Wireless Communications: Trends and Challenges

ANDREA J. GOLDSMITH Dept. of Electrical Engineering Stanford University http://ee.stanford.edu/~andrea

8C32810.1-Cimini-7/98

OUTLINE
Introduction Radio Environment Physical Layer Issues Channel Access Issues Network Issues Standards and Future Systems Summary

8C32810.20-Cimini-7/98

WIRELESS DATA VISION

Region

TAXI

City

laptops, PDAs

Campus

In-Building

Seamless Multimedia Networks with Mobility and Freedom from Tethers

[R. Katz, "Does Wireless Data Have a Future?", Plenary Talk, INFOCOM '96]

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VOICE VERSUS DATA VERSUS VIDEO

Voice
Delay Packet Loss BER Data Rate Traffic < 100 ms < 1% 10-2 - 10-3 8-32 kbps Continuous

Data
0 < 10-5 1-100 Mbps Bursty

Video
< 100 ms <1% < 10-7 1-20 Mbps Continuous

Wired Networks Trying to Integrate (ATM, SONET, Multimedia Services)

8C32810.80-Cimini-7/98

WHAT IS THE FUTURE OF WIRELESS DATA?

100 90 80 70
cellular + PCS subs Internet users

USA market

millions

60 50 40 30 20 10

paging subs

dedicated wireless data subs

laptop users annual laptop sales

0 1995

2000

*Estimates as of 1996

7C29822.008-Cimini-9/97

THE ISSUE IS PERFORMANCE

"The mobile data market has been slow to take off, but progress is being made. The most formidable obstacle to user acceptance remains performance."
I. Brodsky, "Countdown to Mobile Blast Off", Network World, February 19, 1996

Mobile Multimedia Terminal

Network Adaptation & Control

Radio Protocols & Modem

Radio Protocols & Modem

Mobility Control Protocols

Signaling/ Routing Mobility Control Network Interface

Wireless Interface

Radio Link

Radio Port

RADIO ACCESS SEGMENT

MOBILE NETWORK SEGMENT

BROADBAND WIRELESS NETWORK

Link Performance: Data Rate and Quality Network Performance: Access, Coverage, Reliability,
QoS, and Internetworking

8C32810.81-Cimini-7/98

GAP BETWEEN WIRED AND WIRELESS NETWORK CAPABILITIES

LOCAL AREA PACKET SWITCHING

WIDE AREA CIRCUIT SWITCHING 100,000 ATM

100,000

100 M
Ethernet

ATM

10,000 Ethernet

FDDI

10,000 wired- wireless bit-rate "gap" 1000 User Bit-Rate 2nd gen WLAN wired- wireless ISDN 28.8 modem 9.6 modem 10 bit-rate "gap"

1000 User Bit-Rate

100 (kbps) Polling 10 Packet Radio 1st gen WLAN

100

(kbps) 32 kbps PCS

2.4 modem 1

14.4 9.6 cellular digital cellular

2.4 cellular

.1

.1

.01
1970 1980 YEAR 1990 2000

.01 1970 1980 YEAR 1990 2000

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TECHNICAL CHALLENGES

Low-Power/Low-Cost Implementations Scarce Radio Spectrum

Radio Channel Characteristics
Limits on Signal Coverage Limits on Data Rates

Efficient Network Architectures and

Protocols

Seamless Internetworking Authentication and Security

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RADIO ENVIRONMENT

Path Loss Shadow Fading Multipath

Limit the Bit Rate and/or Coverage

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PATH LOSS MODEL

Different, often complicated, models are
used for different environments.

A simple model for path loss, L, is

L= Pr Pt

=K

1 f da
2

where Pr is the local mean received signal power, Pt is the transmitted power, d is the transmitter-receiver distance, f is frequency, and K is a transmission constant. The path loss exponent a = 2 in free space; 2 a 4 in typical environments.

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SHADOW FADING
The received signal is shadowed by
obstructions such as hills and buildings.

This results in variations in the local mean

received signal power, Pr (dB) = Pr (dB) + Gs where Gs ~ N(0, ss ), 4 ss 10 dB.
2

Implications
nonuniform coverage increases the required transmit power

P = Pr0

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MULTIPATH

Received Power

Delay Spread

h(t) = of Arriving Rays

S aiejq d(t-ti)
i i

Constructive and Destructive Interference

10 0 dB With Respect -10 to RMS Value -20 -30

0.5l

0 0
8C32810.85-Cimini-7/98

0.5 10

1 t, in seconds 20 x, in wavelength

1.5 30

DELAY SPREAD TIME DOMAIN INTERPRETATION

Two-ray model t = rms delay spread

Received Power

2t

Delay

Channel Input

t small
T
0 2T

Channel Output

1 0 T

2T

t large
T
0 T 2T

t T small

negligible intersymbol interference

t large

significant intersymbol interference, T which causes an irreducible error floor

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PHYSICAL LAYER ISSUES

Link Performance Measures Modulation Tradeoffs Flat Fading Countermeasures Delay Spread Countermeasures

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LINK PERFORMANCE MEASURES

PROBABILITY OF BIT ERROR
The probability of bit error, Pb, in a radio
environment is a random variable.

average Pb, Pb
Pr [Pb > Pbtarget] D outage, Pout =

Typically only one of these measures is

useful, depending on the Doppler frequency and the bit rate.

