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PAVEMENT STRUCTURE TYPES (Flexible & Rigid pavements) TERMINOLOGIES TRAFFIC VOLUME ESTIMATION DESIGN METHODS Empirical Designs (e.g. California Bearing Ratio, CBR, method & AASHTO Road Test; Dynamic Cone Penetrometer, DCP, Design Method) Mechanistic Design (balanced design in which no single layer in the payment is subjected to excessive stress or strain)
Pavement structure
Analysis Period: - The useful life over which the total present cost of the pavement (comprising construction costs, maintenance costs (including user costs), & salvage value) is determined so that the whole-life-cycle cost comparisons can be made between alternative design options)
Terminologies (contd)
Structural distress: visible manifestation of deterioration of the pavement with respect to either the serviceability or the structural capacity Design Reliability: the extent to which the pavement can carry the design traffic without deterioration over the design life.
Terminologies (contd)
Standard Axle Load (SAL) : 80 kN single axle dual wheel configuration. Tyre contact stress is 520 kPa (The maximum pemissible single axle load (4 or more tyres) is 88 kN. Equivalent Standard Axle (Load) / ESA/ESAL (aka: E80s): - All axle loads are converted to an equivalent number of standard axle loads, ESAs, and pavement design is usually based upon the total cumulative ESAs that the pavement will have to carry over its design life. Equivalence Factor, EF: The pavement damaging effect of an axle in relation to the damage caused by a standard axle which has a load of 80kN.
Vehicles per day (vpd): The total daily number of motorised vehicles in both directions (i.e. two-way flow) Vehicles per lane per day (vpld): This is usually the total daily number of motorised vehicles in one direction or lane CV = Commercial vehicles PCU = Passenger car units
Traffic volume
ADT / AADT: (Annual) Average Daily Traffic - The total annual traffic in both directions divided by 365. Hence it is an average 240hour daily traffic volume. - It is important to note that this is a TWO-WAY traffic flow. For pavement design purposes, ONE-WAY traffic flow is normally used. - Pavement design is normally based on the lane with the highest traffic loading.
Table 1a: Manual classified traffic count data combined data (for a two-way flow)
Time 00.00 01.00 01.00 02.00 02.00 03.00 03.00 04.00 04.00 05.00 05.00 06.00 06.00 07.00 07.00 08.00 08.00 09.00 09.00 10.00 10.00 11.00 11.00 12.00 12.00 13.00 13.00 14.00 14.00 15.00 15.00 16.00 16.00 17.00 17.00 18.00 18.00 19.00 19.00 20.00 20.00 21.00 21.00 22.00 22.00 23.00 23.00 24.00 No. survey hours: 24 hour count: Number of Commercial Vehicles for each hour of the day Mon Tue Wed Thurs Fri 3 2 0 1 4 12 23 20 24 45 47 52 56 48 60 64 63 71 61 65 66 55 52 59 49 47 52 51 44 47 52 45 51 61 55 57 65 61 58 51 54 56 29 42 22 21 13 8 7 6 4 2 24 732 6 A 16 B 6 C Sat 1 2 0 3 1 4 7 12 8 13 15 18 16 12 15 21 24 14 8 5 6 3 1 0 24 209 Sun 3 5 8 4 2 6 7 9 8 D
A estimated traffic count for Wednesday: = (actual traffic count for 12.00 18.00) x total 24-hour count (traffic count for 12.00-18.00 of 24-hour count)
CURB WEIGHT
(Tare mass, kg) 1532 1542 1476 1455
kN
EF = (CB/80KN)^4
1455
1443 1246 1425 1442 1330 1157
14.269
14.158 12.222 13.975 14.144 13.045 11.355
0.001
0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.000
1536
1360
15.065
13.342
0.001
0.001
SANRAL Two axle unit veh (restriction) Max limit (HAV) SANRAL )Maximum load
Single axle with 4 wheels (restriction) Vehicle load GVM Truck load Restriction on (Truck)
Introduction
Pavement - components (foundation in cut /fill; subgrade (prepared foundation; subbase, base) Pavement types - Surface roads (bituminous roads, concrete pavements) - Unsurfaced roads (earth roads, gravel roads) - Block pavements Broad classification: - Flexible pavements (earth roads, gravel roads, bituminous pavements) - Rigid pavements (concrete roads)
Pavement failures occur gradually and cumulatively Bad roads trigger - economic loss - loss of life
Design issues
Availability of adequate information for modelling and accurate prediction of pavement behaviour over time
Pavement design parameters (2) Climatic conditions - Average rainfall (seasonal distribution) - Temperature (maximum, minimum, variations daily & seasonal) (NB: effects on materials) - Snow
CBR design method CBR expresses the bearing strength / capacity of a compacted road layer as a percentage CBR (@ optimum soil density) = (load carried by selected specimen) x 100% (load carried by a standard crushed stone specimen)
G1 to G4
G5
G7 material
Density CBR of pavement subgrade material (at field density usually 93% mod.AASHTO density) is determined from the CBR vrs. Density curve
Depth of cover mm
10
100
Depth of cover mm
Depth of cover mm
Decide whether to base design on a 32; 20; or 53 KN wheel load ( depending on the whether the proposed road is a minor road or heavily trafficked road) From the CBR depth of construction curve, read off the amount of material cover required to protect the roadbed (in-situ subgrade) from the damaging effects of traffic
Example Given: - In-situ subgrade CBR = 5 - Expected heavy traffic = 53KN wheel load - Selected subgrade CBR = 15 - Minimum CBR of Base-course = 80 - Minimum CBR of sub-base = 45 Design the thickness of the above proposed pavement.
