BASIC ELECTRONICS

Presented By: Mr. MUHAMMAD ABBAS

E-mail: shairabbas@yahoo.com
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Superior University, 7/12/12

SEMICONDUCTORS, EXTERINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS, PN JUNCTION

Presented By: Mr. MUHAMMAD ABBAS

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(A)SEMICONDUCTORS
CORE OF AN ATOM COMPARISON OF A SEMICONDUCTOR AND CONDUCTOR
ATOM

SILICON AND GERMANIUM COVALENT BONDS CONDUCTION IN SEMICONDUCTORS ELECTRON AND HOLE CURRENT N-TYPE AND P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS

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CORE OF AN
In order to ATOM electrical properties, an atom can be discuss represented by the valence shell and a CORE that consists of all the inner shells and nucleus. The core is everything except the valence electrons.

Carbon atom has 4 electrons in the valence shell and 2 electrons in the inner shell.

The nucleus consists of 6 protons and 6 neutrons so +6 presents the positive charge of the six protons.

The core has a net charge of +4 ( +6 for the nucleus and - 2 for the two inner-shell electrons).
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COMPARISON OF A SEMICONDUCTOR
The core of the silicon atom has a net charge of + 4 (14 protons - 10 electrons). The core of the copper atom has a net charge of + 1 (29 protons - 28 One valence electron of Si-atom electrons). feels an attractive force of +4 where as one valence electron of Copper-atom feels an attractive force of +1. There is four times more force trying to hold a valence electron to the atom in Silicon than in Copperatom Valence electron in Cu has more energy than valence electron in Si indicating that it is easier for Cuvalence electron to take part in conduction after obtaining little

AND CONDUCTOR ATOM

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SILICON & GERMANIUM

Silicon is the most widely used material in diodes, transistors, integrated circuits, and other semiconductor devices. Both silicon and germanium have the characteristic four valence electrons.

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The valence electrons in germanium are in the

Why using Silicon instead of Germanium?

fourth shell while those in silicon are in the third shell, closer to the nucleus. This means that the germanium valence electrons are at higher energy levels than those in silicon and, therefore. require a smaller amount of additional energy to escape from the atom.

This property makes germanium more unstable silicon is the most widely used semi-

at high temperatures, and this is a basic reason why

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conductive material.

COVALENT BONDS
Covalent bonds are formed by sharing of valence electrons of the atoms. Atoms in the crystal structure are held together by covalent bonds which are created by the interaction of valence electrons of atoms.

Each silicon atom positions itself with four adjacent silicon atoms to form a silicon crystal. A silicon (Si) atom with its 7/12/12 four valence electrons shares an electron with each of its four neighbors.

Covalent bonding in an intrinsic silicon crystal

An intrinsic crystal is one that has no impurities. 7/12/12

CONDUCTION IN SEMICONDUCTORS

At 0 K there are no electrons in the conduction band. Energy band diagram for an unexcited atom in a pure (intrinsic) silicon crystal.

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An intrinsic (pure) silicon crystal at room temperature has sufficient heat (thermal) energy for some valence electrons to jump the gap from the valence band into the conduction band, becoming free electrons. Free electrons are also called conduction electrons.

When an electron jumps to the conduction band, a vacancy is left in the valence band within the crystal. This vacancy is called a hole. For every electron raised to the conduction band by external energy, there is one hole left in the valence band, creating 7/12/12 what is called an electron-hole pair. Recombination occurs

SUMMAR A piece of intrinsic silicon Y room temperature has, at any at

instant, a number of conduction-band (free) electrons that are unattached to any atom and are essentially drifting randomly throughout the material. There is also an equal number of holes in the valence band created when these electrons jump into the conduction band.

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Electron and Hole Current

When a voltage is applied across a piece of intrinsic silicon,

the thermally generated free electrons in the conduction band, which are free to move randomly in the crystal structure, are now attracted towards +ve end.

This movement of free electrons is called as Electron 7/12/12

Current.

Another type of current occurs in the valence band, where the holes created by the free electrons exist. Electrons remaining in the valence band are still attached to their atoms and are not free to move randomly in the crystal structure as are the free electrons.

However, a valence electron can move into a nearby hole with little change in its energy level, thus leaving another hole where the hole from. 7/12/12 Effectively it came has moved from one place to another in the crystal structure. This is called hole current.