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LINK PERFORMANCE MEASURES

EFFICIENCY
Spectral Efficiency
a measure of the data rate per unit bandwidth for a given bit error probability and transmitted power

Power Efficiency
a measure of the required received power to achieve a given data rate for a given bit error probability and bandwidth

Throughput/Delay

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GOALS OF MODULATION TECHNIQUES

High Bit Rate High Spectral Efficiency High Power Efficiency Low-Cost/Low-Power Implementation Robustness to Impairments

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DIGITAL MODULATION
Any modulated signal can be represented as
s(t) = A(t) cos [wct + f(t)] amplitude phase or frequency

s(t) = A(t) cos f(t) cos wct

in-phase - A(t) sin f(t) sin wct quadrature

Linear versus nonlinear modulation impact

on spectral efficiency

Constant envelope versus non-constant envelope hardware implications with impact

on power efficiency

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LINEAR MODULATION TECHNIQUES

s(t) = [ S an g (t-nT)]cos wct - [ S bn g (t-nT)] sin wct n n I(t), in-phase Q(t), quadrature

LINEAR MODULATIONS

Square Constellations

M-ARY QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MOD. (M-QAM)

M-ARY PHASE SHIFT KEYING (M-PSK)

Circular Constellations

M4

M=4 (4-QAM = 4-PSK)

M4

CONVENTIONAL 4-PSK (QPSK)

OFFSET DIFFERENTIAL 4-PSK 4-PSK (OQPSK) (DQPSK, p/4-DQPSK)

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SIGNAL CONSTELLATIONS
M-PSK (Circular Constellations)
bn 4-PSK 16-PSK an

M-QAM (Square Constellations)

bn 16-QAM 4-PSK an

Tradeoffs Higher-order modulations (M large) are more spectrally efficient but less power efficient. M-QAM is more spectrally efficient than M-PSK but also more sensitive to system nonlinearities.

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PULSE SHAPING
Rectangular pulses are spectrally inefficient

pulse shaping

intersymbol interference (ISI) non-constant envelope

Nyquist pulses

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RAISED COSINE PULSE SHAPING

a = 0, 0.5 a=1
0 T
3T a = 0 a = 0.5

g(t)

2T

4T

a=0 a = 0.5

G(f)

a=1
- 1 T 1 2T 0 1 2T 1 T

Relative Peak Instantaneous Power (dB)

30
256 QAM 20 64 QAM 16 PSK 16 QAM 10 8 PSK 4 PSK

0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 Cosine Rolloff Factor, a

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DEMODULATION
Coherent detection requires a coherent phase
reference. difficult to obtain in a rapidly fading environment increases receiver complexity

Differential detection uses the previous symbol

for the reference signal. eliminates need for coherent reference entails loss in power efficiency (up to 3 dB) Doppler causes irreducible error floor, typically small for high bit rates

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FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING

Continuous Phase FSK (CPFSK)
digital data encoded in the frequency shift typically implemented with frequency modulator to maintain continuous phase

s(t) = A cos [wct + 2 pkf d(t) dt]

t

nonlinear modulation but constant-envelope

Minimum Shift Keying (MSK)

minimum bandwidth, sidelobes large can be implemented using I-Q receiver

Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK)

reduces sidelobes of MSK using a premodulation filter used by RAM Mobile Data, CDPD, and HIPERLAN

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SPECTRAL CHARACTERISTICS
10 0

Power Spectral Density (dB)

QPSK/DQPSK GMSK

-20 -40 -60 -80 -100 -120

B3-dBTb = 0.16
0.25 1.0 (MSK)

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

Normalized Frequency (f-fc)Tb

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BIT ERROR PROBABILITY

AWGN CHANNEL
10-1 5 2 10-2 5 2 10-3 5
BPSK, QPSK DBPSK

For Pb = 10-3 BPSK 6.5 dB QPSK 6.5 dB DBPSK ~8 dB DQPSK ~9 dB

Pb
2 10-4 5 2 10-5 5 2 10-6 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
DQPSK

gb, SNR/bit, dB

QPSK is more spectrally efficient than BPSK with the

same performance.

M-PSK, for M>4, is more spectrally efficient but requires

more SNR per bit.

There is ~3 dB power penalty for differential

detection.
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BIT ERROR PROBABILITY

FADING CHANNEL
1 5 2 10-1 5 2 10-2 5
DBPSK

Pb

2 10-3 5
AWGN BPSK

2
10-4 5 2 10-5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

gb, SNR/bit, dB

Pb is inversely proportion to the average SNR per bit. Transmission in a fading environment requires about
18 dB more power for Pb = 10-3.

