable nuclei emit particles

and/or electromagnetic radiation , to become more stable. And the emission is called radioactivity. The emissions are of three different types. These are particles, particles, and radiation. All three emissions organate from the nucleus.

 An particle is the identical to the helium nucleus (two

protons + two neutrons) It can pass through very thin paper, but is unable to penetrate a thin card. Its range in air is few centimetres. Because particles are charged, they can be deflected by electric and magnetic fields. The original nuclide is called the parent nuclide, and the new one the daughter nuclide. emission reduces the nucleon number of the parent nucleus by 4 , and reduces the proton number by 2.
234 92 4 U 230Th 2 He energy 90

 particles are fast moving electrons, have speed in

excess of 99% of the speed of light. These particles have half the charge and very much less mass than particles . They can penetrate the card and sheets of aluminium up to a few milimetres thick. The differences between behaviour of and particles, particles carry a negative charge , and particles carry a positive charge. emission causes no change to the nucleon number of the parent nucleus , and increases the proton number by 1. 1 230 0
0

n 90 p 1 e energy

 radiation is part of the electromagnetic spectrum

with wavelengths between 10 m and10 m Since radiation has no charge , its ionising power is much less than that of either or particles. In emission no particles are emitted and there is therefore no change to theThproton number or nucleon number of the parent nuclide. 234 234 0 example : Th Th
234 90 234 90

11

13

90

90

 Radioactive decay series is spontaneous , random

process. The series ends when a stable nuclide is reached. If we investigate the decay of sample of radioactive material we find that the greater the number of radioactive nuclei in the sample the greater the rate of decay. This can be describe mathematically:
dN N dt
N is the number of undecayed atoms in the sample. dN/dt is the rate at which the number of nuclei in the sample is changing or the rate of the decay. is defined as the probability per unit time that a nucleus will undergo decay.

the radioactive decay equations :

N N 0 e t

 For any radioactive nuclide , the number of undecayed

nuclei after one-half life is ,by the definition of half life , equal to N 2 , where N 0 is the original number of undecayed nuclei. Using the radioactive decay equations : N N 0 e t t 1 We have at time t t 1 become N N 0e 2 2 And dividing each side of the equation by N 0 or 2 e t 1 taking natural logaritms of N 1 t 1 e 2 both sides ln 2 t 1 N0 2 2 2 ln 2 or 0,693 So that t 1 t1
0

 One atomic mass unit (1 u) is defined as being to one-

twelfth of the mass of carbon -12 atom .

1u 1,66 x10 27 Proton mass mp= 1.007276 Proton mass mn= 1.008665

Electron mass me= 0.000549

The differences between the expected mass and the

actual mass of a nucleon is called the mass defect of the nucleus. In the case the mass of helium -4 nucleus , the mess defect is 4.031882-4.001508 = 0.030374 u

 In 1905, Albert Einstein proposed that there is an

equivalence between massand energy E and mass m is:

E mc

Where , c is the speed of light(m/s)

E is energy (joule), m is mass (kg)

the electron ch arg e is 1,60 x10 19 C 1MeV 1,60 x10 19 Jx1,00 x10 6 or 1MeV 1,60 x10 13 J
If mass is measured in u and energy in MeV 1 u is the equivalent of 931 MeV