Biology

is about us is about animal

is about plant

is about living things

Do you rememberduring form 1 You have learnt about

Cell is basic unit of life

Now we will learn new topic

Do you ready to start our lesson?

5.1 Mitosis

5.2 Meiosis

5.3 Appreciating

Watch the video carefully...

Pea plant movie

What about this picture???

allStagesButtons.gif

This is we called as...development

 What process or even occur which allow all of these happen????

CHAPTER 5:

Cell divison

Today we will learn about

Cell division
interphase M phase

mitosis

meiosis

mitosis

definition

significance

Importances

Stages

cloning

5.1 mitosis
The necessity for cell division in living organism What is chromosome? The significance of mitosis

The necessity for cell division in living organism

All living organism consist of cell

Most of cell undergo cell division

Cell Division- mitosis

splitting cell into two daughter cell which genetically identical to parent cell
...

Daughter cell
Parent cell

Why do cells divide?

_______
_______ _______ _______

The cell divide for...

The new cell formation allow: replacement of dead cell body repair damaged tissue body growth and development reproduction in unicellular organism

Stages of cell division

division

division

Stages of cell division (answer)

Nuclear

division

cytoplasmic division

Types of cells
Somatic cell- all body cell (except reproductive cell) form trough mitosis Gametic cell- reproductive cell that formed trough meiosis

What is chromosomes
The nucleus of cell contain chromosomes Each chromosomes contain DNA molecules which carries genes (genetic material) Genes- determine the individual characteristic of organism

DNA

Number of chromosomes
The chromosomal number for certain species is constant and varied from one species to another.

 Eg:

human - 46 chromosomes

Monkey- 48 chromosomes Chicken- 78 chromosomes

Somatic cell has two set of chromosomes. One set is inherited from each parent.

Two set of chromosomes = diploid= 2n

Gametic cell has one set of chromosomes.

One set of chromosome=_______=_____

Ploidy refers to the number of sets of homologous chromosomes in a cell

______ one copy of each chromosome

designated as n

______ two copies (= pair) of each chromosome designated as 2n

Diploid organisms receive one of each type of chromosome from female parent (maternal chromosomes) and one of each type of chromosome from male parent (paternal chromosomes)

 In human (46 chromosomes in somatic cell) Each set consist of _____ chromosomes the nucleus of human somatic cell has ______ chromosomes arranged in _____ pairs or 2n = ______ chromosomes
2set (2n-diploid): ___ chromosomes (somatic cell) 1set (n-haploid):___ chromosomes (gametic cell)

Gametes contain only one set of unpaired chromosomes or haploid number of chromosomes (n)

Trivia....
A monkey sperm cell have 24 chromosomes, how many pairs of chromosomes does the cheek cells of the monkey have?

Homologous chromosomes
Two chromosomes in each pair have the same structural features and are referred as the homologous chromosomes.

Homologue

 One form paternal origin whereas the other one is from maternal origin

Homologous Chromosomes

Homologous vs Duplicated

Karyotype

Significances of mitosis
Each daughter formed through mitosis carries genetic material (DNA) inherited from the parent cell. This genetic information is passed on to new cells during division to produce two identical nuclei.

The important of mitosis

1. growth- the number of cell within organism increases by mitosis. Basic grow in multi cellular organism

Growth in human

2. cell replacement- replacement damaged cells and tissue

 3. Regeneration some animals are able to regenerate whole part of the body such as star fish, lizard tail

 4. asexual reproduction mitosis is the basis of asexual reproduction individual of species by one parent

What you need to know about cell divisions?

What happen before division? What is chromosome, centromer, centriole, sister chromatids and homologous chromosome?

Packing for the move

When cell is not dividing

DNA molecules in extended, uncondensed form = __________ molecules when in extended state.