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BIT ERROR PROBABILITY

EFFECTS OF DOPPLER SPREAD
Doppler causes an irreducible error floor when differential
detection is used decorrelation of reference signal.
100 QPSK DQPSK 10 -1 Rayleigh Fading 10 -2

-3 Pb 10

fDT=0.003 10 -4 No Fading 0.002 0.001 10 -5 0 10 -6 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

gb, SNR/bit, dB

The irreducible Pb depends on the data rate and the Doppler.

For fD = 80 Hz,

data rate

Pbfloor

10 kbps 10-4s 3x10-4 100 kbps 10-5s 3x10-6 1 Mbps 10-6s 3x10-8 The implication is that Doppler is not an issue for high-speed wireless data.
[M. D. Yacoub, Foundations of Mobile Radio Engineering , CRC Press, 1993]

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BIT ERROR PROBABILITY

EFFECTS OF DELAY SPREAD
ISI causes an irreducible error floor.
10-1
Coherent Detection + BPSK QPSK OQPSK Modulation x MSK

Irreducible Pb

10-2
x x

x x + + + + x +

10-3

10-1 100 rms delay spread t = symbol period T The rms delay spread imposes a limit on the maximum bit rate in a multipath environment. For example, for QPSK, t Maximum Bit Rate Mobile (rural) 25 msec 8 kbps Mobile (city) 2.5 msec 80 kbps Microcells 500 nsec 400 kbps Large Building 100 nsec 2 Mbps
[J. C.-I. Chuang, "The Effects of Time Delay Spread on Portable Radio Communications Channels with Digital Modulation," IEEE JSAC, June 1987]

10-4 10-2

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SUMMARY OF MODULATION ISSUES

Tradeoffs
linear versus nonlinear modulation
constant envelope versus non-constant envelope coherent versus differential detection power efficiency versus spectral efficiency

Limitations
flat fading doppler delay spread

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HOW DO WE OVERCOME THE LIMITATIONS IMPOSED BY THE RADIO CHANNEL?

Flat Fading Countermeasures
Fade Margin

Diversity
Coding and Interleaving Adaptive Techniques

Delay Spread Countermeasures

Equalization Multicarrier Spread Spectrum Antenna Solutions

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DIVERSITY
Independent signal paths have a low probability
of experiencing deep fades simultaneously.
Received Signal Power (dBm)

-20
-40 -60 -80 0 4 8 12 16 d

-100 The chance that two deep fades occur simultaneously is rare.

The basic concept is to send the same

information over independently fading radio

Independent fading paths can be achieved by

separating the signal in time, frequency, space, polarization, etc.

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DIVERSITY COMBINING TECHNIQUES

a1 a2 a3 aM

Combiner Output

Selection Combining: picks the branch with the

highest SNR.

Equal-Gain Combining: all branches are coherently

combined with equal weights.

Maximal-Ratio Combining: all branches are coherently

combined with weights which depend on the branch SNR.

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DIVERSITY PERFORMANCE
There is dramatic improvement even with two-branch
selection combining. 10 dB reduction in required SNR for 1% outage less transmitted power or higher bit rates or larger coverage area

Pb
10-1 5 2 10-2 5 2 10-3 5 2 10-4 5 2 10-5 5 2 10-6 5 10 15 20 25 30 gb, SNR/bit, dB 35 40 M=4 M=2 M=1 Maximal Ratio Combining
99.99 99.9 99.5 98.0 90.0 80.0 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0

Pout

M=2

20.0

10.0
5.0 2.0 1.0 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.02 0.01
Selection Maximal Ratio Equal Gain

-40

-30

-20 10log

-10 1 margin

10

The output SNR with Maximal-Ratio Combining improves

linearly with the number of diversity branches, M the complexity becomes prohibitive.

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CHANNEL CODING
Channel coding reduces Pb by introducing redundancy
in the transmitted bit stream.

Block and convolutional codes acheive this improvement

at the expense of increased signal bandwidth or a lower data rate.

