Rohling PR

OFDM
based Systems and related Multiple Access Schemes

Antalya, July 2005
Hermann Rohling
Technical University of Hamburg-Harburg Department of Telecommunications Eiendorfer Strae 40 D-21073 Hamburg
Department for Telecommunications
Ultrasound Broadband Mobile Communications Ultrasound Self-Organizing Wireless Networks

0 00 00 00 0 00 00 00 00
Ultrasound Cellular Networks Cellular Networks
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Technical University of Hamburg-Harburg
TUHH
Automotive Radar
Department of Telecommunications Prof. Dr. rer. nat. H. Rohling

Ultrasound Multi Sensor Systems
Ultrasound
Overview
Requirements of 4G Systems The Broadband Radio Channel OFDM Basics OFDM System Building Blocks Modulation: Coherent, Incoherent, Adaptive Channel Estimation: Pilot-based, Blind Channel Coding Synchronisation OFDM for Multi-User Communications OFDM System Design and Performance Advanced OFDM Techniques Joint Layer Optimization MIMO Cellular Environment: Synchronisation, Radio Resource Management
Evolution of Mobile Communications
4G 3G 2G
Research
Today
1991 1982 Deployment 1981 1990
2002
1G
1969
1970
1980
1990 Data Rate
2000
2010 Systems
Technique 1G 2G 3G 4G
Analogue < 300 bps Digital CDMA ??? 9.6k 64kbps
AMPS, NMT, GSM, PDC, IS-95,
64kbps - 2Mbps W-CDMA, TD-CDMA, 2M - 20Mbps ?

5
Requirements for Future Systems
Mobility
vehicular
4th Generation
pedestrian
3rd Generation (IMT-2000)
Wireless LAN
stationary 0.1 1 10 100
Data rate [Mbps]
Packet-based Data Streams

circuit data packet data
General Requirements on Future Systems
High spectral efficiency Support of high user mobility High flexibility to deal with a broad range of user and traffic scenarios React to changing transmission environments by a high adaptivity
The Broadband Radio Channel
Multipath Propagation (Power Delay Profile)
Propagation paths
3, 3 2, 2
1, 1
Receiver
h(t) [dB]
max
Transmitter
10
The Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) Radio Channel

Behaviour of multipath propagation with no movement is characterized by a LTI-system in the equivalent lowpass domain:
sT (t )
Radio Channel
hT ( )
rT (t ) rT (t ) = sT ( ) hT ( t ) d
The channel impulse response is given by
hT ( ) = hT ,l ( l )
l =1
L
H T ( f ) = hT ,l e j 2f l
l =1
HT(f) denotes the channel transfer function

11
Narrowband Channel
Symbol duration TS is much larger than the maximum channel tap delay:
hT ( t )
TS > > max

H T ( f ) const
t 0
max
for
B with B 1 TS 2
HT ( f )
Channel transfer function is assumed to be constant over the signal bandwidth B No frequency-selective fading! No Inter Symbol Interference (ISI)!
12
Broadband Channel
Symbol duration TS is much smaller than the maximum channel tap delay
TS < < max

Channel transfer function HT(f) fluctuates over signal bandwidth B
B
HT ( f )
Frequency-selective fading, ISI occurs!
Quasi time-invariance during a small time interval ( coherence time TC)
13
Frequency Selectivity ISI
10
Frequency Selectivity
max = TS = 1s
Inter Symbol Interference

h ( ) 0dB
|H(f)| / dB
-10 -20 -30 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
30dB
TS
2TS 3TS 4TS 5TS
10
max = 5 TS = 5s
f / MHz
h ( ) 0dB
|H(f)| / dB
-10 -20 -30 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
30dB
TS
2TS 3TS 4TS 5TS
f / MHz
14
User Mobility (Doppler Profile)

Line-of-sight path Independent propagation paths
v Angle of incident
Mobile with omnidirectional antenna
Doppler profile
Jakes Doppler Profile

-fD,max +fD,max
Frequency
15
The Time-Variant Radio Channel

Behaviour of multipath propagation with movement is characterized by a linear time-variant system in the equivalent lowpass domain:
sT (t )
Radio Channel
hT ( , t )
rT (t ) rT (t ) =
s ( t ) h ( , t ) d
T T
The time-variant channel impulse response is given by
hT ( , t ) = hT ,l ( t ) ( l )
l =1
L
H T ( f , t ) = hT ,l ( t ) e j 2 f l
l =1
HT(f,t) denotes the time-variant channel transfer function

16
Time-Variant Transfer Function
Channel Parameters B = 20 MHz Non Line-of-Sight (NLOS) Exp. Power Delay Profile max = 0.8 ms Jakes Doppler Profile fD,max = 15 Hz 3 km/h @ 5.5 GHz
17
How Broad is Broadband ?

|H(f)|
-B/2
Frequency
B/2
The sampling time of a broadband system T=1/B is much smaller than the maximum multipath delay of the channel max
1/B << max

The channel transfer function |H(f)| fluctuates over the system bandwidth B Frequency selective fading Inter symbol interferences (ISI)
Department for Telecommunications 18
OFDM Basics
19
Single-Carrier Transmission with increasing Data Rates

Example 1: Data Rate = 90 kbps BPSK, Bandwidth = 90 kHz
Data 1

max = 10 s h(t)
Data 2
Data 3
Data 4 Symbol Duration
ISI effects 90% of a single Symbol Easy to equalize! h(t)
max
Example 2: Data Rate = 1 Mbps BPSK, Bandwidth = 1 MHz

D1 D2 D3 D4

max
ISI effects 10 adjacent Symbols! Equalization becomes very complex!