N-type and P-type Semiconductors Basic

Reason:
q

Semiconductive materials do not conduct current well and are of limited value in their intrinsic state. qThis is because of the limited number of free electrons in the conduction band and holes in the valence band. q Intrinsic silicon (or germanium) must be modified by increasing the number of free electrons or holes to increase its conductivity and make it useful in electronic devices. This is done by adding impurities to the intrinsic material. qTwo types of extrinsic (impure) semiconductive materials, n-type and p-type, are the key building 7/12/12 blocks for most types of electronic devices.

SEMICONDUCTO RS

Intrinsic Semiconductor s

The conductivity of silicon and germanium can be significantly increased by the controlled addition of impurities to the intrinsic (pure) semi-conductive material. This process, called doping, increases the number of current carriers (electrons or Extrinsic holes). semiconductors

N-type Semiconducto rs

P-type Semiconducto rs
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N-type To increase the number of conduction-band Semiconductors electrons in intrinsic silicon, pentavalent

impurity atoms are added. These are atoms with five valence electrons such as arsenic (As), phosphorus (P), bismuth (Bi), and antimony (Sb). Each pentavalent atom (antimony, in this case) forms covalent bonds with four adjacent silicon atoms. Four of the antimony atom's valence electrons are used to form the covalent bonds with silicon atoms, leaving one extra electron. This extra electron becomes a conduction electron because it is not attached to any atom. Because the pentavalent atom gives up an electron, it is often called a donor atom.

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P-type To increase the number of holes in silicon, trivalent Semiconductorsintrinsic with three valence impurity atoms are added. These are atoms

electrons such as aluminum (Al), boron (B), indium (In), and gallium (Ga). Each trivalent atom (boron, in this case) forms covalent bonds with four adjacent silicon atoms. All three of the boron atom's valence electrons are used in the covalent bonds; and, since four electrons are required, a hole results when each trivalent atom is added. Because the trivalent atom can take an electron, it is often referred to as an acceptor atom. The number of holes can be carefully controlled by the number of trivalent impurity atoms added to the 7/12/12 silicon. A hole created by this doping process is not accompanied by a conduction (free) electron.

Majority and Minority Carriers in N-Type The electrons are the majority carriers in n-type material.
Although the majority of current carriers in n-type material are electrons, there are also a few holes that are created when electron-hole pairs are thermally generated. These holes are not produced by the addition of the pentavalent impurity atoms. Holes in an n-type material are called minority carriers.

Majority and Minority Carriers in P-Type be thought of as positive charges because the Holes can
absence of an electron leaves a net positive charge on the atom. The holes are the majority carriers in p-type material. Although the majority of current carriers in p-type material are holes, there are also a few free electrons that are created when electron-hole pairs are thermally generated. These free electrons are not produced by the addition of the trivalent impurity atoms. 7/12/12 Electrons in p-type material are the minority carriers.

(B) THE PN JUNCTION (DIODE)

FORMATION OF THE DEPLETION REGION BIASING THE PN JUNCTION FORWARD BIASING & REVERSE BIASING CURRENT-VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTIC OF PN-JUNCTION I-V CHARACTERISTIC FOR FORWARD BIASING I-V CHARACTERISTIC FOR REVERSE BIASING TEMPERATURE EFFECTS ON I-V CHARACTERISTIC

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The
If a piece of intrinsic silicon is doped so that part is n-type Diode and the other part is p-type, a PN-junction forms at the boundary between the two regions and a diode is created. A diode is a device that conducts current in only one direction.

The p region has many holes (majority carriers) from the impurity atoms and only a few thermally generated free electrons (minority carriers).

The n region has many free electrons (majority carriers) from the impurity atoms and only a few thermally generated holes 7/12/12 (minority carriers).

Diffusion
The free electrons in the n region are randomly drifting in all directions. At the instant of the PN-junction formation, free electrons near the junction in the n region begin to diffuse across the junction into the p region where they combine with holes near the junction, as shown in figure.

process

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Formation of Depletion Region pn junction is formed, the n- region loses free When the
electrons as they diffuse across the junction. This creates a layer of positive charges (pentavalent ions) near the junction. As the electrons move across the junction. the p region loses holes as the electrons and holes combine. This creates a layer of negative charges (trivalent ions) near the junction. These two layers of positive and negative charges form the depletion region, as shown in figure. The term depletion refers to the fact that the region near the pn junction is depleted of charge carriers (electrons and holes) due to diffusion across the junction. Keep in mind that the depletion region is formed very quickly and is very thin compared to the n 7/12/12 region and p region.

