Metal Casting

By N K Murthy

Casting since about 4000 BC

Ancient Greece; bronze statue casting circa 450BC

Iron works in early Europe, e.g. cast iron cannons from England circa 1543

Outline Introduction Process Constraints Green Sand Casting Other Processes

History of Casting
Heat treatment of stone to make it more workable, the burning of lime to make plaster, and the firing of clay to produce ceramics

SIX FACTORS INVOLVED IN CASTING

1. mould cavity 2. molten metal 3. escape of air /gas 4. shrinking 5. mould removal 6. finishing

Some Facts First casting: 5000-3000 BC Bronze, iron age, light metal age? Versatility Many types of metals Rapid production Wide range of shapes and sizes Complex parts as an integral

Date

Development

Location

9000 B.C.
6500 B.C. 5000-3000 B.C. 3000-1500 B.C. 3000-2500 B.C.

Earliest metal objects of wrought native copper

Earliest life-size statues, of plaster Chalcolithic period: melting of copper; experimentation with smelting Bronze Age: arsenical copper and tin bronze alloys Lost wax casting of small objects

Near East
Jordan Near East Near East Near East

2500 B.C.
2400-2200 B.C. 2000 B.C. 1500 B.C. 700-600 B.C. 600 B.C. 224 B.C.

Granulation of gold and silver and their alloys

Copper statue of Pharoah Pepi I Bronze Age Iron Age (wrought iron) Etruscan dust granulation Cast iron Colossus of Rhodes destroyed

Near East
Egypt Far East Near East Italy China Greece

200-300 A.D. 1200-1450 A.D.

Use of mercury in gilding (amalgam gilding) Introduction of cast iron (exact date and place unknown) Theophilus's On Divers Arts, the first monograph on metalworking written by a craftsman Diabutsu (Great Buddha) cast at Kamakura Great Bell of Beijing cast Sand introduced as mold material Cast iron produced with coke as fuel, Coalbrookdale Boring mill or cannon developed Great Bell of the Kremlin cast Cast steel developed by Benjamin Huntsman Cast iron used as architectural material, Ironbridge Gorge

Roman world Europe

Circa 1122 A.D.

Germany

1252 A.D. Circa 1400 A.D. 16th century 1709

Japan China France England

1715 1735 1740 1779

Switzerland Russia England England

1826 1838 1884

Zinc statuary
Electrodeposition of copper

France Russia, England United States, France

Casting Methods

Sand Casting

High Temperature Alloy, Complex Geometry, Rough Surface Finish

Investment Casting
High Temperature Alloy, Complex Geometry, Moderately Smooth Surface Finish

Die Casting

High Temperature Alloy, Moderate Geometry, Smooth Surface

Sand Casting

Example Sand Casting

Sand Casting
Description: Tempered sand is packed into wood or metal pattern halves, removed form the pattern, and assembled with or without cores, and metal is poured into resultant cavities. Various core materials can be used. Molds are broken to remove castings. Specialized binders now in use can improve tolerances and surface finish. Metals: Most castable metals. Size Range: Limitation depends on foundry capabilities. Ounces to many tons.
Tolerances: Non-Ferrous 1/32 to 6 Add .003 to 3, 3/64 from 3 to 6. Across parting line add .020 to .090 depending on size. (Assumes metal patterns) Surface Finish: Non-Ferrous: 150-350 RMS Ferrous: 300-700RMS Minimum Draft Requirements: 1 to 5 Cores: 1 to 1 1/2

Normal Minimum Section Thickness: Non-Ferrous: 1/8 - 1/4 Ferrous: 1/4 - 3/8
Ordering Quantities: All quantities Normal Lead Time: Samples: 2-10 weeks Production 2-4 weeks A.S.A.

Sand Casting

Sand Casting Steps

Sand Casting

Sand Casting Mold Features

Vents, which are placed in

molds to carry off gases produced when the molten metal comes into contact with the sand in the molds and core. They also exhaust air from the mold cavity as the molten metal flows into the mold.