20
Multi-Carrier Transmission: Basic Idea

Bandwidth is splitted in N narrowband subchannels
Example: Splitting of a broadband channel into N=32 subchannels
H( f )
+ 10dB
0dB
narrowband subchannel
10dB 20dB
30dB
Each subcarrier is flat faded. Channel influence can be described by a complex valued factor for each subcarrier
21
Multi-Carrier Transmission: Advantage

s(t) T h(t)
t max Serial Transmission (Single Carrier): Maximum multipath delay max >> Symbol duration TSC Inter-Symbol Interferences (ISI) Complex time domain equalizer Parallel Transmission (Multi-Carrier): Maximum multipath delay max << Symbol duration TOFDM No Inter-Symbol Interferences (ISI) Simple frequency domain equalizer
Multi-Carrier Transmission: Comparison

Data Rate: 10 MBit/s BPSK transmission Bandwidth B=10 MHz Multipath channel with maximum delay max = 10 s Single-Carrier Symbol duration depends directly on system bandwidth: TSC = 0.1 s = max /100 ISI extends over 100 symbols! OFDM Large Number of Subcarriers: N = 1000 OFDM symbol duration: TOFDM = TSC N = 10 max Required guard interval: TGuard max = 0.1 TOFDM ISI free transmission!
23
OFDM
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
OFDM Transmission Technique

S n (f)
25
OFDM Transmission Technique - Transmitter

Time-continuous signal of the ith OFDM block
1 si ( t ) = N
S
k =0
N 1
i ,k
j 2 k ft
t iTs ,mc rect T s , mc
Time-discrete signal of the ith OFDM block
1 si ,n = si ( n t ) = N
S
k =0
N 1
i ,k
j 2 nk f t
with f t =
1 Ts ,mc 1 = Ts ,mc N N
si ,n
1 = N
S
k =0
N 1
i ,k
j 2
nk N
(IDFT)
26
OFDM Transmission Technique - Channel

Influence of the linear time-(in)variant radio channel Transmitted signal:
si ,n =
1 N
S
k =0
N 1
i ,k
j 2
nk N
Linear Channel orthogonal subcarriers orthogonal subcarriers

| H(f )| Frequency
Received signal:
linear operations Eigenfunctions of the channel Subcarrier-wise Channel Transfer Factors
1 ri ,n = N
S
k =0
N 1
i ,k
H i ,k e
j 2
nk N
27
OFDM Transmission Technique - Receiver

Received time-continuous signal of the ith OFDM block Time-Domain: Frequency-Domain:
ri ( t ) = si (t ) hi (t ) + ni (t ) Ri ( f ) = Si ( f ) H i ( f ) + N i ( f )
ri ( t )
Demodulator
Ri ( f )
FFT
Synchronisation
Received time-discrete signal of the ith OFDM block Time-Domain: Frequency-Domain:
ri ,n = si ,n hi ,n + ni ,n
Ri ,n = Si ,n H i ,n + N i ,n
28
Why Guard Interval?

Time Data 1 Data 2 Data 2 Data 2 FFT window Data 1 Data 2 Data 3 Path P Data 3 Data 3 Data 3 Path 1 Path 2 Path 3
Without Guard Interval
Data 1 Data 1
P
Time GI Data 1 GI GI Data 1 Data 1 FFT window GI Data 1 GI Data 2 GI Path P GI GI GI Data 2 Data 2 Data 2 GI GI GI Path 1 Path 2 Path 3
With Guard Interval
1
P
29
OFDM Spectrum
Subcarrier spacing f
OFDM Spectrum
Frequency
k-2 k-1
k+1 k+2
sin [T ( f kf ) ] Gk ( f ) = T [T ( f kf ) ]
OFDM Spectrum
10 Spectral Power Density [dB] 0
-10 -20
-30
-40 -100
-50
50 100 f / f
150
200
31
Single-Carrier vs. Multi-Carrier Systems
Digital Radio Mondial
Max. Multi-Path Delay
xDSL
Multi-Carrier
DVB-T 4G WLAN
Single-Carrier
Data Rate (System Bandwidth)
32
OFDM Based Systems Wireless

Broadcast: Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB-T) Digital Radio Mondial (DRM) Terrestrial repeaters for U.S. satellite Digital Audio Radio Service (SDARS) Communications: HIPERLAN/2 IEEE 802.11a IEEE 802.16 Home RF
Wireline
Communications: Digital Subscriber Line (xDSL) Power Line Communications (PLC) Cable TV Network (CATV / MMDS)
33
OFDM System Structure
34
OFDM System Structure

Transmitter
Bitstream Channel Coding Puncturing Interleaving Modulation Mapping Sn.0 P inverse FFT S Sn.K-1 Pilot symbols Channel sn,m Guardint. D A en(t)
Receiver
Channel Estim ation Equalisation
Rn.0 Demapping Demodulation Rn.K-1 FFT S P rn,m Window
AWGN
+ rn(t)
Bitstream Viterbi decoding
Depunct. Deinterl.
Synchronization
35
Digital Modulation Schemes

Transmitter
Receiver
Channel Estimation Equalisation
AWGN
+ rn(t)
Depunct. Deinterl.
Synchronization
36
Representation in Signal Space
Constellation diagram
Im{ sT }
1011 1010 0010 0011 1001 1000 0000 0001 1101 1100 0100 0101 1111 1110 0110 0111
Real part (inphase component) and imaginary part (quadrature component) of the baseband signal can be depicted in one twodimensional diagram
R e{ sT }

Modulation symbols usually plotted as fixed points in diagram Constellation diagram is very convenient for representation of linear modulation schemes
37
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

s( t )
0 TS
Bandpass signal
10 11 01 00 11
Example: 4-ASK
sT ( t ) = I n p( t nTS )
t 1 p( t ) = rect T 2 S
n
Baseband signal sTr ( t )

0
sT i
t
00 01 11 10 T r
sTi ( t )
0
38
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

s( t )
0 TS
Bandpass signal
10 11 01 00 11
Example: QPSK
t 1 p( t ) = rect T 2 S
n

1 0 -1
sT i
10
t
t
00 01
11
sT r
sTi ( t )
1 0 -1
-1
39
Amplitude and Phase Shift Keying (APSK)

s( t )
0
Bandpass signal
101 011 111 001 100
Example: 8-APSK
t
t 1 p( t ) = rect T 2 S
n
TS
0
sT i
110 010 100 000 011 111 T r 001
sTi ( t )
0
t
t
101
40
Coherent Modulation
Received symbol on subcarrier k :
Rn ,k = H n ,k Sn ,k + N n ,k
The equalization requires only a simple complex multiplication with the inverse channel transfer factor:
c n ,k
Rn ,k N n ,k = = S n ,k + n ,k H H n ,k
c S n ,k = dec{Dn ,k }
Channel transfer factors have to be estimated !
41
Differential Modulation
Differential modulation in time direction:
S n , k = S n 1 , k Q n , k
M-DPSK signal constellation:
Bn,k = {e j 0i / M | i = 0 , M 0 , }
nc Incoherent demodulation: Dn ,k =
nc Bn ,k = dec{ Dn ,k }
Rn ,k S , B H n ,k + N n ,k = n 0k n ,k Rn 0k S n 0k H n 0k + N n 0k , , , ,
42
Differential Modulation: Example 8-DPSK
43
Differential Modulation in OFDM Systems