Bit error probabilityAWGN channel

10-2 5 2 10-3 5 2 10-4 5 Pb 2 10-5 Hamming (7,4,1) BCH (127,64,10) Conv. 1/2 rate (k=7) Uncoded

BPSK

For Pb = 10-6
Uncoded Hamming BCH Conv. 10.5 dB 10.0 dB 6.5 dB 5.0 dB

5
2 10-6 5 2 10-7 0 2 4

10

12

14

gb, SNR/bit, dB

Fading causes burst errors. If the fading is slow enough

relative to the symbol rate, coding will not be effective.
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CODING PERFORMANCE FADING CHANNEL

Pb performance for the IS-136 rate-1/2 convolutional
code on a simulated mobile radio channel (harddecision decoding). 1 10-1 Pb 10-2 10-3 10-4 8
Uncoded 50 km/hr Coded 1 km/hr Coded 8 km/hr Coded 50 km/hr Coded 100 km/hr

10

12 14 16 gb, SNR/bit, dB

18

20

Negligible coding gain if fading is slow compared

to bit rate interleaving
[V. Iyengar and J. Michaelides, "Performance Evaluations of RLPs (Radio Link Protocols) for TDMA Data Services," ITIA Contribution TR45.3.2.5/93.03.30.10, Chicago, March 30, 1993]

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CODING PERFORMANCE FADING CHANNEL

Pb performance for the IS-136 rate-1/2 convolutional
code on a simulated mobile radio channel (soft decision decoding). 1 10
-1
Uncoded 50 km/hr Coded 1 km/hr Coded 8 km/hr Coded 50 km/hr Coded 100 km/hr

10-2 Pb 10-3 10-4 10 -5 8

10

12 14 16 gb, SNR/bit, dB

18

20

[V. Iyengar and J. Michaelides, "Performance Evaluations of RLPs (Radio Link Protocols) for TDMA Data Services," ITIA Contribution TR45.3.2.5/93.03.30.10, Chicago, March 30, 1993]

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CODING AND INTERLEAVING

The basic principle is to spread the burst errors
over many code words. 1 codeword read into interleaver by rows 1 5 9 2 6 10 3 7 11 4 8 12 read out by columns
1,5,9,2,6,10,3,7, 11,4,8,12

channel

1 reads out by rows

1, 2 ,3,4,5, 6 ,7,8, 9, 10 ,11,12

2 6 10

3 7 11

4 8 12

5 9

1,5,9, 2 , 6 ,10 ,3,7,11, 4,8,12

reads in by rows

The required interleaver size can be large if the

relative fading rate is slow, as is usually the case for high-speed data. For example, fD = 10 Hz, bit rate = 10 Mb/s, error burst = 330,000 bits.

delay and complexity

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ADVANCED CODING TECHNIQUES

Trellis Codes reduce Pb without bandwidth expansion through joint design of the channel code and signal constellation can be designed with built-in time diversity Turbo Codes exhibit enormous coding gains interleaving inherent to code design very complex with large delays not well-understood for fading channels

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CODING PERFORMANCE TCM

8PSK TCM

10

-1

10

-2

Uncoded 4 PSK

10

-3

Pb

Ungerboeck Code R=2/3, M=4 MSB b3, R=2/3 b1, R=2/3

10

-4

LSB

10

-5

b2, R=2/3

10 10

-6

12

14

16

18

20

22

Es/N0 (dB)

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ADAPTIVE TECHNIQUES
Adaptive Modulation

Automatic Repeat Request

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ADAPTIVE MODULATION
TRANSMITTER noise
Adaptive Modulation and Coding

RECEIVER
Demodulation and Decoding Channel Estimate

Power Control

Channel

Delay

FEEDBACK CHANNEL

Power and/or data rate adapted at transmitter to

channel conditions

Potential for large increase in spectral efficiency Can be combined with adaptive compression

requires reliable feedback channel and accurate

channel estimation

increases transmitter and receiver complexity

8C32810.22-Cimini-7/98

AUTOMATIC REPEAT REQUEST (ARQ)

Method of "self-adapting" the data rate to the channel conditions Used in combination with error-detecting code Variations of ARQ used in Mobitex and CDPD Types: Stop-and-Wait, Go-Back-N, SelectiveRepeat

power and spectrally inefficient impacts higher layer protocols necessary for meeting stringent Pb
requirements or data

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DELAY SPREAD COUNTERMEASURES

Signal Processing
at the receiver, to alleviate the problems caused by delay spread (equalization) at the transmitter, to make the signal less sensitive to delay spread (multicarrier, spread spectrum)

Antenna Solutions
change the environment to reduce, or eliminate, the delay spread (distributed antenna system, small cells, directive antennas)

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EQUALIZER TYPES AND STRUCTURES

The goal of equalization is to cancel the ISI or, equivalently, to flatten the frequency response.

Equalizer

Types

Nonlinear

Linear

DFE

ML Symbol Detector

MLSE

Structures
Transversal Lattice Transversal Lattice
Transversal Channel Estimator

[J. G. Proakis, "Adaptive Equalization for TDMA Digital Mobile Radio," IEEE Trans. on Veh. Tech. , May 1991]

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LINEAR EQUALIZER
A linear equalizer effectively inverts the channel.
n(t) Channel Hc(f) Equalizer 1 Heq(f) Hc(f)

The linear equalizer is usually implemented as a

tapped delay line.

On a channel with deep spectral nulls, this equalizer

enhances the noise.

poor performance on frequency-selective fading channels

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DECISION FEEDBACK EQUALIZER

DFE n(t) x(t) Hc(f)
Forward Filter

+ Feedback Filter

^ x(t)

The DFE determines the ISI from the previously detected

symbols and subtracts it from the incoming symbols.