Cell can only use DNA to produce

When cell is preparing for division

DNA molecules condense to form ______________ prior to division.
each chromosome is a single molecule of DNA easier to sort and organize DNA into daughter cells

Structure of a eukaryotic chromosome

__________ chromosome

arm centromere

arm

Prior to cell division:

chromosomes (DNA) are replicated

(duplicated)

duplicated chromosome
attached at their centromeres as long as attached, known as _________ ______________

duplicated chromosome

sister chromatids

daughter chromosomes

Karyotype
Karyotype is the ______ ______ ___ _________ of a cell of any living organism.

The chromosomes are arranged and displayed (often on a photo) in pairs, ordered by size.
To the right is a typical karyotype of a human male.

arm

arm

centromere

Karyotype

Haploid, Diplod, Homologous, Replicated, Duplicated, Chromatids, Chromosomes

What do you understand about development??? What happen to cell? What is cell division

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Cell cycle

Cell Cycle
2 major phases:

__________ (3 stages) DNA uncondensed

(= chromatin)

________ (4 stages + cytokinesis)

- Nuclear division & division of cytoplasm

DNA condensed (= chromosomes)

My idea
Before we continue, I want all of you to draw the cell in interphase phase base on you understanding

Interphase
non-dividing state

3 sub-stages:
___ cell grows in size organelles replicated
___ replication of DNA synthesis of proteins associated with DNA ___ synthesis of proteins associated with mitosis

My idea (2 minutes)
Base on the cell given, draw the cell in each sub phase base on your understanding

Mitosis
4 sub-phases:
1st Prophase 2nd Metaphase

3rd Anaphase
4th Telophase and Cytokinesis

ACTIVITY: JIGSAW
1. Teacher will count student from 1 until 5 then it will be repeating until all of student finish

2. then all of you will sit in group and get the subtopic to be discuss from teacher.
3. after finish discussion in group (10 min), you need to distribute into another group and explain about the subtopic you get until they understand.(5 min)

Stages in Mitosis

PROPHASE
Chromosomes in the nucleus condense and become tightly coiled. They appear shorter and thicker Each chromosomes consist of a pair of sister chromatids joined together at the centromere.

Prophase: nucleus disappears centrioles migrate

chromosomes appear

METAPHASE
Begin when centromere of all chromosomes are line up on the metaphase plate Two sister chromatids are attached the fibres by their centromere.

centriole

Sister chromatids
Spindle fibre

centromere

ANAPHASE
Two sister cromatids of each chromosomes separate at the centromere Sister chromatid are pulled apart to the opposite pole by the shortening of spindle fibre.

anaphase

TELOPHASE
Begin when 2 set of chromosomes reach the opposite pole of the cell. The spindle fibre dissapear and a new cell membrane form around each set of chromosomes Nucleolus also form in each of nucleus Chromosomes start to uncoil (chromatin)

APPLY YOUR IDEAS

1. Answer all the objective question (individually)
2. I will call a number to write down the answer in front of class.

Lets plaaaay

Guess That Phase!

Activities (20 MINUTES)

Made model of MITOSIS using drawing paper, thread and plasticine in group of 5 The chromosome number is 2n=2 Made sure your model has the 4 phase of mitosis and show the daughter cell at the last.

Summary-Phases and Sub-phases of Cell Division

a. G1

1. Interphase

b. S c. G2 1. Prophase 2. Metaphase a. Nuclear division

2. Mitosis
b. Cytokinesis

3. Anaphase 4. Telophase

DEMOs: http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072437316/student_view0/chapter11/animations.html# http://www.cellsalive.com/mitosis.htm

5.1 Mitosis
Cytokinesis Controlled mitosis Uncontrolled mitosis

Do you still remember this phase

Spindle forming Centrioles

Nuclear envelope

Chromatin

Centromere Chromosomes (paired chromatids)

Centriole

Interphase Cytokinesis

Prophase

Spindle Centriole

Telophase
Nuclear envelope reforming

Individual chromosomes

Metaphase

Anaphase

Go to Section:

Spindle forming Centrioles

Nuclear envelope

Chromatin

Centromere Chromosomes (paired chromatids)

