Fincham & Rhodes: Principles of Organizational Behaviour: 4e

Chapter 2: Stress
What is stress
Types of stress Individual differences Occupational stress management

The victims
Stress affects both managers & the middle class

Common causes: long hours, fast pace, competitive culture, uncertain environment, shift working, excessive fatigue,

The cost
Health & Safety Executive (HSE): 2003: the UK industry lost 370 million 2003: the UK paid 3.75 billion to treat stress-related illness and other social consequences

What is stress?
The term is widely used = does not mean anything

A cause, an effect or a combination of the two? Three different approaches:

Stress as a response Stress as a cause The appraisal concept

Stress as a response
The general adaptation syndrome (Hans Selye): Stage1: stage of alarm (the organism identifies an environmental demand as threatening) Stage 2: stage of resistance (organism gathers resources to cope with the demand) Stage 3: stage of exhaustion (demand is not met and resources are worn out- serious damage may occur)

Stress as a response
Stress is seen as a physiological response to an external demand The GAS may affect a subsystem or an entire organism Criticism: too simplistic, neglects stress as a cause

Stress as a cause
Emphasis on sources of stress (stressors), i.e. a cause/a factor that may be causing stress Examples: objective features of work and work roles Criticism: too simplistic
neglects the frequency, duration, intensity and severity of stressful events assumes that all individuals react similarly to similar situations

The appraisal concept of stress

Stress = a function of an individuals appraisal of a situation SITUATION (assumption: the situation is not necessarily stressful) APPRAISAL (what is at stake - available resources) High stress Low stress

The appraisal concept of stress (+s and s)

(-) 1. What do we mean by appraisal? 2. How do we measure appraisal?

Appraisal dimensions: Time pressure (right now!) Sense of injustice (its not fair) Distress intolerance (I cant stand this) Catastrophizing (the worse will happen)

The appraisal concept of stress (+s and s)

(+) Psychological factors (i.e. personality) are taken into consideration in this approach If you are a high hardy personality: Life is meaningful, controllable, manageable You retain a basic sense of purpose Believe in yourself & what you are doing! Feel that you can make things happen, things dont happen to you!

The appraisal concept of stress

Emphasis on the evaluative processes (i.e. what is at stake, resources) through which we make sense of stressors

Stress is transactional, not interactional, i.e. Stress = a process itself, not an element of a process
Modern concept of stress founded on the appraisal concept

Types of stress at work

Some aspects of work may cause strain to a significant proportion of individuals Why study? To improve quality of working life Role stressors Decision-making stress Workplace stressors

Types of stress at work: role stressors

Role ambiguity: i.e. dont know what is expected Boundary-spanning roles: i.e. taking the activities of the company to the outside world Single role conflict: i.e. where various components of a role conflict

Types of stress at work: role stressors

Multiple role conflict: where the demands of one role clash with the demands of another role

Work role transitions: Stress caused by entering a new job & experiencing a new, uncertain environment

Types of stress at work: role stressors

Entrapment (source of stress): i.e. when the individual feels trapped in a role Common causes: - career path blocked - no/ limited opportunities for advancement/ to retrain (middle age)
Dealing with entrapment: Negotiate career plans, involve in project teams, restructure the company

Types of stress at work: role stressors

Entrapment Frustration Apathy

BURNOUT
i.e. where the individual has a negative attitude towards the job (extreme emotional state)

Types of stress at work: role stressors

Burnout:
1. Emotional exhaustion: emotional resources are inadequate for emotionally demanding problems 2. Cynicism: indifference to work and others 3. Professional efficacy: having negative expectations of ones own effectiveness
Burnout affects employee health!

Types of stress at work: role stressors

Factors that predict burnout:
Satisfaction Commitment Social support Participation in decision making Autonomy

Emotional exhaustion (only) been related to performance

Types of stress at work: decision-making stress

Stress caused when having to make a decision Impaired ability: judgement! Cause: Stress Manifestation: categorical thinkingonly one right answer

Types of stress at work: decision-making stress

5 approaches to decision-making stress: Unconflicted adherence: dont do anything Unconflicted change: uncritically adopting a course of action Defensive avoidance: delay & finally pick the easiest Hypervigilance: frantically searching for an immediate solution Vigilance: making a well-informed decision!

Types of stress at work: decision-making stress

Training judgement under stress:
Conceptualization: Understand the situation Understand why one feels stressed Skill acquisition & activation: Identify lack of skill Identify lack of ability to apply skills Rehearsal & application: Practice & apply new skills (e.g. role play)

Types of stress at work: decision-making stress

Psychological context (i.e.attitudinal, personality & cognitive variables) is deeply embedded in individuals
Transfer training to the workplace:

Commitment (trainee & peers) Intensive training

Types of stress at work: Workplace stressors

Examples: poor work environment poor work design poor management noise, vibration, heat Normal: function under conditions of moderate stimulations

Types of stress at work: Workplace stressors

1) Under-stimulation: frequently underutilization of skills Cause: Repetitive work Responses: low motivation, absenteeism, apathy, stressrelated illnesses, etc.

Types of stress at work: Workplace stressors

2) Over-stimulation: coping with too much! Responses: ulcers, hypertension, depression, etc Stressor: deadlines Coping strategies/moderators: long hours, control (Karaseks model)

Types of stress at work: Workplace stressors

3) Workplace hassles: i.e. daily re-occurring demands a) Higher impact on low-complexity tasks

b) Lower impact on more complex tasks More complex tasks offer more coping options

Types of stress at work: Workplace stressors

4) Quality of relationship (colleagues, supervisors, customers, etc)
Social support - Work performance - Work outcomes Social stressors - Animosities - Bullying - Harassment

Outcomes: - Burnout

Outcomes: - Depressive symptom

Individual differences
Different people act in different ways Different people experience stress differently Self-esteem & self-efficacy

High?
Less susceptible to external events Setbacks dont affect self-esteem

Low? Internalize anxieties Blame themselves Failure & criticism hurts more

Individual differences
Negative affectivity (NA) i.e. is the glass half-full or half-empty?

High NA (Half-empty)
More pessimism

Feel less resilient

More negative moods Identify more stressors in the environment Create more stress for themselves & others!

Individual differences
Type As & Type Bs

Type A: 1. Achieve goals 2. Compete 3. Desire for recognition & promotion 4. Multitasking 5. Doing things fast 6. High alertness
Type B: relaxed

Individual differences: As & Bs

Time urgency:

For As time passes too quickly

Competitive & hard driving style: As work faster & harder than Bs Suppression of symptoms: As report less fatigue & complain less than Bs

Hostility & Aggressiveness:

As more impatient, aggressive, hostile than Bs

Occupational Stress Management

Occupational Stress Management i.e. an attempt to deal with the effects of stress Individual differences are still important! Strategies 1. Individual Strategies 2. Organizational strategies

Occupational Stress Management: Individual Strategies

Appraisal focused: a) Logical analysis b) Cognitive redefinition c) Cognitive avoidance a) Obtain guidance b) Direct action c) Role innovation a) Affective

Problem focused:

Emotion focused: regulation

b) Resigned acceptance c) Palliatives d) Emotional discharge

Occupational Stress Management: Organizational Strategies

Physical exercise, fitness, nutritional advice i.e. provide a gym, etc Biofeedback i.e. measuring pulse, blood pressure, etc & providing feedback Progressive muscle relaxation i.e. relax high levels of residual muscle tension Imagery training i.e. imagining being in a restful place