Time direction Frequency direction
Frequency
Frequency
Time
Time
Time and frequency direction
Frequency
Time
Differential Modulation in OFDM Systems

Performance of differential modulation depends on the correlation of symbols
BER
1.01
Correlation Function
1 0.99
0.5 0.4
TIME
f max
0.98 0.97 0.96 Frequency correlation function Time correlation function 0.95 -0.1 -0.08 -0.06 -0.04 -0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
FREQ
f/BC, t/TC
TS fD,max
When is differential modulation in frequency direction better ?
TOFDM f D ,max > 2 f max

Higher Order Differential Modulation M-DAPSK

DAPSK signal constellation:
}, }} = {a A e j P | A { 0 N a 0 P {0 N p 0 , ,
Amplitude Bits Phase Bits M < 16 M = 16 1 2 2 4 4 M 8 16 Amplitude Factor a 2.0 1.6 1.4 1.3
(b,...,b)n ma 1 (b,...,b) m+1 m+mp n a a
Amplitude Mapping Phase Mapping
M = 32
Q n M = 64
Differential M = Encoding 128
Sn
16 32
1 z (b,...,b) n ma 1 (b,...,b) m+1 m+mp n a a

Modified Amplitude Mapping Phase Mapping
Bn
Sn
46
Performance of Differential Modulation

10
0
64-DAPSK, quasi-coherent 64-DAPSK, non-coherent 64-QAM, coherent
10 Bit Error Rate
10
10
10
12
14
16
18
20 22 S/N [dB]
24
26
28
30
47
Adaptive Modulation
OFDM gives the opportunity to use:
10
|H(k)|
different modulation schemes for each subchannel different power for each subchannel
0.1
b(k)
6 4
2 0
Adaptive Modulation
10
30
50
70
90
110
130
150
170
190
Adaptation to the channel transfer function using subchannel specific modulation schemes and power
48
Adaptive Modulation
256QAM 64QAM 16QAM QPSK BPSK Not used due to low SNR Subcarriers
Algorithms: Chow, Cioffi and Bingham: capacity maximization Fischer: Error probability minimization Grnheid: simple blockwise loading algorithm Hughes-Hartogs: sets target rate R, intensive searching
Average SNR
49
Adaptive Modulation
Adaptive modulation (average 2 bits per subcarrier)
10
0
adapt modulation fixed modulation

10
-1
10
-2
BER
10
-3
1.5 dB
-4
10
10
-5
-6
-4
-2
10
SNR (dB)
Bit loading by Fischer Algorithm

Channel Estimation
Transmitter
Receiver
AWGN
+ rn(t)
Depunct. Deinterl.
Synchronization
51
Pilot-Based Channel Estimation

Nt Least-Squares Estimation:
H n,k =
Frequency Interpolation
Rn , k S n ,k
Subcarriers
Two-Dimensional Interpolation
Nf
Time Interpolation
OFDM symbols
Pilots Virtual pilots by time interpolation Desired transfer factor
52
Interpolation Methods
Linear interpolation Second order interpolation Low pass interpolation Spline cubic interpolation Time domain interpolation
53
Pilot-Based / Blind Channel Estimation

Current OFDM symbol nfTS
Frequency
Frequency
ntf
Time Decision Directed Pilot Based
Time
Rk,i =Sk,i Hk,i +Nk,i

FFT
Rl,j
Remove Modulation Interpolation / Estimation
Soft/HardDecision
Decoding
Sk,i
A priori known pilot symbols
Hk,i
54
Decision-Directed Channel Estimation

Subcarrierwise channel estimation with , filtering
% % % H n ,k = (1 )( H n1,k + n1,k ) + H n ,k
% (1 n , k = ) % k H(+ n 1,
n, k
% )
n 1, k
= Rn ,k Yeqn ,k % H n 1,k
= Rn , k H n,k Yeqn , k
FFT
Div
Ye qn ,k
Decoder Demod
~ H n ,k
, filter
H n ,k
Hard Decision
~ H1,k
Rn,k
Div
Ye qn ,k
Mod
55
Decision-Directed Channel Estimation

Subcarrierwise channel estimation with , filtering If received symbols are inside the reliable area:
1.0
0.1 -1.0 -0.1 0.1 -0.1 1.0
% % % H n ,k = (1 )( H n1, k + n1,k ) + H n ,k
% (1 n , k = ) % k H(+ n 1,
n, k
% )
n 1, k
-1.0
If received symbols are outside the reliable area: (=0, =0) Locating a reliability area in the constellation diagramm (QPSK)
Optimal values =0.1, =0.008
% % % H n , k = H n1, k + n 1,k % % n , k = n 1, k
56
Channel Coding
Transmitter
Bitstream Channel Coding Puncturing Interleaving Modulation Mapping
Sn.0 P inverse FFT S Sn.K-1 Pilot symbols Channel sn,m Guardint. D A en(t)
Receiver
AWGN
+ rn(t)
Depunct. Deinterl.
Synchronization
57
Channel Coding
Flat bit error rate curve in the Rayleigh channel 1 e - 0 due to faded subcarriers
1 e - 1 1 e - 2
B P S K , R a y BPSK, Rayleigh channel l e

BPSK, AWGN channel B P S K , A W
i g h - K N - K
a n
BER
Channel Coding
1 e - 3 1 e - 4 1 e - 5
Questions: 0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 S / N choice of appropriate codes (spreading codes, block codes, convolutional codes, turbo codes) optimal modulation schemes (coded modulation) metrics for soft-decision decoding decoding techniques
3 0
58
Soft-Output Demodulation of Coherent Signals

Received modulation symbol:
Rn ,k = H n ,k S n ,k + N n ,k
p Rn , k S n , k
Posteriori PDF is Gaussian:
1 = e 2 2
Rn , k H n , k Sn , k 2 2
Maximum Likelihood Sequence Estimation (MLSE):
S n ,k = arg max P Rn ,k
S n ,k
( )
= arg max p Rn ,k S n ,k ( )
= arg min Rn ,k H n ,k S n ,k ( )
Metrik information fed to the Viterbi decoder:
,k = Rn ,k H n ,k S ,k n n
59
Soft-Output Demodulation of Incoherent Signals