Barrier
In the depletion region there are many positive charges and many negative Potential charges on opposite sides of the pn-junction, The forces between the opposite charges form a "field of forces" called an electric field. This electric field is a barrier to the free electrons in the n-region, and energy must be expended to move an electron through the electric field, i.e., external energy must be applied to get the electrons to move across the barrier of the electric field in the depletion region. The potential difference of the electric field across the depletion region is the amount of voltage required to move electrons through the electric field. This potential difference is called the barrier potential and is expressed in volts. Stated another way, a certain amount of voltage equal to the barrier potential and with the proper polarity must be applied across a pn-junction before electrons will begin to flow across the junction.
The barrier potential of a pn-junction depends on several factors: 1. Type of semi-conductive material. 2. the amount of doping; 7/12/12 3. Temperature: typical barrier potential is approximately 0.7 V for Si & 0.3 V for Ge at 25C.

Energy Diagrams of PN-Junction and Depletion

The valence and conduction bands in an n-type material are at slightly lower energy levels than the valence and conduction bands in a p-type material. This is due to differences in the atomic characteristics of the penta-valent and the trivalent impurity atoms.

Region

After crossing the junction, the electrons quickly lose energy 7/12/12 and fall into the holes in the p-region valence band.

Energy Diagrams of PN-Junction and Depletion Region Soon, there are no electrons left in the n-region conduction band with enough energy to get across the junction to the pregion conduction band, as shown by the placement of the top of the n-region conduction band and the bottom of the pregion conduction band. At equilibrium; the depletion region is complete because diffusion has ceased. There is an energy gradient across the depletion region which acts as an "energy hill" that an n-region electron must climb to get to the p region. As the energy level of the nregion conduction band has shifted downward, the energy level of the valence band has also shifted downward.
It still takes the same amount of energy for a valence 7/12/12 electron to become a free electron. So, Eg b/w V.B and C.B. remains the same.

Forward
To bias a diode, you apply a dc voltage across it. Forward bias is the condition that allows current through the pn junction.

Biasing

Negative side of VBlAS is connected to the n region of the diode. Positive side is connected to the p region. 7/12/12 V BlAS must be greater than the barrier potential.

Like charges repel, the negative side of the bias-voltage source "pushes free electrons, (majority carriers in the n region) toward the pn junction. This flow of free electrons is called electron current. The negative side of the source also provides a continuous flow of electrons through the external connection (conductor) and into the n region as shown. When electrons are in the valence band in the p region due to loss of too much energy overcoming the barrier potential to remain in the conduction band. Since unlike charges attract, the positive side of the bias-voltage source attracts the valence electrons toward the left end of The p region.the p region provide the medium or "pathway" for these the holes in valence electrons to move through the p region. The electrons move from one hole to the next toward the left. The holes, which are the majority carriers in the p region, effectively (not actually) move to the right toward the junction. This effective flow of holes is called the hole current. Hole current as being created by the flow of valence 7/12/12 electrons through the p region, with the holes providing the only

Effect of Forward Biasing on Depletion Region and Barrier Potential The energy that the electrons require in order to pass through the depletion region is equal to the barrier potential means that electrons give up an amount of energy equivalent to the barrier potential when they cross the depletion region. This energy loss results in a voltage drop across the pn junction equal to the barrier potential (0.7 V).

An additional small voltage drop occurs across the p and n regions due to the internal resistance of the material. For doped semi-conductive material, this resistance, called the dynamic resistance, is very small and can usually be neglected.

Forward bias narrows the depletion region and produces a voltage

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REVERSE BIAS

Its

the

condition prevents

that current is

essentially

through the diode. Positive side of connected to the and

VBIAS

n region of the diode negative side is

the

connected to the Depletion region is much wider than in forward bias or p region. equilibrium.

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Reverse Current
The extremely small current that exists in reverse bias after the transition current dies out is caused by the minority carriers in the n and p regions that are produced by thermally generated electron-hole pairs.

Break Down Voltage Normally, the reverse current is so small that it can be
neglected, but if However, if the external reversebias voltage is increased to a value called breakdown voltage, the reverse current will drastically Avalanche increase. Avalanche is the rapid multiplication of current carriers in reverse breakdown. It is a very high reverse current that can damage the diode because of excessive heat dissipation.
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VI-CHARACTERISTICS
With 0 V across the diode, there is no forward current. With the gradual increase in the forward-bias voltage, the forward current and the voltage across the diode gradually increase, as shown in Figure (a). A portion of the forward-bias voltage is dropped across the limiting resistor. When the forward-bias voltage is increased to a value where the voltage across the diode reaches approximately 0.7 V (barrier potential), the forward current begins to increase rapidly. as illustrated in Figure (b).