Centriole

Interphase Cytokinesis

Prophase

Spindle Centriole

Telophase
Nuclear envelope reforming

Individual chromosomes

Metaphase

Anaphase

Go to Section:

Spindle forming Centrioles

Nuclear envelope

Chromatin

Centromere Chromosomes (paired chromatids)

Centriole

Interphase Cytokinesis

Prophase

Spindle Centriole

Telophase
Nuclear envelope reforming

Individual chromosomes

Metaphase

Anaphase

Go to Section:

Spindle forming Centrioles

Nuclear envelope

Chromatin

Centromere Chromosomes (paired chromatids)

Centriole

Interphase Cytokinesis

Prophase

Spindle Centriole

Telophase
Nuclear envelope reforming

Individual chromosomes

Metaphase

Anaphase

Go to Section:

Spindle forming Centrioles

Nuclear envelope

Chromatin

Centromere Chromosomes (paired chromatids)

Centriole

Interphase Cytokinesis

Prophase

Spindle Centriole

Telophase
Nuclear envelope reforming

Individual chromosomes

Metaphase

Anaphase

Go to Section:

Share your idea!!

You now that cell will divide into two daughter cell but how the cell will divide after the telophase????

How cell divide?

1. 2. 3. 4.

Cytokinesis

ACTIVITY: JIGSAW
1. Please sit in group of five or four 2. Discuss in group the subtopic given in task sheet 3. after finish discussion in group (10 min), you need to distribute into another group and explain about the subtopic you get until your friends understand(5 min)

Cytokinesis:
Cytoplasm of the cell and its organelles separate into 2 new daughter cells In animals, a groove called the cleavage furrow forms pinching the parent cell in two

 In plants, a cell plate forms down the middle of the cell where the new cell wall will be

What can limit cell growth?

Think about what can limit your growth Hmmm.think about an ant, a tennis ball, and a basketball Space
Surface/volume ratio

What could happen if cells continue to grow without any limits?

Cancer
Cancer is one of the most common diseases in the developed world: 1 in 4 deaths are due to cancer 1 in 17 deaths are due to lung cancer Lung cancer is the most common cancer in men Breast cancer is the most common cancer in women There are over 100 different forms of cancer

Cancer
The division of normal cells is precisely controlled. New cells are only formed for growth or to replace dead ones. Cancerous cells divide repeatedly out of control even though they are not needed, they crowd out other normal cells and function abnormally. They can also destroy the correct functioning of major organs.

DNA mutations disrupt the cell cycle.

Mutations may be caused by: 1. radiation 2. smoking 3. Pollutants 4. chemicals 5. viruses

What can cause cancer?

1. a chemical in the coal dust caused damage to genes that regulate the cell cycle.
Pott was probably the first person to associate a specific type of cancer (scrotal cancer) with a specific occupation (chimney sweeping). Pott believed the problem was the coal soot that caught in the skin folds of the scrotum. In 1918, coal tar was shown to cause skin cancer in rabbits, and in 1924 the causative agent was identified as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, especially benzo (a) pyrene.

2.X-rays damages genes that regulate the cell cycle.

Ionizing radiation is a well-known human carcinogen. The first reports of association between X-rays and cancer appear in the literature in the early 1900s.

cancer developed among painters of luminescent dials in watch factories in the 1930s
and radiation from nuclear tests and cancer (for example, children in the Marshall Islands exposed to radioactive iodine released from a nuclear test displayed a significant increase in thyroid cancer).

3.exposure to UV light damages genes that regulate the cell cycle.

The relationship between sun exposure and skin cancer has been clarified greatly across the past century. In the late 1800s, observers noticed that sailors exposed to the sun developed a variety of abnormal lesions called "sailor's skin," and in the early 1900s, an increased risk of skin cancer was observed among farmers. By 1928, researchers had demonstrated the carcinogenic effect of UV radiation on the skin of laboratory animals. Today, scientists recognize excessive exposure to UV radiation (whether from the sun or other sources) as a key risk factor for skin cancer.