Differential phase modulation (DPSK):
p n ,k n ,k
Differential amplitude modulation (DASK):

Wn ,k = ln p Wn ,k Vn ,k
2 w
1 2
2
n , k n , k
2 2
Rn ,k S , Vn ,k = ln n ,k Rn 1,k S n 1,k 1
2 2 w
2 2 n ,k = arg min H n ,k n ,k n ,k ( )
Wn , k Vn , k
2 2 w
= =
2
2
H n , k S n ,k
2
2
H n 1,k S n 1,k
2
2 2 Bn ,k = arg min d n ,k ( ) RI n ,k
DAPSK:
2 d n ,k ( ) = (Wn ,k Vn ,k ( ) ) + ( n ,k n ,k ( ) ) , RI n ,k = 2 2
1 1 Rn ,k + 1 Rn 1,k
2 2
Metrik information for DAPSK fed to the Viterbi decoder:

2 ,k = ( d n ,k ) RI n ,k n
2
60
Concatenation of Coding and Differential Modulation
Convolutional Coding
Interleaver
Differential Modulation
Convolutional Coding
Interleaver
Differential Coding
Non-Diff. Modulation
Concatenated Code Turbo-Decoding
61
Differential Modulation with Turbo Decoding
AWGN channel 8-DPSK (bzw. 8-PSK) Convolutional code: [171]8 [133]8 Block-Interleaver: 3066 Bits OFDM: 1024 subcarrier
62
Synchronization
Transmitter
Bitstream Channel Coding Puncturing Interleaving Modulation Mapping
Sn.0 P inverse FFT S Sn.K-1 Pilot symbols Channel sn,m Guardint. D A en(t)
Receiver
AWGN
+ rn(t)
Depunct. Deinterl.
Synchronization
63
Synchronization
10100011
coding / modulation
IFFT
P/S
cyclic extension
D/A
channel
10100011
demodulation/ decoding
FFT
S/P
windowing
A/D
frame synchronization clock synchronization frequency synchronization
64
Guard Interval based Technique

Exploit the correlation introduced by the guard interval:
OFDM symbol
GI
DATA
GI GI
()*
Sliding window
Moving sum Phase
Fractional frequency offset
| |
argmax
Time offset
Maximum likelihood estimator !

OFDM for Multi-User Communications
66
OFDM for Multi-Use Communications

For a given OFDM system find a suitable multiple access scheme that maps the user data to a modulation block ! L
User 1
Coding +Interl. S/P Mapping
NC Dk,l
User 2
Coding +Interl. S/P
Mapping
Sn,i
Add Guard
IFFT
User K
Coding +Interl. S/P
Mapping 67
OFDM Multiple Access Schemes

OFDM-FDMA OFDM-TDMA
t f
OFDM-CDMA
User / Code t
68
OFDM-TDMA
Principle: Every user allocates all subcarriers in a certain number of time slots (OFDM symbols) in each OFDM modulation block Advantages: No multiple access interferences (MAI) 0 Incoherent or coherent modulation 0 Adaptation to channel characteristics 0 High coding gain due to diversity 0 Robust against estimation errors 0 No MAI in case of synchronisation errors 0 Easy implementation Disadvantages: Performance of normal OFDM system
User 1 NS NC User Data 1 OFDM Symbols
Subcarriers
69
OFDM-FDMA
Principle: Every user transmits on a certain number of OFDM subcarriers during all time slots of the OFDM modulation block Advantages: 0 No multiple access interference 0 Incoherent or coherent modulation 0 Adaptation to channel characteristics Select good subcarriers Bitloading on selected subcarriers 0 Robust against estimation errors Disadvantages: 0 Stronger requirements on carrier frequency synchronisation between users in the uplink
70
User Data 1 NS NC
Subcarriers
1 OFDM Symbols
User
FDMA Transmitter
User 1
Coding +Interl. S/P Frequency Interleaver
Mapping
Di,k
User 2
Coding +Interl. S/P
Frequency Interleaver
How shall the subcarrier of each user be selected ?
Mapping
IFFT
Di,k
Si,k
FDMA Multiple Access
71
Time-Frequency Block
To allow the utilization of subcarrier by different users define a timefrequency modulation block consisting of b subcarriers in a OFDM symbols:
bf aT
f T t
72
OFDM-FDMA Resource Allocation

Independent multi-path channels
|H| [dB]
User 1
Subcarrier
User 2
?
Time
Frequency
|H| [dB]
Subcarrier
|H| [dB]
User K
Subcarrier
73
OFDM-(FH-)FDMA
If no channel information is available the TDMA/FDMA concept can be used to implement a frequency hopping scheme. f
|H(f)|
74
OFDM-TDMA/FDMA
With a OFDM-TDMA/FDMA multiple access scheme frequency bands can be assigned to users with highest SNR in that band
f aT b f
|SNR 1(f)|
| SNR 2(f)|
Multi-User diversity
OFDM-CDMA
Principle: Every user transmits on all OFDM subcarriers during all OFDM symbols of an OFDM modulation block using an orthogonal code (e.g. Walsh-Hadamard).
User Data 1 NS NC
Subcarriers
Advantages: 0 Processing gain due to frequency diversity 0 Robust against interferences

User
1 OFDM Symbols
Disadvantages: 0 Multiple access interferences 0 Only coherent modulation possible 0 No adaptation to channel characteristics
76
Performance Results for the Downlink

BER performance comparison between OFDM multiple access techniques (QPSK, R=1/2)
10
0
10
-1
OFDM-CDMA
10
-2
BER
OFDM-TDMA
-3
10
10
-4
5dB OFDM-FDMA
2.5dB
10
-5
-6
-4
-2
10
SNR (dB)
OFDM System Design and Performance
78
OFDM System Design

The overhead of the guard interval sets the lower limit on the OFDM symbol duration:
max < 0.2 TS
The maximum Doppler frequency sets the upper limit for the OFDM symbol duration:
f D ,max =
vf Carrier < 0.03 f c
Requirements for OFDM symbol duration:
5 max TS 0.03
1 f D ,max
Example: Hiperlan/2 ETSI-E channel model and 250 km/h@5.5GHz
8.5s TS 23.5s
OFDM System Parameters