Production sand casting

Example Die Casting

Example Investment Casting

Investment Casting
Description: Metal mold makes wax or plastic replica. There are sprued, then surrounded with investment material, baked out, and metal is poured in the resultant cavity. Molds are broken to remove the castings. Metals: Most castable metals. Size Range: fraction of an ounce to 150 lbs.. Tolerances: .003 to 1/4 .004 to 1/2, .005 per inch to 3 .003 for each additional inch

Surface Finish: 63-125RMS

Minimum Draft Requirements: None Normal Minimum Section Thickness: .030 (Small Areas) .060 (Large Areas) Ordering Quantities: Aluminum: usually under 1,000 Other metals: all quantities Normal Lead Time: Samples: 5-16 weeks (depending on complexity) Production 4-12 weeks A.S.A. (depending on subsequent operations).
Talbot Associates Inc.

Casting Process Physics and Constraints

Phase Change Density Solubility Diffusion rates High melting temperature Chemical activity High latent heat Handling

Analysis of Casting Processes

Heat transfer for solidification Thermodynamics, mass transfer and heat transfer for nucleation and growth Materials behavior for structure-property relationships

Mold Filling Bernoullis equation Reynolds number Turbulence Injection Molding : Re ~ 10-

Mold Filling
Bernoulis Equation: p v2 h Const. pg 2 g
Reynolds Number:

Re

vDP

Short filling times Potential Turbulence (see p. 273 Kalpakjian

Mold Filling Example

(1 of 2)

Mold Filling Example

(2 of 2)

Phase Change & Shrinkage

Solidification of a binary alloy

Composition change during solidification

Solidification

Cast structures
Schematic illustration of three cast structures solidified in a square mold: (a) pure metals; (b) solid solution alloys; and structure obtained by using nucleating agents. Source: G. W. Form, J. F. Wallace, and A. Cibula

Microstructure - Dendrites

Finer structure at walls Grains / dendrites grow to center

Microstructure - Dendrites

Draft in Pattern

Pattern Design Considerations (DFM)

Shrinkage allowance Machining allowance Distortion allowance Parting line Draft angle

Pattern Design
Table 12.1 Normal Shrinkage Allowance for Some Metals Cast in Sand Molds Metal Percent Gray cast iron 0.83 1.3 White cast iron 2.1 Malleable cast iron 0.78 1.0 Aluminum alloys 1.3 Magnesium alloys 1.3 Yellow brass 1.3 1.6 Phosphor bronze 1.0 1.6 Aluminum bronze 2.1 High-manganese steel 2.6

Pattern Design suggestions

Typical Shrinkage Allowance

Aluminum alloy ...... 13 Aluminum bronze ... 21 Yellow brass (thick sections) ....... 13 Yellow brass (thin sections) ......... 13 Gray cast iron (a) .... 8 - 13 White cast iron .... 21 Tin bronze ... 16 Gun metal ... 11 - 16 Lead ..... 26 Magnesium .. 21 Magnesium alloys (25%) ... 16 Manganese bronze . 21 Copper-nickel .. 21 Nickel .... 21 Phosphor bronze 11 - 16 Carbon steel 16 - 21 Chromium steel ... 21 Manganese steel . 26 Tin .. 21 Zinc .... 26

Typical Pattern Machining Allowance

Pattern size, mm Bore Surface Cope side For cast irons Up to 152... 3.2 2.4 4.8 152 - 305 3.2 3.2 6.4 305 - 510.... 4.8 4.0 6.4 510 - 915 6.4 4.8 6.4 915 - 1524.. 7.9 4.8 7.9 For cast steels Up to 152... 3.2 3.2 6.4 152 - 305 6.4 4.8 6.4 305 - 510.... 6.4 6.4 7.9 510 - 915 7.1 6.4 9.6 915 - 1524.. 7.9 6.4 12.7 For nonferrous alloys Up to 76..... 1.6 1.6 1.6 76 - 152.. 2.4 1.6 2.4 152 - 305 2.4 1.6 3.2 305 - 510.... 3.2 2.4 3.2 510 - 915 3.2 3.2 4.0 915 - 1524

Gating System: Sprue, Runner, and Gate

Rapid mold filling Minimizing turbulence Avoiding erosion Removing inclusions Controlled flow and thermal conditions Minimizing scrap and secondary operations