This equalizer does not suffer from noise enhancement

because it estimates the channel rather than inverting it. The DFE has better performance than the linear equalizer in a frequency-selective fading channel.

The DFE is subject to error propagation if decisions are

made incorrectly.

Decisions are made on coded symbols. no coding gain

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MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD SEQUENCE ESTIMATION

MLSE has theoretically optimum performance. It requires knowledge of the channel parameters and
the noise distribution.

The implementation complexity grows exponentially

with the length of the channel impulse response not practical for high bit rates.

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EQUALIZER ISSUES FOR HIGH-SPEED WIRELESS DATA

The number of required equalizer taps, N, is proportional
to the delay spread.

The equalizer taps must be adapted at the highest

Doppler rate. The length and periodicity of the training sequence impacts the spectral efficiency. There is a tradeoff between speed of convergence and complexity.
Number of Multiply Operations 2N + 1

Algorithms (for DFE) Least Mean Square (LMS)

Convergence ~10-100N

Advantages Low computational complexity

Disadvantages Slow convergence, depends on channel

Kalman Recursive Least Squares (RLS)

Square Root

2.5N2 + 4.5N

~N

Fast convergence, good tracking ability

Better stability than Kalman Fast convergence and good tracking

High computational complexity

High computational complexity Could be unstable

1.5N2 + 6.5N

~N

Fast Kalman

20N + 5

~N

7C29822.026-Cimini-9/97

EQUALIZER PERFORMANCE
1 10 -1 10 -2 Pb 10 -3 10 -4 10 -5 10 -6 25 1
no equalizer DFE .1 5 .1 1 1 10

BPSK
10 Mbps 5

30

35

40

45

50

SNR (dB)

BPSK

16 Mbps 8 4,16

10 -1
1 8 .1 .1,4 1

Pout 10 -2

10 -3
no equalizer DFE

10 -4 1 10-4 10-8 Target Pb 10-12

Pahlavan has shown that, for 30-meter cells (t = 50 ns), 20 Mb/s

can be achieved using a DFE with 3 forward taps and 3 feedback taps.
[K. Pahlavan, S. J. Howard, and T. A. Sexton, "Decision Feedback Equalization of the Indoor Radio Channel," IEEE Trans. on Commun., January 1993]
8C32810.110-Cimini-7/98

MULTICARRIER MODULATION
The transmission bandwidth is divided into many
narrow subchannels which are transmitted in parallel.

Ideally, each subchannel is narrow enough so

that the fading it experiences is flat no ISI.

Transmitter
R/N b/s R/N b/s R/N b/s QAM QAM QAM
filter

d0(t) d1(t) d N-1(t) f0 RF f1 fN-1 D(t)

filter

filter

Bandlimited signals
f0 f1
filter f0 filter f1

f2 QAM

Receiver

f0
QAM f1

RF

filter fN-1

QAM fN-1

8C32810.111-Cimini-7/98

OFDM RECEIVER STRUCTURE

Receiver
f0
RF

d(0) d(1) parallel to serial converter

f1 d(N-1)

QAM

f N-1

Subchannel Separation

1 NT ^ integrate over NT, then d(m) = d(m)

choose fn = f0 + nDf, with Df =

Efficient FFT Implementation A guard interval can virtually eliminate ISI

(or, interblock interference) lower spectral or power efficiency.

8C32810.113-Cimini-7/98

WHAT TO DO WITH BAD SUBCHANNELS?

Coding Across Subchannels works best
with large delay spread

Frequency Equalization requires accurate

channel estimation

Adaptive Loading requires reliable

feedback channel and accurate channel estimation

8C32810.114-Cimini-7/98

MULTICARRIER MODULATION ISSUES FOR HIGH-SPEED WIRELESS DATA

Minimal training is required. Time-varying fading, frequency offset, and timing

mismatch impair the orthogonality of the subchannels.

Large peak-to-average power ratio is a serious

problem when transmitting through a nonlinearity. possible solutions: nonlinear coding, clipping and filtering

8C32810.115-Cimini-7/98

CURRENT AND PROPOSED APPLICATIONS OF OFDM

Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line Digital Audio Broadcasting Wireless LAN Digital Terrestrial Television High Speed Cellular

8C32810.116-Cimini-7/98

SPREAD SPECTRUM
Spread spectrum increases the transmit signal
bandwidth to reduce the effects of flat fading, ISI and interference.

SS is used in all wireless LAN products in the ISM

band required for operation with reasonable power levels minimal performance impact on other systems IEEE 802.11 standard

There are two SS methods: direct sequence and

frequency hopping. Direct sequence multiplies the data sequence by a faster chip sequence. Frequency hopping varies the carrier frequency by the same chip sequence.