Parameter System Bandwidth B = 20 MHz max = 5 s Bc = 200 kHz fC = 5.5 GHz vmax = 200 km/h fDmax = 1 kHz TS = 25.6 s TG = 6.4 s TOFDM = 32 s NC = 512 (1024) NG = 128 = NC /4 (NC /8) f = 39063 kHz (19531 kHz) 16-QAM, 16-DAPSK R=1/2 32 MBit/s
80
Value
Channel Properties
Maximum Delay Coherence Bandwidth Carrier Frequency Maximum Speed Maximum Doppler Frequency
OFDM System Parameters
OFDM Symbol Duration Guard Intervall Duration Total OFDM Symbol Duration FFT Length Guard Intervall Length Subcarrier Spacing Modulation Technique Code Rate User Data Rate
Performance Results for the Downlink

1 TDMA TDMA (Adapt. mod.) CDMA (MMSE SUD) Adapt. FDMA Adapt. FDMA (Adapt. Mod.) Adapt. FDMA/CDMA
1e-01
1e-02
BER
1e-03 1e-04 1e-05 0
10
15
20
SNR [dB]
81
Advanced OFDM Techniques
82
OFDM-FDMA Scheme for the Uplink of a Mobile Communication System
83
System Overview
OFDM-based Uplink Scheme
User User
M
User
M 1 BS
User
MT Multiple Users
Uplink from Mobile Terminal (MT) to Base Station (BS) Single Cell Environment Sharing of Bandwidth by a specific OFDM-FDMA-Scheme
84
Mobile Terminal
Two parts of the MTs OFDM-Structure are considered:
Spreading matrix Equidistant subcarrier allocation Mobile Terminal
Di ,n
Encoder + Modulation Spreading
S i ,k
Subcarrier Allocation
si ,n
IDFT GI
Di ,n : S i ,k : si ,n :
Modulation Symbols Transmit Symbols (Freq. Domain) Transmit Symbols (Time Domain)
85
IDFT-Processing in an OFDM-system (ith OFDM-Block):
1 si ,n = N
General Observation:
Si ,k e j 2 nk / N
k =0
N 1
Discrete Spectrum with equidistantly spaced non-zero values
IDFT
Periodic Time Signal
This effect is used in the considered subcarrier allocation scheme: Di ,n Si , k

si ,n
IDFT
86
The subcarriers are allocated equidistantly:
Di ,n
Si , k
si ,n
IDFT
Si ,0
Magn.
Si ,1
Si , L 1
User 1
Subcarriers
si ,n = IDFT ( Si ,k ) si ,0 si ,1 L
1st period
si ,L1 si ,0 si ,1 L
si ,L1
si ,0 si ,1 L si ,L1
Mth period
This leads to a periodic transmit time signal
87
Spreading
Second design element: Spreading is applied to the users subcarriers
Di ,n
Spread
Si ,k
si ,n
Multiplication of modulation symbols Di ,n with an orthogonal,

unitary matrix Well known examples:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Walsh-Hadamard
1 1 j / 2 1 e 1 e j 1 e j 3 2
1 e j e j 2 e j 3
1 j 3 e 2 e j 3 j 9 e 2
Discrete Fourier
88
Spreading Matrix
In the considered OFDM-FDMA system, only DFT-matrices are applied for spreading:
Di ,n
Spread
S i ,k
si ,n
Si ,0 S i ,1 = M Si , L 1
[ DFT ]
Di ,0 D i ,1 M D i , L 1
Joint application of DFT-spreading and equidistant subcarrier allocation leads to a greatly simplified system
Combination of Spreading and Subcarrier Allocation

In effect, the DFT of the spreading matrix and the IDFT-processing in the OFDM-transmitter cancel out each other:
si ,0 Si ,0 Di ,0 Di ,0 si ,1 = IDFT Si ,1 = IDFT DFT Di ,1 = Di ,1 M M M M s S D D i , L 1 i , L 1 i , L 1 i , L 1

Consequence: The DFT-spreaded OFDM-FDMA system is equivalent to a single-carrier-system with guard intervall
90

Together with equidistant subcarrier allocation:
si ,n is an M-times repetition of modulation r symbol vector Di :

Transmit signal
1st period Mth period
Di ,0 Di ,1 L
Di ,L1 Di ,0 Di ,1 L
Di ,L1
Di ,0 Di ,1 L
Di ,L1
identical
si ,0
si ,1
si ,L1 si ,0
si ,1
si ,L1
si ,0
si ,1
si ,L1
91

As a result of combined spreading and subcarrier allocation, three components in the transmitter cancel out each other:
Di ,n
Spread
Si , k
Subcarrier Allocation IDFT
si ,n
Di ,0 Di ,1 M Di ,L1
[ DFT ]
Si ,0 Si ,1
Si , L 1
M
[ IDFT ]
Di ,0 Di ,1 M Di , L1 Di ,0 M Di , L1 Di ,0 Di ,1 M Di , L1
1st period
Mth period
92
Multiple Users
Other users allocate a shifted, but also equidistant subset of subcarriers:
) Si(,m1 User m L
Magnitude
m Si(,0 )
m Si(,1 )
User 1
Subcarriers
The frequency shift leads to a phase rotation of the transmit symbols in the time domain:
Si(,m ) (k m) k
si(,m ) exp( j 2 nm / N ) n
93
Resulting Multi-User System

All this results in a very simple signal processing in the transmitter in a multi-user uplink system
L Modulation symbols
m m Di(,0 ) Di(,1 ) ) L Di(,m1 L
M-times repetition
m m Di(,0 ) Di(,1 ) ) L Di(,m1 L
m m Di(,0 ) Di(,1 )
) m ) m L Di(,m1 Di(,0 ) Di(,1 ) L Di(,m1 L L
1st period
e
) si(,m1 si(,m ) L L
Mth period
e j 0... e j1...
L L L
j 2 nm / N
e j ... e j ...
Phase Rotation
m m si(,0 ) si(,1 ) (m) (m) (m) L si(,m )2 si , N 1 si ,0 si ,1 N
Transmit signal in time domain