Riser: Location and Size

Casting shrinkage Directional solidification Scrap and secondary operation

Types of Parts Made

Engine

blocks

Pipes Jewelry Fire hydrants Complex, 3-D shapes Near net shape Low scrap Relatively quick process Intricate shapes Large hollow shapes No limit to size Reasonable to good surface finish

Breakdown of Castings
Ingots for bulk deformation processing 85% Cast to near net shape - 15%

Capabilities
Dimensions sand casting - as large as you like small - 1 mm or so Tolerances 0.005 in to 0.1 in Surface finish die casting 8-16 micro-inches (1-3 m) sand casting - 500 micro-inches (10-25 m)

Processes
Sand Shell Plaster Ceramic Investment Lost foam Pressure Vacuum

Die Centrifugal Squeeze Semi-solid Single crystal Directional solidification Slush Continuous

Metals processed by casting

Sand casting 60% Investment casting 7% Die casting 9% Permanent mold casting 11% Centrifugal casting 7% Shell mold casting 6%

Casting Steps quick route from raw material to finished product

Melt metals Pour / force liquid into hollow cavity (mold) Cool / Solidify Remove Finish

Melting
Raw material (charge) scrap, alloying materials Atmosphere Air (oxygen), vacuum, inert gas (argon) Heating External - electric, gas, oil Internal - induction, mix fuel with charge steel making in blast furnace -mix coke with iron Furnace material refractory ceramics

Furnaces Basic Oxygen Furnace

Blast furnace

Electric Arc Furnace

Induction Furnace

Electric Furnace

Casting Advantages, Applications, and Market Size

Molding and casting processes available that are capable of producing complex components in any metal, ranging in weight from less than an ounce to single parts weighing several hundred tons Foundry processes are available and in use that are economically viable for producing a single prototype part Virtually any metal that can be melted can and is being cast.

Hot-forming die of 61,500 kg (135,600 lb) for producing nuclear reactor pressure heads.

Cast iron automobile engine blocks

Casting techniques are grouped into five categories

Conventional molding processes (green sand, shell, flaskless molding) Precision molding and casting processes (investment casting, permanent mold, die casting) Special molding and casting processes (vacuum molding, evaporative pattern casting, centrifugal casting) Chemically bonded self-setting sand molding (nobake, sodium silicate) Innovative molding and casting processes (rheocasting, squeeze casting, electroslag casting)

Functional advantages of castings and the metal casting process

Rapid Transition to Finished Product. The casting process involves pouring molten metal into a cavity that is close to the final dimensions. Suiting Shape and Size to Function. Metal castings weighing from less than an ounce to hundreds of tons, in almost any shape or degree of complexity, can be produced. If a pattern can be made for the part, it can be cast. Placement of Metal for Maximum Effectiveness. With the casting process, the optimum amount of metal can be placed in the best location for maximum strength, wear resistance, or the enhancement of other properties of the finished part

Functional advantages of castings and the metal casting process

Optimal Appearance Complex Parts as an Integral Unit. The inherent design freedom of metal casting allows the designer to combine what would otherwise be several parts of a fabrication into a single, intricate casting Improved Dependability. The use of good casting design principles, together with periodic determination of mechanical properties of test bars cast from the molten metal

Compressor case for a jet engine

 Ferrous castings

Major markets for metal castings

Gray iron Ingot molds Construction castings Motor vehicles Farm equipment Engines Refrigeration and heating Construction machinery Valves Soil pipe Pumps and compressors Pressure pipe Other major markets include machine tools, mechanical power transmission equipment, hardware, home appliances, and mining machinery, oil and natural gas pumping and processing equipment

Major markets for metal castings

Malleable iron Motor vehicles Valves and fittings Construction machinery Railroad equipment Engines Mining equipment Hardware Other major markets include heating and refrigeration, motors and generators, fasteners, ordnance, chains, machine tools, general industrial machinery

Major markets for metal castings

Ductile iron Pressure pipe Motor vehicles Farm machinery Engines Pumps and compressors Valves and fittings Metalworking machinery Construction machinery Other major markets include textile machinery, wood working and paper machinery, mechanical power and transmission equipment, motors and generators, refrigeration and heating equipment, air conditioning