Solution: - From CBR thickness design curve, read off the total cover above the natural / in-situ subgrade = 420 mm (equals the combined thickness of selected subgrade, subbase, base and surfacing) - Selected Subgrade of CBR 15: Read off the required thickness = 225 mm (i.e. combined thickness of subbase, base and surfacing) - Subtract 225mm from 420mm, the thickness of the selected subgrade layer = 195 mm - Cover needed for the subbase of CBR 45 (from curve) = 100mm (combined thickness of base & surfacing) - Subtract 100 from 225 to obtain the thickness of the subbase to be 125mm - NB: the curve does not give cover required by the base, so that neither the base nor surfacing can be found by the CBR method
The DCP instrument consists of An 8 kg hammer which is made to drop through a height of 575 mm A cone angle of 60 (can also be 30 )
Establish un-compacted soil strength for new road design across a green field Most useful in measuring in-situ soil strength of an existing road for upgrading /rehabilitation Usually driven to its full length of 800 mm and pavement structure number, DSN800 (number of blows to 800 mm depth) read off
Uses of the DCP (contd) From calibrated design charts of CBR / DCP numbers, the following can be estimated: Approximate traffic capacity Pavement layers can be identified Layer thickness can be measured NB: The DCP is sensitive to soil moisture content & density - It is therefore a good practice to confirm DCP results with a few laboratory CBR tests
Features of the DCP instrument (Ref: Paige-Green & Du Plessis, 2009, CSIR)
Plot a graph of Number of Blows versus Depth of penetration (mm) Identify each layer Find the slope of each layer The DCP number (mm per blow) Read off the corresponding soil strength California Bearing Ratio (CBR) - from the CBR/DCP chart
Convert DCP number (in mm/blow) for each layer using the empirical formula
Log10 (CBR) = Log10 (401.8) 1.284Log10 (DCP )
(Van Steenderen, W.P.C. 1994, School of Civil Engineering, Wits University)
Uses mechanical properties of pavement materials and their ability to resist stress and strain CBR design (i.e. empirical design which relies on observations / experience) ignores fatigue ( cumulative effects of repeated axle loadings) Therefore, mechanistic design is preferable However, empirical method is always a good starting point (in the absence of nothing)
The angle, , is dependent on the relative stiffness of each layer For example, if subbase is stabilised (or stiff), it will resist load; therefore pressure on the layer beneath will be very much less. Hence the angle flattens out to probably 30o Water-bound Macadam (roads WBM)( See page 36 of TRH) research by Phillips (1994) at Wits showed that WBM basecourses can withstand significantly higher shear stresses than crushed stone base courses.
Combination of empirical and mechanistic design methods (i.e. empirical-mechanistic design) TRH 4 is based on research and local experience (by carried out CSIR & Road Authorities)
Layerworks BASECOURSE
Material / thickness Very strong material; suitably graded crushed rock or high quality natural gravels; spreads traffic loads so that subbase can carry; usually, 100-150 mm thick
SUB-BASE
Good quality natural or processed gravels (may be stabilised with small quantities of cement/lime/ other agents); One or two layers; 100-150 mm thick SELECTED SUBGRADE Generally natural soils & sands with low plasticity; one or two layers; 100150 mm thick
TRH 4 divides pavements into 10 different classes, from ES 0.003 to ES 100 ES 0.003 indicates extremely light trafficked road ES 1000 indicates extremely heavy trafficked road
Example: Given: vpd/lane = 200 10% heavy vehicles from the vpd/lane count Each heavy vehicle = 1.2 E80 Annual growth in E80 s = 4% Design period = 20 years Question: determine the pavement class
Solution
Equivalent design traffic = 200 x 10% x E80s x traffic growth factor fy (from Table 12) = 200 x 0.1 x 1.2 x 11303 E80s = 271272E80s = 0.271272 X 106 E80s Therefore, the bearing capacity of the pavement is between 0.10 - 0.30 million 80 kN axles per lane (from Table 4) = Pavement class ES0.3
Table 13 (contd)
Climatic conditions (moisture and temperature) affect choice and stability of materials RSA divides climatic regions into 3: - a relatively large dry region - a moderate region - a few small wet regions