While normal cells will stop dividing if there is a mutation in the DNA, cancer cells will continue to divide with mutation.

Tumours
Abnormalities can sometimes occur in cells which reproduce at a rapid rate, this in turn may lead to the formation of tumours. Tumours of any type should be considered serious. Although benign tumours do not usually cause a threat to a persons life, they can cause great inconvenience if not treated.

Applying your idea

Individually, answer all this question. Submit the answer at the end of the class.

Cytokinesis? (10 minutes)

How cytokinesis occurs in animal cells? How cytokinesis occurs in plant cells? How many new cells formed? The new cells called as? Compare size of new cells to each other? Compare size of new cells & parent cell? Daughter cells & parent cell genetically identical or different? Give reason to your answer.

Controlled and uncontrolled mitosis (15 minutes)

what is defined as controlled mitosis? Why the rate and timing of cell division important? a._______________________ b_______________________ c_______________________ What cell continue divide throughout our life? What cell do not divide at once they mature

what is defined as uncontrolled mitosis? What factor can cause uncontrolled mitosis? What is tumour? What is benign tumour? Do benign tumour is dangerous? What is malignant tumour? Can cancer cell spreads through our body? If yes, how the cancer cell spreads?

Aplication of mitosis

The story story

You are a scientist which explore the forest to find out a rare plant species. One day, you find the plant after few month you are doing research in the forest. However, the people there not allow you to take out the plant out from the place but they allow you to take the piece of the meristem tissue of the plant. What can you do with the tissue so that you are able to replant and commercialized the plant.

Do you have watching this movie???

Or this???

 What do you know about

Cloning?

Chapter 5: Cell division

Mitosis- APPLICATION OF MITOSIS

Cloning
Asexual organism reproduce clones. Clone has same genetic content and chromosomal number Cloning is the process to produce genetically identical organism

Cloning in plant
Technique of cloning plant known as tissue culture

Tissue culture laboratory

How to do tissue culture?

Animal cloning

 Definition: The process of making identical genomic copies of an original animal.

Brief History of Cloning

1952: Briggs and King clone tadpoles. 1953: Watson and Crick find the structure of DNA. 1962: John Gurdon clones frogs from differentiated cells. 1963: J.B.S. Haldane coins the term clone.

Brief History of Cloning

1977: Karl Illmensee creates mice with only one parent, 1984: Twinning- create genetic copies from embryonic cells.

1996: First animal cloned from adult cells is born.

The Cloning Process

1978: Splitting embryos 1986: Embryo Cloning 1994: Embryonic cell line cloning

1996: Adult or Somatic cell cloning

Step of cloning-Stage 1

Cell collected from a sheeps udder.

Stage 2

Nucleus is removed from unfertilized egg of second sheep.

Stage 3

Udder cell is inserted into egg with no nucleus.

Stage 4

Insertion is successful.

Stage 5

Electrical charge is supplied.

Stage 6

Cells begin to divide.

Stages 7 & 8

Dolly The Sheep

Hello Dolly Dolly was the first mammal cloned from an adult cell. She was born in 1996 and died in 2003. She was 6 when she died, about half the usual age for a sheep

I am copy cat

From National Geographic

Scientists in Texas have successfully cloned a cat, opening the way to replicating pets and other valued animals once the technique is perfected. The kitten, called CC (the old typist's abbreviation for carbon copy) and now almost two months old, appears healthy and energetic, although she is completely unlike her tabby surrogate mother, Mark Westhusin and colleagues at Texas A&M University, College Station, announce in the February 21 issue of Nature.

Read more on
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/ 2002/02/0214_021402copycat.html

Advantages of cloning
1st presenter (5-7 minutes only)

Disadvantages of cloning
2nd presenter (5-7 minutes only)

Apply your idea

Now divide yourself into 2 group Pro and con group Read the situation carefully

 Debate the situation by state the advantages and disadvantages of the cloning in this situation.