Major markets for metal castings

Steel
Railroad equipment Construction equipment Mining machinery Valves and fittings General and special industrial machinery Motor vehicles Metalworking machinery Other major markets include steel manufacturing, spring goods, heating and air conditioning, recreation equipment, industrial material handling equipment, ships and boats, aircraft and aerospace

Nonferrous castings
Aluminum Auto and light truck Aircraft and aerospace Other transportation Engines Household appliances Office machinery Power tools Refrigeration, heating, and air conditioning Other major markets include machine tools, construction equipment, mining equipment, farm machinery, electronic and communication equipment, power systems, motors and generators

Nonferrous castings
Copper-base Valves and fittings Plumbing brass goods Electrical equipment Pumps and compressors Power transmission equipment General machinery Transportation equipment Other major markets include chemical processing, utilities, desalination, petroleum refining

Simplified flow diagram of the basic operations for producing a steel casting.

Metal Casting Processes

Metal Casting Process

Investment Casting Vacuum Casting Permanent-Mold Casting Slush Casting Pressure Casting Die Casting Centrifugal Casting

Metal Casting Process

Investment Casting Vacuum Casting Permanent-Mold Casting Slush Casting Pressure Casting Die Casting Centrifugal Casting

Investment Casting
Also called lost-wax process

First used 4000 3000 BC

The pattern is made of wax or of a plastic by molding or rapid prototyping techniques

Term investment derives from the fact that the pattern is invested with the refractory material
Need careful handling because they are not strong enough to withstand the forces involved in mold making Wax can be recovered and reused

Investment Casting Process

Investment Casting
One-piece mold
Dried in the air Heated to 90 175 C Held inverted for 12 hrs to melt out wax The mold is then heated to 650 1150 C for about 4 hrs depending on the metal to be cast to drive off the water of crystallization After the metal has been poured the mold is broken up and the cast is removed A number of patterns can be joined to make one mold called a tree which increases production rate

One-piece mold - cont

Small parts
The tree can be inserted on to a flask and filled with slurry investment The investment is then placed into a chamber and evacuated to remove air bubbles Next it is placed in a vacuum drawing machine to produce fine detail

Not a cheap process Produces fine details Good surface finish Few or no finishing operations Can produce intricate parts from parts weighing 1g 35Kg
Ex : Investment die casting examples

Properties of Wax
Ash content (0.05% max) Resistance to primary coat, binders, carriers. Viscosity, Strength. Ductile to brittle transition range Solidification temp. range. Oxidation resistance. Toxicity Coefficient of thermal expansion, shrinkage, wettability. Hardness.

Typical Formulation of Injection Wax for Patterns.

Hard Wax - 40% Microcrystalline Wax 25% Soft resinous plasticizers 15% Hard resins 20% Antioxidants 0.05%

Typical Requirements of Investment Castings

Product: Stainless Steel Valve Body Pattern Die Material: Steel Pattern Material: Wax Type of Investment: Ceramic Shell Melting Method: Induction Pouring Temp.- 1595 deg. Celsius. Mold Temp.- 950 deg. Celsius No of castings per mold- one.

 Weight of Liquid Metal poured: 6.75 Kg Weight of Trimmed castings: 2.7 Kg

Composition of Zircon Slurry

Colloidal Silica (30%), gal Water, gal Zircon powder, lb Density Viscosity, sec (d) - 2.5 - 1.0 - 100 - 2.7 to 2.75 - 8 to 10

Dewaxing of Ceramic Shell Molds

Solvent Method: Wax patterns can be removed by action of hot vapor of a solvent such as trichloroethylene Flash De waxing in Furnace: High thermal gradient is established across the ceramic shell & pattern section. Autoclave de waxing: Super heated steam condensed on shell thus generating high temp.

Firing & Preheating of Molds

Remove residue of wax & plastic. Permit filling of mold sections too thin to be filled in a cold mold. Minimises the size of riser. Minimises hot tearing. Continuous Furnaces, Batch type Furnaces. Temp @ 1000deg Celsius , time 15hrs.

Melting & PouringPractice

Air Induction Furnace Vacuum Induction Melting Gravity Pouring Pressure Pouring Vacuum Assist Pouring Vacuum Centrifugal Pouring Centrifuging

Schematic illustration of investment casting

1. WAX INJECTION : Wax replicas of the desired castings are produced by injection molding. These replicas are called patterns.