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DIRECT SEQUENCE SPREAD SPECTRUM

Interference Data (T) Modulator Channel Carrier Recovery Data (T) Demod

Spreading (PN) Code Tc << T Transmitter

Synch

Spreading (PN) Code

Receiver

Narrowband Interference Original Data Signal ISI Other SS Users Other SS Users

Narrowband Filter

Data Signal with Spreading

ISI

Modulated Data

Receiver Input

Demodulator Filtering

8C32810.117-Cimini-7/98

RAKE RECEIVER

sc(t)
Received Signal Data Output

sc(t-Tc)

Coherent Combiner

Demodulator

sc(t-2Tc)

sc(t-TM)

When the chip time is much less than the rms delay spread,
each branch has independent fading equivalent to diversity combining.

When the chip time is greater than the rms delay spread,
the paths cannot be resolved no diversity gain.

8C32810.119-Cimini-7/98

PERFORMANCE OF RAKE RECEIVER FADING CHANNEL

0.5

DPSK
10-1

10-2 Pb 10-3

Rayleigh

RAKE

10-4

AWGN

10-5

5 10 gb, SNR/bit, dB

15

8C32810.27-Cimini-7/98

SPREAD SPECTRUM ISSUES FOR HIGH-SPEED WIRELESS DATA

Hardware Complexity
synchronization high processing speeds for high bit rates RAKE receiver

High Required Bandwidth to Accommodate

Spreading

Spread spectrum is difficult at high bit rates and not really needed.

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ANTENNA SOLUTIONS

Goal: Reduce (or eliminate) delay spread

Distributed Antenna System Very Small Cells antenna in every room

Sectorization Directive Antennas/Beam Steering

Omnidirectional
120 150 180 210 240 270 300 90 60 30 0 330 150 180 210

Sectorized
120 90 60 30 0 330 270 300 150 180 210

Directive
120 90 60 30 0 330 270 300

240

240

7C29822.028-Cimini-9/97

DISTRIBUTED ANTENNA SYSTEM

1 Probability Abscissa Exceeded

Distributed Monopoles .5 Central Monopole

10

20 30 RMS Delay Spread (ns)

40

50

[A. A. M. Saleh, A. J. Rustako, Jr., and R. S. Roman, "Distributed Antennas for Indoor Radio Communications," IEEE Trans. on Commun., December 1987]

7C29822.029-Cimini-9/97

EXAMPLES OF PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENTS

High-Speed Narrowbeam Antenna Experiment
[P. F. Driessen "Gigabit/s Indoor Wireless Systems with Directional Antennas," IEEE Trans. on Comm., August 1996] directional antennas (15 beamwidth) at both ends of LOS link no equalization 622 Mbps BPSK transmission without errors

Sectored Antennas [G. Yang and K. Pahlavan, "Comparative

Performance Evaluation of Sector Antenna and DFE Systems in Indoor Radio Channels," Proc. of ICC '92] 6 sectors at base and mobile best combination chosen for Pout = 0.01, 5 Mbps with omni, 25 Mbps with sectored antenna
Omnidirectional Antennas
1 .1 Pout .01 .001 .0001
0 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9

Six Sector Antennas

.02 .01 Pout .005 .002 .001 .0005
-12 -13

30 Mbps 20 Mbps 10 Mbps 5 Mbps 3 Mbps 2 Mbps 1 Mbps

-10 -11

30 Mbps 20 Mbps 10 Mbps

10 10-1 10-2 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

100

10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7 10-8 10-9 10-10 10-11 10-12 10-13

Target Pb

Target Pb

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SUMMARY OF COUNTERMEASURES
Diversity Coding and Interleaving Adaptive Techniques Equalization

Multicarrier
Spread Spectrum Antenna Solutions

These techniques can be combined.

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COMBINED EQUALIZATION AND SECTORED ANTENNAS

1 .1 Pout .01 .001 .0001
Pt = 100 mW Rb = 20 Mbps Omni Omni+DFE

Sector Sec+DFE

20 40 60 Square room length (meter)

Omni Omni+DFE Sector

1 .1 Pout .01 .001 .0001

30mx30m

Sec+DFE

10

20 30 Rb (Mbps)

40

50

[G. Yang and K. Pahlavan, "Comparative Performance Evaluation of Sector Antenna and DFE Systems in Indoor Radio Channels," Proc. of ICC '92]

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CHANNEL ACCESS ISSUES

Multiple Access Random Access

Frequency Reuse

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MULTIPLE ACCESS TECHNIQUES

Frequency Division (FDMA) Time Division (TDMA) Code Division (CDMA) Hybrid Approaches

7C29822.033-Cimini-9/97

FDMA

The total system bandwidth is divided into channels which are allocated to the different users.

Code Space

Time

Frequency

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TDMA

Time is divided into slots which are allocated to the different users.