GI
94
Receiver Structure
Receiver is equivalent to conventional OFDM-FDMA receiver with additional despreading
r (0) Rn
One-Tap EQ Despread
(0) % S n ,0 (0) % S n,1 M (0) % Sn , L1
M
ri ,n
[ DFT ]
M
M M
r ( M 1) Rn
G 0 0
(0) n ,0
0 O 0
0 0 (0) Gn ,L1
[ IDFT ]
(0) % Dn,0 (0) % Dn,1 M (0) % Dn ,L1
User 0
MDetection for M users M

G 0 0
( M 1) n ,0
0 O 0
0 ( 1) Gn ,M 1 L 0
(M % Sn ,0 1) (M % Sn ,1 1) M ( % 1) Sn ,M1 L
[ IDFT ]
( % Dn M 1) ,0 (M % 1) Dn ,1 M ( M 1) % Dn ,L1
User M-1
95
Equalization
The cyclic prefix in the transmit signal prevents ISI Frequency domain equalization can be done by means of a one-tap equalizer
( (m % Sn m ) Gn,0) 0 ,0 M = 0 O S (m) 0 % 0 n , L 1 ( 0 Rn m ) ,0 0 M ( ( Gn m )1 Rn m )1 , L ,L
In order to avoid high noise amplification in deep spectral fades,

(m) the coefficients Gn ,k are calculated from the MMSE-criterion: ( H n m )* ,k
(m) n ,k
= H
(m) 2 n,k
1 SNR
( H n m ) are the channel coefficients of the k th subcarrier at time n ,k
96
Bit Error Performance

The receiver structure is equivalent to a spreaded OFDM-FDMA system and therefore, the same BER-Performance will be observed As an example, the performance of an uncoded system is evaluated
System parameters: 256 subcarriers 20 MHz bandwidth 16 users Channel parameters: (WSSUS) Exponentially decreasing power delay (0 - 3.2s) 30 uncorrelated paths Rayleigh fading No Doppler-shift
16 QAM Modulation 64 samples guard interval
Bit Error Performance

The performance figure gives a result for the introduced system in comparison with Zero-Forcing equalizaton.
10 10 10 BER 10 10 10
0
-1
ZF MMSE
-2
-3
-4
-5
10 15 SNR [dB]
20
25
An arbitrary user is considered, because in general all users experience the same average performance
PAR-Reduction
Due to the duality to a single-carrier system, the Peak-to-Average ratio (PAR) is smaller compared to conventional OFDM-systems:
2 1 Imag 0 -1 -2 -2 -1 0 Real 1 2 Imag
(a)
2 1 0 -1 -2
(b)
-2
-1
0 Real
For comparison: Complex envelope of two DFT-spreaded transmission systems with (both QPSK) a) random subcarrier allocation b) equidistant subcarrier allocation
Benefits of this Uplink Scheme
The OFDM-FDMA scheme reduces to a single-carrier system with guard interval Reduction of transmitter complexity Low PAR due to single-carrier equivalence Same BER-Performance as conventionally spread OFDM-FDMA
100
Channel Prediction Requirements
Multiple Access Scheme OFDM-TDMA OFDM-FDMA with Adaptive Modulation OFDM-FDMA with Spreading OFDM-CDMA
Channel Prediction Required No Yes No No
101
Joint Optimization of Layers
102
Joint Optimization of PHY and DLC

Higher Protocol Layers Higher Protocol Layers
DLC
Higher Protocol Layers
Statistical PER Data PHY Mode Selection
DLC
PHY Mode Selection PER / Goodput Prediction
PHY
PHY
SNR Measurement
PHY
SNR
Transfer Function
Soft Bits
Channel
Channel
Channel
No Link Adaptation
Conventional Link Adaptation by DLC
Joint Link Adaptation by DLC/PHY
103
SNR Thresholds for HL/2 PHY Mode Selection

1 B P S K , R = 1 /2 B P S K , R = 3 /4 Q P S K , R = 1 /2 Q P S K , R = 3 /4 1 6 -Q A M , R = 9 /1 6 1 6 -Q A M , R = 3 /4 6 4 -Q A M , R = 3 /4
0 .1
LCH-PER
PER threshold 10-2

0 .0 1
0 .0 0 1 -4
-2
10
12 14 16 S N R [d B ]
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
, AM -Q 16 6 9/1 R=
, AM -Q 16
, AM -Q 64
/4 =3 ,R SK BP /4 =3 ,R SK QP /2 =1 ,R SK BP
3/4 R=
3/4 R=
ETSI A Channel Model
104
16-QAM, R=3/4 PERs for an ETSI A Channel

PER for individual ETSI A channel realizations vs. average PER
1 AW G N E T S I_ A , a v g . E T S I_ A , s a m p le s
0 .1
LCH-PER
0 .0 1
0 .0 0 1 9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17 18 S N R [d B ]
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
Use PHY layer information about channel to optimize link adaptation !
105
OFDM-TDMA - Downlink
106
Delay Oriented Throughput

5 c o n v e n tio n a l s c h e m e o p t im is e d s c h e m e 6 4 -Q A M R = 3 /4
Avg. Throughput [bits/modsym]
3 1 6 -Q A M R = 2 /4 2 1 6 -Q A M R = 9 /1 6
1 BPSK R = 1 /2 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
QPSK R = 1 /2 12 14 16 S N R [d B ] 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
107
MIMO Multiple Input - Multiple Output
108
Higher Data Rates needed

Mobility& Range
High Speed Vehicular
2G
2.5G
3G
Data rates greater than 100 MBit/s
Vehicular Pedestrian Indoor Fixed 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
GSM UMTS GPRS EDGE WLAN/ HL2
??
Data Rate (Mbit/s)
109
How to increase the Data Rate?
More Bandwidth ?
April 2000: UMTS license auction in the UK: 5 licenses 10MHz pairs are auctioned off for 40.109 Euro August 2000: UMTS license auction in Germany: 6 licenses 10MHz pairs are auctioned off for 50.109 Euro, almost 900 million Euro per MHz pair
Bandwidth is limited and expensive
110
How to increase the Data Rate?