As you continue to increase the forward-bias voltage, the current continues to increase very rapidly, but the voltage across the diode increases only gradually above 7/12/12 0.7 V. This small increase in the diode voltage above the barrier potential is due to the

VI-Characteristics for Forward Bias & Dynamic Resistance

Figure (c)

Figure (d) 7/12/12

Graphing the V-I Curve If you plot the results of the type of measurements shown in Figure (a) and (b) on a graph, you get the V-I characteristic curve for a forward-biased diode, as shown in Figure (c). The diode forward voltage (VF ) increases to the right along the horizontal axis, and the forward current (IF) increases upward along the vertical axis. As you can see in Figure (c), the forward current increases very little until the forward voltage across the p n junction reaches approximately 0.7 V at the knee of the curve. After this point. the forward voltage remains at approximately 0.7 V, but IF increases rapidly. As previously mentioned, there is a slight increase in VF above 0.7 V as the current increases due mainly to the voltage drop across the dynamic resistance. Normal operation for a forward-biased diode is above the knee of the curve. IF scale is typically in m A. Three points A, B, and C are shown on the curve in Figure (c). Point A corresponds to a zero-bias condition. Point B corresponds to: where the forward voltage is less than the barrier potential of 0.7 V. Point C corresponds to : where the forward voltage approximately equals the barrier potential. As the external bias voltage and forward current continue to increase above the knee, the 7/12/12 forward voltage will increase slightly above 0.7 V. In reality, the forward

Dynamic Resistance
Figure (d) is an expanded view of the V-I characteristic curve in figure (c) and explains dynamic resistance. Unlike a linear resistance, the resistance of the forward-biased diode is not constant over the entire curve. Because the resistance changes as you move along the V-I curve, it is called dynamic or ac resistance. Internal resistances of electronic devices are usually designated by lowercase italic l' with a prime, instead of the standard R. The dynamic resistance of a diode is designated rd`. Below the knee of the curve the resistance is greatest because the current increases very little for a given change in voltage

(rd`= VF/ IF ).

The resistance begins to decrease in the region of the knee of the curve and becomes smallest above the knee where there is a large change in current for a given change in voltage.
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VI-Characteristics for Reverse

When a reverse-bias voltage is Bias across a diode, there is only applied an extremely small reverse current (IR) through the pn junction. With 0 V across the diode. there is no reverse current. As you gradually increase the reverse-bias voltage, there is a very small reverse current and the voltage across the diode increases. When the applied bias voltage is increased to a value where the reverse voltage across the diode (VR ) reaches the breakdown value (VBR ). The reverse current begins to increase rapidly. As you continue to increase the bias voltage, the current continues to increase very rapidly. But the voltage across the diode increases very little above VBR . Breakdown, with exceptions, is not a normal mode of operation for most pn junction diodes. After this point, the reverse voltage remains at approximately VBR , but IR increases very rapidly, resulting in overheating and possible damage. The breakdown voltage for a typical silicon diode can vary, but a 7/12/12 minimum value of 50 V is not unusual.

The complete VI characteristic Curve

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(C) THE DIODE

DIODE STRUCTURE & SYMBOL FORWARD
DIODE BIASING & REVERSE BIASING OF A

THE IDEAL DIODE MODEL THE PRACTICAL DIODE MODEL THE COMPLEX DIODE MODEL TESTING A DIODE

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Symbol and Biasing of Diode

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Effect of Temperature on VI-Characteristics

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Ideal Diode Model

VF = 0 V IF = (VBIAS

RLIMIT

IR = 0 A VR = VBIAS 7/12/12

Practical Diode Model

VF = 0.7 V IF = (VBIAS RLIMIT

VF)

/(

IR = 0 A VR = VBIAS 7/12/12

Complex Diode Model

VF = 0.7 V + IF r'd IF = (VBIAS

- 0.7V) ( RLIMIT + r'd)

/
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Typical diodes

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Diode Checking

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Reference
1. 2. 3. 4.

Electronic Devices by Floyd. Basic Electronics by B.L. Theraja. www.google.com. Wikipedia.org.

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