Code Space

Time

Frequency

7C29822.031-Cimini-9/97

CDMA

Time and bandwidth are used simultaneously by different users, modulated by orthogonal or semiorthogonal codes (e.g. spread spectrum).

Code Space

Time

Frequency

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IMPLICATIONS FOR HIGH-SPEED WIRELESS DATA

Perform well with continuous stream traffic but
inefficient for bursty traffic

Complexity
Frequency Division < Time Division < Code Division

Multiple Data Rates

multiple frequency bands multiple timeslots multiple codes

7C29822.034-Cimini-9/97

RANDOM ACCESS TECHNIQUES

ALOHA

Carrier-Sense Techniques
Reservation Protocols Implication for High-Speed
Wireless Data

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ALOHA
Data is packetized. Retransmission is required when packets collide.

Pure ALOHA

send packet whenever data is available a collision occurs for any partial overlap of packets

Slotted ALOHA

send packets during predefined timeslots avoids partial overlap of packets

S (Throughput per Packet Time)

.40 .30 .20 .10 0 0.5 1.0

Slotted Aloha Pure Aloha

1.5 2.0 3.0

G (Attempts per Packet TIme)

Comments

inefficient for heavily loaded systems capture effect improves efficiency combining SS with ALOHA reduces collisions

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CARRIER-SENSE TECHNIQUES
Channel is sensed before transmission to determine
if it is occupied.

More efficient than ALOHA fewer retransmissions

Carrier sensing is often combined with collision

detection in wired networks (e.g., Ethernet). not possible in a radio environment

Busy Tone

Wired Network

Wireless Network

Collision avoidance is used in current wireless LANs.

(WaveLAN, IEEE802.11, Spectral Etiquette)

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RESERVATION PROTOCOLS
DemandBased Assignment
a common reservation channel is used to assign bandwidth on demand reservation channel requires extra bandwidth very efficient if overhead traffic is a small percentage of the message traffic

Packet Reservation Multiple Access (PRMA)

similar to reservation ALOHA uses a slotted channel structure all unreserved slots are open for contention a successful transmission in an unreserved slot effectively reserves that slot for future transmissions

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EXAMPLES
ARDIS
slotted CSMA

RAM Mobile Data

slotted CSMA

CDPD
DSMA/CD - Digital Sense Multiple Access collisions detected at receiver and transmitted back

WaveLAN
CSMA/CA

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IMPLICATIONS FOR HIGH SPEED WIRELESS DATA

Retransmissions are power and spectrally inefficient. ALOHA cannot satisfy high-speed data throughput requirements. Reservation protocols are also ineffective for short messaging. Delay constraints impose throughput limitations.

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FREQUENCY REUSE

BASE STATION

Frequencies (or time slots or codes) are reused at

spatially-separated locations.

Introduces interference system capacity is

interference-limited.

Mainly designed for circuit-switched communications Base stations perform centralized control functions.
(call setup, handoff, routing, etc.)

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DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Reuse Distance (D)
distance between cells using the same

frequency, time slot, or code smaller reuse distance packs more users into a given area, but also increases their co-channel interference

Cell Radius
decreasing the cell size increases system

capacity, but complicates the network functions of handoff and routing

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CHANNEL ASSIGNMENT
Fixed Channel Assignment (FCA)
each cell is assigned a fixed number of channels channels used for both handoff and new calls

Reservation Channels with FCA

each cell reserves some channels for hand off calls

Channel Borrowing
a cell may borrow free channels from neighboring cells

Dynamic Channel Assignment

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METHODS TO IMPROVE SPECTRUM UTILIZATION

Interference Averaging (CDMA) Interference Reduction
(power adaption, sectorization)

Interference Cancellation
(smart antennas, multiuser detection)

Interference Avoidance
(dynamic resource allocation)

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Ad-Hoc Networks

Each node generates independent data. Source-destination pairs are chosen at random. Routing can be multihop. Topology is dynamic Generally a fully connected network with different link SNRs Can allocate resources dynamically (rate, power, BW, routes,)

NETWORK ISSUES
Network Architectures Mobility Management

Network Reliability
Internetworking Security

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NETWORK ARCHITECTURES

Hierarchical/Tree

Star

Ad-Hoc

Implications for High-Speed Wireless Data

single hop versus multiple hops static versus dynamic topology single points of failure

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NETWORK CONTROL
Centralized
RAM Mobile Data CDPD Altair

Distributed/Peer-to-Peer
WaveLAN

Implications for High-Speed Wireless Data

less channel estimation required with centralized control increases efficiency of packet transmission centralized control provides more efficient resource management with setup-time overhead an extensive infrastructure is not required for distributed control

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MOBILITY MANAGEMENT
Location Management
identification and authentication home and visitor location data bases (cellular) discovery and registration (Mobile IP)

Routing
fixed data bases (connection-oriented) Mobile IP (connectionless) tree (virtual connection)

overhead and delay impact throughput suboptimal (triangle) routing delay inefficiency and higher congestion

