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Conjunctive normal form: any formula of the predicate calculus can be transformed into a conjunctive normal form. Def. A formula is said to be in conjunctive normal form if it consists in the conjunction of clauses. A1 A2 An where Ai is a clause. Def. A formula is said to be a clause if it consists in a disjunction of literals. A clause has the following form: L1 v L2 v v Lm where Li is a literal. Def. A literal is an atomic formula or the negation of an atomic formula.
Def. A formula is said to be in clausal form if it can be expressed as a set of clauses: {C1 , , Cn,} where Ci is a clause
~ v
2. Introduce negation: reduce scopes of negation symbols by repeatedly applying the De Morgan rules and the quantifier identities:
~( v ) ~ ~ (ii) ~( ) ~ v ~
(i) (iii)
(iv) ~ x.
Def. A formula is in prenex normal form if it consists in a list of quantifiers called prefix, followed by a quantifier-free formula called the matrix. Procedure (i) Standardize variables: re-name variables. (ii) Eliminate existential quantifiers: replace all existential quantifiers variables by skolem functions of all the universal quantified variables which are over the scope of the existential quantifier. (iii) Move all quantifiers to the left: there remain only universal quantifiers.
distributive laws:
(i) v ( ) ( v ) ( v ) (ii) ( v ) ( ) v ( )
5. Eliminate universal quantifiers.
Example: x. (p(x) {y. [p(y) p(f(x,y))] ~y. [q(x,y)p(y)]}) ===> gets transformed into the following clauses: c1: ~p(x1) v ~p(y) v p(f(x1,y)) c2: ~p(x2) v q(x2, g(x2)) c3: ~p(x3) v ~p(g(x3))
These production systems are called theorem proving systems or deduction systems.
|=
formula, ~ , into to clausal form. 3. Combine the clauses resulting form steps 1 and 2 into a single set, .
4. Iteratively apply resolution to the clauses in and add the results to either until there are no more resolvents that can be added or until the empty clause is produced.
q1 v v qn v r1 v v rm e.g. 1. Whoever can read is a literate. Dolphins are not literate.Some dolphins are intelligent. Hence, some who are intelligent can not read. 2. (c1) p(x,f(a)) v p(x,f(y)) v q(y) (c2) ~p(z,f(a)) v ~q(z)
3. 4. 5.
Tiger and savages animals are fierce or destructives. If there is something destructive in the room, then something in the room will get damaged. Tim is a tiger. Tim is a savage animal. Tim is in the room but it is not fierce.
Prove using resolution that something in the room will get damaged.
Decidability of predicate calculus resolution refutation: We say that resolution refutation in predicate calculus is semi-decidable as it terminates by generating the empty clause if
Simplification strategies
Sometimes a set of clauses can be simplified by elimination of certain clauses or elimination of certain literals in the clauses. Elimination of tautologies Any clause containing a literal and its negation may be eliminated. E.g. p(x) v q(y) v ~ q(y) ==> T Procedural attachment Sometimes it is possible to evaluate the truth values of literals:
e.g.
v F ==>
p(x) V q(y) V ( 3 >7) ==> p(x) V q(y) since we already know that 3>7 is false.
5.
It can be shown [Luckham and Nilsson, 1971] that in the answerextracting process it is correct to replace any Skolem functions in the clauses coming from the negation of the goal wff with new variables. _____________________ Luckham, D.C., and Nilsson, N. J. 1971. Extracting information from resolution proof trees. Artificial Intelligence, 2(1), 27-54.