Situation
A country use cloning to culture the a species of tomato. This clone species widely use throughout the country because there are big and have good taste. Government urge all farmer to grow this species of tomato and prevent other tomato species to be plant. Do you agree with this decision???

Conclusion
Scientist and government group Farmer group

30 Cloned Human Embryos

U.S. and South Korean scientists have cloned 30 human embryos. They said that this is a 'major step forward' in curing currently incurable diseases. The thirty human embryos each contain stem cells that can be used to create almost any human tissue. Diseases such as diabetes and muscular dystrophy damage this tissue.

Hargailah masa kerana masa itu berharga

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5.2 Meiosis

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This man and this woman had been marry years ago. Can you imagine the face or appearance of their child? Do you think their child has exactly same face with their parent?

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Do you thinks they are brothers? Give reason to your answer.

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The answer is yes They are brothers

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They are

Sheikh Ahmad Shukor; Sheikh Taufik Shukor; Sheikh Mustapha Shukor Sheikh Arwiz Shukor.
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- Do you have exactly same appearance or face with your mother or father or sister or brother (except you are twins) ?

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 What happen if all cell in your body include reproductive cell only undergo mitosis?

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5.2 Meiosis

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Objectives:
State necessity of trait inheritance to continue life State necessity maintain diploid no. of chromosomes over generation State significance of meiosis Identify type of cell undergo meiosis.

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Necessity of trait in heritance in offspring

All individual in same species have same chromosomal number.

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 If mitosis only the way cell can divideeach gamete will get a complete set of chromosome

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 Predict what happen after the gametes fertilize if the cell only undergo mitosis

2n

2n

?
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 Predict what happen after the gametes fertilize if the cell only undergo mitosis

= 92 chromosomes

2n=46

2n=46

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Anotomys leander
The Aquatic Rat, Ecuador Fish-Eating Rat, or FishEating Rat (Anotomys leander) is a species of rodent in the Cricetidae family. It is the only species in the genus Anotomys. It is found only in Ecuador.
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry lowland grassland and rivers.

It has 92 chromosomes
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So, why meiosis important?

After fertilization of male and female gametes, the offspring will have twice number of chromosomes

Hence, in order to maintain the same chromosomal number of the offspring, the cell must undergo meiosis.

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Please fill this table in your bioscore book

Organism
Chromosomal number

2n Cat Monkey Prawn Human

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38 44 127 23
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Significance of meiosis
Meio means reduce Meiosis is process of nuclear division that reduces number of chromosome in new cells to the half number of chromosome in parent cells

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 Each gametes receive one chromosomes from every pair of homologous . So, gametes contain haploid (n) number of chromosomes

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 Similar with mitosis, meiosis is a continuous process and consist of two separate nuclear division

Meiosis I Meiosis II However, DNA of each chromosomes replicates once

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 Meiosis I Begin with single diploid (2n) parent cell

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 Meiosis II End with resulting of four haploid (n) daughter cell Each daughter cell genetically distinct from other and also from parent

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 During sexual reproduction, the fusion of two gametes will restore the complete number of chromosome and genetic material Diploid zygote will be form. The offspring inherit traits from both parent to

ensure continuation of life

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 Fertilization of haploid gametes

Will produce diploid zygote The number of chromosome will maintain for next generation
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Where does meiosis occur?

Gametes are sex cells (sperm, eggs)
Arise from germ cells

ovaries

anther
ovary testes
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Where does meiosis occur

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Spermatogenesis
n=23
human sex cell

n=23
2n=46

sperm

n=23
haploid (n)

n=23
diploid (2n)

n=23 n=23

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meiosis I

meiosis II

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Answer this question without referring book

1. State significance of meiosis
2.How many nuclear division do meiosis have? State the division. 3.How many daughter cell will produced by meiosis?

