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Observe specular reflection Angle of incidence equals angle of reflection with both angles measured from a line normal to the reflective surface. Corner Reflectors Parabolic principle of collimation Diffuse reflection collective orientation is different therefore SCATTERING results.
Refraction
When there is a transition from one medium to another. In optics defined by Snells law. When wave enters a region with a higher dielectric constant ( a lower propagation velocity) it bends toward the normal. Critical angle. (large incident angle + wave travels to area of low dielectric constant. Extreme case is total internal reflection) An application example of total internal reflection is optical fibre.( core and cladding)
Refraction
n1 sin 1 n2 sin 2
n ur r where ur relative permeability of medium r relative permitivity of the medium
n ur r n r ur is almost always1 for free space
r2 sin 1 sin 2 r1 r2 r1
n1 c arcsin n2
Total internal reflection occurs in optcal fibres. Light reflects from the boundary between the core of the fibre and a cladding.
Diffraction
Light appears to go around corners periodically. Radio waves as well. Assume that each point on a wavefront presents itself as an isotropic source. Some wavefronts pass beside or above the obstruction and radiate in the area beyond. Diffraction more pronounced when dimensions of obstruction are small compared to wavelength.
Terrestrial Propagation
Ground-Wave propagation Ionospheric propagation Line of sight. Tropospheric Scatter Tropospheric Ducting
Ground Waves
Frequencies up to 2 Mhz. Vertically polarized in order to minimize currents induced in the ground creating losses. Further from transmitter the more horizontal the wavefront becomes. Ground waves attenuate quickly above 2 Mhz. Users: Military (15 Khz and 60 Khz) Loran (100 Khz) AM broadcast.
Ionospheric Propagation
Three main regions: d, E, anf F layers(F1 and F2) Ionization increases with altitude and is greater during the day. D and E layers diminish at night. Follows 11 year sunspot cycle. Signal returns by a form of refraction. D and E layers absorb low frequencies( 8-10Mhz) during the day therefore low frequencies propagate better at night.
where f m MUF
1 angle of incidence
Skip zone
As the angle of elevation increases the distance covered decreases and MUF becomes lower. For frequencies above fc there will be a region close to the transmitter that will not receive the signal. (skip zone)
d 17hT 17hR d max imum dis tan ce in km hT height of TX antenna hR height of RX antenna
Troposcatter: 80 to 800 km
Irregularities in the troposphere can cause radio waves to scatter. Possible causes are water vapor and temperature variations. Although it is used as a mechanism for communication systems, the equipment demands make it inefficient. For example: high power TX,high gain antennas and sensitive receivers.
Superrefractive Layers