Handoff
transmissions may be delayed or dropped impacts higher layer protocols multi-homing inefficient use of resources

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NETWORK RELIABILITY
End-to-End connection is composed of many
wireless/wired hops. widely varying data rates high BERs on some/all hops large, varying latencies user mobility causes hop characteristics to vary

Problem with reliability protocols like TCP.

wireless losses mistaken for congestion bulk losses cause timeouts large round-trip time variances and asymmetric channels

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APPROACHES TO NETWORK RELIABILITY

Local (link-layer) solutions
Forward error correction does not work well in fading ARQ introduces large latency

End-to-end solutions
Difficult to distinguish if packet loss due to congestion or link quality Difficult to design for changing hop characteristics

End-to-end performance guarantees are difficult to make

Potential solutions
Hierarchical/layered coding of voice/video/images Different Quality-of-Service classes Application awareness Local solution with end-to-end awareness

Requires interaction between all layers

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QUALITY OF SERVICE (QoS)

Traffic dependent performance metrics required for
type of data transmitted bandwidth latency likelihood of packet (message) loss

Categories
guaranteed predictive best effort

Implications for high speed wireless data

QoS performance generally based on switched, fiber-optic, wired networks wireless links have high Pb and high latency due to link layer retransmission and unpredictable link bandwidths QoS guarantees and predictions are difficult to make for wireless networks it is not clear that the best effort is good enough for most applications

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INTERNETWORKING
TCP/IP
Compatible with existing wired networks Works well over large range of wired subnet performance TCP has problems operating over wireless links

Wireless ATM
ATM is emerging standard for multimedia transmission over wired networks ATM protocol based on links with 10-10 BER and Mbps/Gbps data rates
high overhead in packet structure QOS guarantees

Not clear that ATM protocol can be modified for wireless links

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STANDARDS AND FUTURE SYSTEMS

Bluetooth Wireless LANs High-Speed Digital Cellular (3G) 4G Cellular Wireless "Cable" Multichannel Multipoint Distribution Service (2.2 GHz) Local Multipoint Distribution Service (28 GHz) Satellite Networks - Iridium, Globalstar, Others HomeRF

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BLUETOOTH
Cable replacement RF technology Short range (10 meters) 2.4 GHz band 1 Data (700 Kbps) and 3 Voice channels Supported by over 200 telecommunications and computer companies

8C32810.61-Cimini-7/98

802.11 Wireless LANs

802.11b: standard for 2.4 GHz ISM band

Frequency hopped spread spectrum

1.6 Mbps data rates, 500 foot range Star or peer-to-peer architecture 802.11a extends rates to 10-70 Mbps Extensions trying to add QoS

8C32810.63b-Cimini-7/98

HIPERLAN
Types 1-4 for different user types
- Frequency bands: 5.15-5.3 GHz, 17.117.3 GHz

Type 1
- 5.15-5.3 GHz band - 23 Mbps, 20 MHz Channels - 150 foot range (local access only) - Protocol support similar to 802.11 - Peer to peer architecture - ALOHA channel access

Types 2-3
- Wireless ATM - Local access and wide area services - Standard under development - Two components: access and mobility support

8C32810.63a-Cimini-7/98

HIGH-SPEED DIGITAL CELLULAR

North American Digital Cellular CDMA (IS-95) enhancements TDMA (IS-136) enhancements IS-136+ 32-64 kbps IS-136HS 384 kbps GSM General Packet Radio System (GPRS) Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE)

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EDGE
Evolution of GSM / GPRS ETSI standardization as GSM evolution
chosen for data services for IS136HS

Higher-level modulation (adaptive) 200 kHz carrier spacing Up to 384 kbps in 200 kHz

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WIDEBAND CDMA (3G)

The W-CDMA concept:
4.096 Mcps Direct Sequence CDMA Variable spreading and multicode operation Coherent in both up-and downlink

= Codes with different spreading, giving 8-500 kbps

... .
f

4.4-5 MHz

High rate multicode user

Variable rate users 10 ms frame

8C32810.138ppt-Cimini-7/98

W-CDMA
KEY TECHNICAL FEATURES
High bit-rate services require wideband Flexibility for different services Optimized for packet data transfer Capacity and coverage gain from frequency
diversity

Built in support for

adaptive antenna arrays multi-user detection hierarchical cell structures transmitter diversity

Low infrastructure cost (many users/

transceiver)

BS synchronization not required

8C32810.139ppt-Cimini-7/98

SUMMARY
The desire for mobility coupled with the demand
for Internet and multimedia services indicate a bright future for wireless data.

Current products and services have unsatisfactory

performance for high-speed wireless data applications.

The inherent limitations of the radio channel can be

significantly reduced using signal processing and architectural techniques, at the expense of cost and complexity.

The network-level design must take into account

the physical layer limitations of the wireless channel, as well as the impact of user mobility.

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