Higher bandwidth efficiency by using higher-order constellation diagrams But capacity cannot be larger than Shannon Limit
20 Bandwidth efficiency R/B [(bit/s) / Hz]
Shannon limit for AWGN capacity

10 64-QAM 5 16-QAM 16-PSK 2 1 0.5 (p b 10 -5 ) = 5 10 15 20 25 30 E b/ N0 in dB 8-PSK QPSK 32-PSK
111
MIMO - Multiple Input Multiple Output s1 Transmitter s2 r1 r2 Receiver
sn
rm
n Transmit antennas, m Receive antennas
112
sn
rm
n Transmit antennas, m Receive antennas In flat fading channels:
113
sn
rm
For flat fading channels, the MIMO radio channel is written as the Channel matrix
The transmission is written as a matrix multiplication:
114
Cellular Environment
115
OFDM Application Systems

OFDM-based Systems Broadcasting Single Cell Cellular Networks
DAB DVB-T DRM HiperLAN/2 IEEE 802.11a
Multi-Frequency Network (MFN) Single Frequency Network (SFN)
Interactive Communication
MFN: HiperLAN/2
TUHH
TUHH has firstly proposed such a system!
116
Conventional Cellular OFDMA Network

Modulation block DL BS Frequency UL Band filter
BS Time
BS
MT
Different cells use different resources Cells have to be separated by filters Independent operation of cells
117
Conventional vs. Self-Organized Management

Conventional Resources SO-RRM
Resource are clustered with reuse factor 7
Resource are shared with reuse factor 1
6 2 7 3 2 5 6 4
7 3 1 7 4
5 6 2 5 3 High flexibility Suitable for any user distribution 4
Low flexibility Optimal for uniform user distribution
118
OFDM-based Cellular Single Frequency Network

Band filter DL BS UL
BS
Frequency
Time
BS
MT
Different cells can access all resources Cells need not to be separated Terminals have to be synchronized Propagation delay is compensated by OFDM
119
Synchronisation Concept for a Selforganised SFN

Main Task: Decentralised, self-organised synchronisation of the cellular network
Downlink MT SYNC MT SYNC Resources Uplink
Two dedicated Sync signals - preamble in downlink for Mobile Terminal synchronization - postamble in uplink for Base Station synchronization
BS SYNC
DL Data
UL Data
Time
All MTssyn chron ize to th e B S in their cell
All BS syn chron ize MTs to in adjacen t cells
120
Sync Signal Structure
One pair of pilot subcarriers used by all MTs of single BS
0 Frequency
Separate subsets of pilot subcarriers by guard bands
Distinct pairs of pilot subcarriers used by MTs of different BS
121
Sync Signal Properties

Sync signals are transmitted with maximum transmit power Sync signals have much higher SNR compared to the data transmission
N C = 2048 Gain = 30dB

Estimation Procedure
Evaluate each detected pair of subcarriers separately to obtain a time and frequency offset estimate for each cell RX Pwr RX Pwr
FFT #1
Subcarriers
FFT #2
Subcarriers
Time offset estimate

Im
Frequency offset estimate
R1 (l )
I Re
Im
Phase difference between same subcarrier of consecutive symbols = frequency offset Re
R1 (l 1)
l =
Phase difference between adjacent subcarriers of same symbol = time offset
R2 (l )
fl = f 1 * tan { l(1 )R l(2 )} R . 2
TS tan 1 R1 l 1). R1 l { ( ( )*} 2
- OFDM symbol duration
- OFDM subcarrier spacing
123
System Overview
All BSs and MTs share the whole resources and can access them at any time No BS controller instead: radio resource management (RRM) using a self-organized dynamic channel allocation (SO-DCA) Each BS can observe MTs located in its own cell and in adjacent cells Challenges: Interference from adjacent cells
124
Short Range Scenario

Cell size: 30m (office) or 100m (outdoor) Low mobility (less than 10km/h) Proposal : OFDM-FDMA based Synchronization in time and frequency
BS
Frequency
DL UL
BS
BS
Time
MT
125
Wide Area Scenario

Cell size: 400m till 2km High mobility (till 250km/h) Proposal : OFDM-TDMA based Synchronization only in time
BS
Frequency
DL UL
BS
Time
BS
MT
126
Simulation Parameters
Parameters System bandwidth Number of subcarriers Subcarrier spacing Symbol duration Guard interval length Guard interval duration Number of cells Cell radius Path-loss coefficient Shadowing deviation SNR at propagation distance R Average number of MTs per cell Channel model Value B = 100 MHz N = 2048 F = B/N = 48.8 KHz Ts = 1/F = N/B = 20.48 s NG = 80 0.8 s NBS = 19 R = 100 m 2.5 4 dB 20 dB 7 802.11n
127
Network Model
Cellular network with identical cell radius MTs are uniformly located Quantitative results is counted only in central cell
128
Frequency Sync in a Cell

Inside a cell, after 20 frames, frequency synchronization between all MTs and their BS is correctly achieved Frequency offset is about 0.5% of the subcarrier spacing
Relative freq. offset to BS [ f/Sub.spacing] 0.3 Convergence of MTs to their BS frequency 0.2 0.1 0 -0.1 -0.2
0
20
40 Frame
60
80
129
Time Sync in a Cell

Inside a cell, after 10 frames, time synchronization between all MTs and BS is achieved Time offset is about 8% of the guard interval
Relative time offset to BS [ t/Symbol Duration] 0.5 Convergence of MTs to their BS timing
-0.5
20
40 Frame
60
80
130
Frequency Sync in Cellular Network

Frequency of all BSs within the network converge after 20 frames Frequency offset is about 1% of the subcarrier spacing
Relative freq offset to sub. spacing [ f/ F] 0.3 Convergence of other BSs to ref. BS frequency 0.2 0.1 0 -0.1 -0.2
20
40 Frame
60
80
131
Time Sync in Cellular Network

Timing of all BSs within the network converge after 20 frames Time offset is about 10% of the guard interval
Relative time offset to symbol duration [ t/Ts] 0.5 Convergence of other BSs to ref. BS timing
-0.5
20
40 Frame
60
80
132
Result Animation
133
Result Animation
134
Data Transmission
O DM imRayleigh K al F an
3 dB @ 0.5Bit/s/Hz
8 dB @ 1Bit/s/Hz
13 dB @ 2 Bit/s/Hz
18 dB @ 3 Bit/s/Hz
22 dB @ 4 Bit/s/Hz
If the target BER = 10-5, the highest PHY mode 256-QAM can be used with SNR > 22dB
135
Frequency Offset Accuracy