4. Describe the genetic content of the daughter cells

5. Where does meiosis occur (in plant and animal)? What type of cell produce in animal and in plant (state the cell) ?
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Concept correction
Some organism can have same number of chromosome , however their arrangement of chromosomes are different Example: Canis familiaris (domestic dog) Gallus gallus (chicken) Rhesus Monkey Orangutan Deer Mouse
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78 78

48 48 48
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Chromosome
How to count chromosome
Sister chromatid

This I single chromosome or chromatid

centromere

The number of chromosome can count by the number of the centromere

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overview

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Interphase I
Similar to mitosis interphase. Chromosomes replicate (S phase). Each duplicated chromosome consist of two identical sister chromatids attached at their centromeres.

Centriole pairs also replicate.

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Interphase I
Nucleus and nucleolus visible.
chromatin
nuclear membrane

cell membrane

nucleolus

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MEIOSIS I

(4 PHASE )

-PROPHASE I -METAPHASE I -ANAPHASE I -TELOPHASE I

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Prophase I
Chromosome condense, shorter, thicker and clearly visible Homologous chromosomes come together form bivalent through synapsis The bivalent visible as four-part structure known as tetrad

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 Tetrad- consist of two homologous chromosome. Each made up of 2 sister chromatids

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Prophase I - Synapsis
Homologous chromosomes

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Tetrad

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Homologous Chromosomes
Pair of chromosomes (maternal and paternal) that are similar in shape and size. Homologous pairs (tetrads) carry genes controlling the same inherited traits.

Each locus (position of a gene) is in the same position on homologues.

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Homologous Chromosomes

eye color locus

eye color locus

hair color locus

Paternal Maternal

hair color locus

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CONTINUEProphase I
Non sister chromatids exchange segments of DNA in crossing over process Crossing over resulted new combination of gene on chromosome. Chiasmata (chiasma) are the sites of crossing over in which the segment of chromatid change

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Crossing Over - variation

nonsister chromatids Tetrad

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Prophase I
spindle fiber

centrioles

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 At the end-nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear Centrioles migrate to opposite poles Spindle fiber radiate

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Metaphase I
Tetrad line up at metaphase plate. One chromosome of each pair attach to spindle fiber from one pole and its homologoue attach by opposite pole fiber

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Metaphase I

OR

metaphase plate
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Anaphase I
Spindle fiber pull the homologous chromosomes to separate the homologous chromosome s move towards opposite poles. Sister chromatids remain attached at their centromeres. So, although the cell started with 4 chromosomes , only 2 chromosomes move towards each pole

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Anaphase I

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Telophase I
Chromosomes arrive at poles.
Each pole now has haploid set of chromosomes in the nucleus Spindle fiber disappear Nuclear membrane reappear. Nucleolus reappear in each nucleus. Cytokinesis occurs and two haploid daughter cells are formed.
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Telophase I

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 Cytokinesis occur simultaneously after telophase I

Why we need meiosis II?

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MEIOSIS II

(4 PHASE )

-PROPHASE II -METAPHASE II -ANAPHASE II -TELOPHASE II

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Meiosis II
No interphase II (or very short - no more DNA replication) -chromosomes remain in condense state Remember: Meiosis II is similar to mitosis

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Prophase II
same as prophase in mitosis

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 Nuclear membrane disintegrate

Spindle fiber reform

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Metaphase II

metaphase plate
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metaphase plate
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 Chromosome-still consist of sister chromatids Position randomly at metaphase plate with sister chromatids of each chromosome pointing towaard opposite pole

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Anaphase II
sister chromatids separate

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 Centromere of sister chromatids separate The sister chromatid now is individual chromosomes Chromosomes move toward opposite poles
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Telophase II
Nuclear envelope reappear Nucleoli reform.