2.

ASSEMBLY : The patterns are attached to a central wax stick, called a sprue, to form a casting cluster or assembly.

3. SHELL BUILDING : The shell is built by immersing the assembly in a liquid ceramic slurry and then into a bed of extremely fine sand. Up to eight layers may be applied in this manner. 4. DEWAX : Once the ceramic is dry, the wax is melted out, creating a negative impression of the assembly within the shell.

5. CONVENTIONAL CASTING In the conventional process, the shell is filled with molten metal by gravity pouring. As the metal cools, the parts and gates, sprue and pouring cup become one solid casting.
6. KNOCKOUT When the metal has cooled and solidified, the ceramic shell is broken off by vibration or water blasting.

7. CUT OFF The parts are cut away from the central sprue using a high speed friction saw. 8. FINISHED CASTINGS After minor finishing operations, the metal castings--identical to the original wax patterns-are ready for shipment to the customer.

Advantages of Investment Casting

Intricate geometry Close dimensional tolerance Superior surface finish High-melting point alloys

Casting Defects
Misrun Cold shut Hot tears & crack Porosity Shrinkage Inclusions

Ceramic-Shell Casting
Variation of the investment-casting process Uses same type of wax or plastic pattern as investment casting Patten is then dipped into fluidized bed of Fine- grained fused silica Zircon flour Pattern is then dipped into coarser grained silica to build up additional coatings and proper thickness to withstand the thermal shock of pouring The rest of the procedure follows the investment casting process

Fig : Investment casting of an integrally cast rotor for a gas turbine. (a) Wax pattern assembly. (b) Ceramic shell around wax pattern. (c) Wax melted out and the mold is filled under a vacuum, with molten super alloy. (d) The cast rotor produced to net or near-net shape.

Vacuum Casting
1. Mixture of fine sand and urethane is molded over metal dies a cured with amine vapor The mold is partially immersed into molten metal held in an induction furnace The metal is melted in air or in a vacuum The molten metal is usually 55 C above the liquidus temperature begins to solidify within a fraction of a second

2.

3.
4.

5. 6.

Alternative to investment, shellmold, and green-sand casting Relatively low cost

Permanent-Mold Casting
Called hard-mold casting Two halves of a mold are made from materials such as iron, steel, bronze, or other alloys The mold cavity and gating system are machined in to the mold Sand aggregate are placed in to the mold prior to casting for producing cavities Typical core materials are Oil-bonded or resin-boned sand Plaster Graphite Gray iron Low-carbon steel Hot-worked die steel Mold cavity surfaces are coated with refractory slurry to increase the life of the mold every few castings Mechanical ejectors are used to remove complex parts Can produce high production rates Good surface finish

Slush Casting
Molten metal is poured into the metal mold A desired thickness of the solidified skin is obtained The remaining metal is poured out The mold halves are then opened and the casting is removed

Pressure Casting
Used a graphite or metal mold Molten metal is forced into the mold by gas pressure The pressure is maintained until the metal solidifies in the mold Used for high-quality castings

Pressure Casting

(a) The bottom-pressure casting process utilizes graphite molds for the productin of steel railroad wheels. (b) Gravity pouring method of casting a railroad wheel. Note that the pouring basin also serves as a riser.

Die Casting Part Example

Die Casting
Further example of permanent-mold casting Molten metal is forced into the die cavity at pressures ranging from .7MPa 700MPa Parts made from here range from: Hand tools Toys Appliance components There are two basic types of die casting machines Hot-chamber - involves the use of a piston to push molten metal in to the die cavity Cold-chamber molten metal is poured in to the injection chamber & the shot chamber is not heated

Hot chamber Die-casting process

1. The die is closed and the piston rises, opening the port and allowing molten metal to fill the cylinder.

2. The plunger moves down and seals the port pushing the molten metal through the gooseneck and nozzle into the die cavity, where it is held under pressure until it solidifies.

 3. The die opens and the cores, if any, retract. The casting remains in only one die, the ejector side. The plunger returns, allowing residual molten metal to flow back through the nozzle and gooseneck.

4. Ejector pins push the casting out of the ejector die. As the plunger uncovers the filling hole, molten metal flows through the inlet to refill the gooseneck, as in step (1).