Frequency offset accuracy of 5% is sufficient for a data transmission (SINR > 22 dB with frequency offset of 5%)
136
Synchronisation Concept - Conclusion

Synchronization concept is proposed, using Sync signals in preamble and postamble. A Sync signal is transmitted with the maximum power by two of subcarriers and three OFDM symbols. Time and frequency synchronization can be carried out simultaneously at the receiver. Simulation results shows synchronization in OFDM-based cellular networks is feasible
137
Self-organized Radio Resource Management

Characteristic system features: Resource allocation is done independently by each base station, without any information exchange. SINR is calculated from estimated signal power and co-channel interference. Resources with the highest SINR values are allocated. PHY mode are selected based on the SINR values.
138
Interference Measurement for Resource Allocation
BS 2
MT3
RX Power
MT5
MT4
BS
Resource BS
BS 1
MT 1 MT 2
BS 1
MT2
MT 3
BS 2
MT 5
RX Power
MT1
BS
MT 4
BS
BS Resource
139
Interference Measurement for Resource Allocation

Interference are measured continuously and averaged over time. DL interference values are measured at MT. UL interference values are measured at BS. Co-channel interference is taken as the maximum value from UL/DL measurements. k
NR
DL
UL
NR
DL
UL
MT measurements
TMAC
BS measurements
Frame ...
l-1
l+1
l+2
...
140
Signal Power Measurements

Signal power is measured exclusively in a reserved Signal Measurement Slot. An SM-slot is only for new users, containing all subcarriers in one OFDM symbol. The estimated value is the average received power over all subcarriers.
f Downlink
MAC frame
Uplink
Signal Measurement Slot t

SINR Calculation and Resource Ranking

1. Balance between UL and DL
I k = max( I k ,UL , I k ,DL )
2.
Signal power estimation
1 N 1 S = S N k =0
SINR
k
3.
SINR calculation
S = Ik + N
4.
Ranking of resources based on their SINR values
142
Cellular Scenario
19 cells, 100 users, uniform user distribution inside each cell OFDM-FDMA, 128 subcarriers, synchronized in time and frequency Hotspot fraction: the probability that a user is located inside central cell
5 users in central cell 60 50 40 [dB] 30 20 10 0
Received power at the central AP

Signal Interference
Subcarrier
143
Hotspot Snapshots
25 users in central cell 60 50 40 [dB] Signal Interference Received power at the central AP
Hotspot fraction: 30%
30 20 10 0
Subcarrier
Received power at the central AP
63 users in central cell 60 50
Signal Interference
Hotspot fraction:
[dB]
40 30 20 10 0 Subcarrier
60%
144
Hotspot Demonstration
Two processes are included:

User concentration towards the central cell User scatteration from the central cell
145
Dynamic Channel Allocation
BS
Enable dynamic channel allocation (DCA) technique Measure co-channel interference between adjacent cells Always assign resources with minimum interference Reuse all resources dynamically in adjacent cells
BS
BS
MT
146
Digital and Analog Hardware Aspects in OFDM Systems
147
Digital and Analog Hardware Aspects in OFDM Systems Introduction Analog / Digital Analog Hardware Aspects Digital Hardware Aspects OFDM Demonstrator Performance Estimations
148
Introduction Analog / Digital
Analog
- IQ-Modulator, -Demodulator - Amplifiers - Antennas
Digital
- FPGA / ASIC - D/A-, A/D-Converter
149
Summary
Efficient mitigation of multipath propagation Excellent performance in coded systems Link adaptation techniques in OFDM makes the system very flexible and powerful Choice of multiple access scheme allows adaptation to channel and user requirements New aspect: cellular environment
150
Aspects of Future Systems

Modulation Techniques: Channel Coding: Network Aspects: Multiple Access: Dynamic Bandwidth: Diversity Coherent vs. Incoherent Adaptive Modulation Coded Modulation Turbo Codes Single Frequency Networks Ad-Hoc Networks TDMA, FDMA, CDMA Dynamic Channel Dynamic Packet Allocation
Flexibility

Rohling PR

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OFDM

based Systems and related Multiple Access Schemes

Department for Telecommunications

Ultrasound Broadband Mobile Communications Ultrasound Self-Organizing Wireless Networks

Ultrasound Cellular Networks Cellular Networks

Technical University of Hamburg-Harburg

Department of Telecommunications Prof. Dr. rer. nat. H. Rohling

Department for Telecommunications

Evolution of Mobile Communications

1991 1982 Deployment 1981 1990

1990 Data Rate

Analogue < 300 bps Digital CDMA ??? 9.6k 64kbps

AMPS, NMT, GSM, PDC, IS-95,

64kbps - 2Mbps W-CDMA, TD-CDMA, 2M - 20Mbps ?

Department for Telecommunications

Requirements for Future Systems

3rd Generation (IMT-2000)

Data rate [Mbps]

Department for Telecommunications

Packet-based Data Streams

Department for Telecommunications

General Requirements on Future Systems

Department for Telecommunications

The Broadband Radio Channel

Department for Telecommunications

Multipath Propagation (Power Delay Profile)

Department for Telecommunications

The Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) Radio Channel

The channel impulse response is given by

HT(f) denotes the channel transfer function

Department for Telecommunications

TS > > max

Department for Telecommunications

TS < < max

Frequency-selective fading, ISI occurs!

Quasi time-invariance during a small time interval ( coherence time TC)

Department for Telecommunications

Frequency Selectivity ISI

Inter Symbol Interference

-10 -20 -30 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2TS 3TS 4TS 5TS

-10 -20 -30 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2TS 3TS 4TS 5TS

Department for Telecommunications

User Mobility (Doppler Profile)

Mobile with omnidirectional antenna

Jakes Doppler Profile

Department for Telecommunications

The Time-Variant Radio Channel

The time-variant channel impulse response is given by

HT(f,t) denotes the time-variant channel transfer function

Department for Telecommunications

Time-Variant Transfer Function

Department for Telecommunications

How Broad is Broadband ?

1/B << max

Department for Telecommunications

Single-Carrier Transmission with increasing Data Rates

Data 4 Symbol Duration

ISI effects 90% of a single Symbol Easy to equalize! h(t)

Example 2: Data Rate = 1 Mbps BPSK, Bandwidth = 1 MHz

ISI effects 10 adjacent Symbols! Equalization becomes very complex!

Department for Telecommunications