Cytokinesis occurs.
Remember: four haploid daughter cells produced.

gametes = sperm or egg

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Telophase II

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Animation

Meiosis mouse testes

Parent cell 1st division

2nd division 4 gametes

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Differences of meiosis I and II

Meiosis I Differences Meiosis II -no synapsis of homologous chromosome - No crossing over -chromosomes align at equator -sister chromatid separate becoming daughter chromosome -Homologous chromosome pairs PROPHASE up - crossing over between non sister chromatid -Homologous chromosomes align at equator -Homologous chromosome separate and move to opposite poles - siser chromatid attach at centromere -Produce 2 haploid daughter cell -each daughter cell has only one of each type of chromosome METAPHASE ANAPHASE

TELOPHASE

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-4 haploid daughter cell produced -each cell have only one of the sister chromatid -Have same number of chromosome with haploid cell 6/25/2012 from meiosis I

Breaktime

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Differences of mitosis and meiosis

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Meiosis key differences from mitosis

Meiosis reduces the number of chromosomes by half. Daughter cells differ from parent, and each other. Meiosis involves two divisions, Mitosis only one.

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 Meiosis I involves: Synapsis homologous chromosomes pair up. Chiasmata form (crossing over of non-sister chromatids). In Metaphase I, homologous pairs line up at metaphase plate. In Anaphase I, sister chromatids do NOT separate. Overall, separation of homologous pairs of chromosomes, rather than sister chromatids of individual chromosome.

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Mitosis vs. meiosis

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Meiosis creates genetic variation

During normal cell growth, mitosis produces daughter cells identical to parent cell (2n to 2n) Meiosis results in genetic variation by shuffling of maternal and paternal chromosomes and crossing over. No daughter cells formed during meiosis are genetically identical to either mother or father During sexual reproduction, fusion of the unique haploid gametes produces truly unique offspring.
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Study Questions
1. What happens as homologous chromosomes pair up during prophase I of meiosis? 2. How does metaphase of mitosis differ from metaphase I of meiosis? 3. What is the sole purpose of meiosis?

4. What specific activities, involving DNA, occur during interphase prior to both mitosis and meiosis?
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5. Compare mitosis and meiosis on the following points: a. number of daughter cells produced. b. the amount of DNA in the daughter cells in contrast to the original cell.

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5.3 Appreciating the movement of chromosomes during mitosis and meiosis

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Meiosis division error

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Chromosome pair

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Meiosis error - fertilisation

Should the gamete with the chromosome pair be fertilised then the offspring will not be normal.

In humans this often occurs with the 21st pair producing a child with Downs Syndrome

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21 trisomy Downs Syndrome

Can you see the extra 21st chromosome ? Is this person male or female?
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Monosomy
refers to lack of one chromosome of the normal complement. Monosomy of the sex chromosomes (45,X) causes Turner syndrome.

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trisomy
Trisomy 18 known as Edwards Syndrome Trisomy 13 known as Patau Syndrome Trisomy of the sex chromosomes is possible, such as in (47,XXX).

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The end

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HOW VARIATION OCCUR IN MEIOSIS

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Independent assortment
Number of combinations: 2n

e.g. 2 chromosomes in haploid 2n = 4; n = 2 2n = 22 = 4 possible combinations

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In humans

e.g. 23 chromosomes in haploid 2n = 46; n = 23 2n = 223 = ~ 8 million possible combinations!

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Crossing over
Chiasmata sites of crossing over, occur in synapsis. Exchange of genetic material between non-sister chromatids. Crossing over produces recombinant chromosomes.

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Harlequin chromosomes

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Random fertilization
At least 8 million combinations from Mom, and another 8 million from Dad >64 trillion combinations for a diploid zygote!!!

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CELL DIVISION
Concept map
Mitosis
Subdivides into

CELL DIVISION
Comprises of

Meiosis
Consist of

Controlled mitosis Uncontrolled mitosis meiosis I

Lead to
Lead to

meiosis II
Occur in

Cloning (asexual reproduction, regeneration, healing)

considering

Cause by

Testis, ovary and anther Lead to

Advantages and disadvantages of cloning

Book

Mah Chee Wai and Dr. Tina Lim Swee Kim (2009).Nexus vista SPM form 4 & 5: Biology. Petaling Jaya:Sasbadi sdn.bhd

Internet sources

www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent

www.accessexcellence.org/AB/GG/meiosis.php

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2. Nurul Azuwin bt Yazid UPSI 2010