Cold-Die casting process

1. The die is closed and the molten metal is ladled into the cold-chamber shot sleeve.

2. The plunger pushes the molten metal into the die cavity where it is held under pressure until solidification.

 3. The die opens and the plunger advances, to ensure that the casting remains in the ejector die. Cores, if any, retract.

4. Ejector pins push the casting out of the ejector die and the plunger returns to its original position.

Process Capabilities and Machine Selection

Dies are rated according to their clamping force that is needed Factors involved in selection of die cast machines are Die size Piston stroke Shot pressure Cost Die-casting dies Single cavity Multiple-cavity Combination-cavity Unit dies Ratio of Die weight to part weight is 1000 to 1 Surface cracking is a problem with dies due to the hot metal that is poured in to them Has ability to produce strong high- quality parts with complex shapes Good dimensional accuracy and surface details

Various types of cavities in a die casting die.

a)

Single cavity die

b)

Multiple cavity die

c)

Combination die

d)

Unit die

800 ton hot chamber die casting machine, DAM 8005. This is the largest hot chamber machine in the world and costs about $1.25 million.

Advantages of Die Casting

High production rates Closer dimensional tolerances Superior surface finish Improved mechanical properties

Centrifugal Casting

Pipe Casting Process

Centrifugal Casting
Utilizes the inertial forces caused by rotation to distribute the molten metal in to the mold cavities First used in the 1800;s Three types of centrifugal casting True centrifugal casting Semi centrifugal casting Centrifuging

Schematic illustration of the centrifugal casting process. Pipes, cylinder liners, and similarly shaped parts can be cast with this process.

Semi centrifugal Casting Process

(a) Schematic illustration of the semi centrifugal casting process. Wheels with spokes can be cast by this process. (b) Schematic illustration of casting by centrifuging. The molds are placed at the periphery of the machine, and the molten metal is forced into the molds by centrifugal force.

Squeeze Casting

Squeeze Casting
(c) Close die and apply pressure

(a) Melt Metal

(d) Eject squeeze casting and charge melt stock and repeat cycle

(b) Pour molten metal into die

Sequence of operations in the squeeze-casting process. This process combines the advantages of casting and forging.

Directional Solidification

Single Crystal Casting of Turbines blades

Fig : Methods of casting turbine blades. (a) directional solidification; (b) method to produce a single-crystal blade; and (c) a single-crystal blade with construction portion still attached.

Single Crystal-Casting

Fig : Two methods of crystal growing: (a) crystal pulling and (b) the floating zone method. Crystal growing is especially important in the semiconductor industry.

Melt Spinning

Fig : Schematic illustration of melt-spinning to produce thin strips of amorphous metal.

Types of Melting Furnaces

Fig : Two types of melting furnaces are used in foundries (a) crucible and (b) cupola

Lost Foam Casting

Lost Foam Casting

Receive raw polystyrene beads

SAND MOLDING (CASTING)

SAND MOLDING (CASTING) is one of the most versatile of metal-forming processes, providing tremendous freedom of design in terms of size, shape, and product quality. Sand molding processes are classified according to the way in
which the sand is held (bonded)

 Resin Binder Processes. These organically bonded systems include no-bake binders, heat-cured binders (the Shell process and warm box, hot box, and oven-bake processes), and cold box binders. Each of these systems is described in the articles "Resin Binder Processes" and "Coremaking" in this Volume Bonded sand molds are based on inorganic bonds and include such processes as green sand molding, dry sand molding, skin dried molds, and loam molding, sodium silicate-carbon dioxide systems, and phosphate bonded molds Unbonded Sand Molds. With unbonded sand molding processes, dry, unbonded, free-flowing sand surrounds the pattern. Lost foam processing, which uses expandable polystyrene patterns, and vacuum molding, are examples of unbonded sand molds. Lost foam molds for large castings are sometimes backed up with a no-bake binder system .

Casting Defects - Porosity

Casting Defects

Differential Cooling Transition between thicker and thinner sections can lead to porosity

Defects - Hot Tears

Chills

Design Rules Summary

Uniform wall thickness Flat parting lines Gradual thickness transitions Draft for removal tapers: 0.5 to 2 degrees Surface of mold gives surface of part