Ruby 20

c
Ruby
Ruby 2.0.0p247

PDF :
http://dl.dropbox.com/u/75172405/Ruby.pdf
:
1. Ruby.
2. - gem
install redcarpet.
3. Markdown LaTeX
http://gist.github.com/Krugloff/5491182.
4. XeLaTeX.
5. - http://gist.github.com/Krugloff/5491168.
6. pdf - xelatex
Liberation).
book.tex
( -
:
: http://github.com/Krugloff
: mr.krugloff@gmail.com
:
Qiwi: 89212870782
WebMoney: R349517838989
I.
1.
1.1. . .
1.2. . . . . . .
1.3. . . .
1.3.1.
1.3.2. . . . . .
1.4. . . . .
1.5. . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
2
2
3
4
5
6
7
9
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
13
13
13
14
16
16
17
17
17
18
19
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
2.
2.1. . . . . . . . .
2.1.1. (Numeric) . . . . . . . . .
2.1.2. (String) . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.3. . . . . . .
2.1.4. (Symbol) . . .
2.1.5. (Regexp)
2.2. . . . . . . .
2.2.1. (Array) . .
2.2.2. (Hash)
2.2.3. (Range) . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
3.
4.
4.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2. . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1. . . . .
4.2.2. . . . .
4.2.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.4. . . . . . .
4.2.5.
4.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
23
23
30
30
31
32
33
33
33
iii
5.
5.1. . . . . . .
5.1.1. (Module) . . . . .
5.1.2. (Class) . . . . . . .
5.1.3. . . . . . . . . .
5.1.4. . . . . . . . .
5.1.5. . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.6. . . . . . . . . . .
5.2. . . . . . .
5.2.1. . . . . . . .
5.2.2.
5.2.3. . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
35
35
35
36
38
38
39
46
48
48
50
53
II.
55
6.
6.1. Numeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.1. . . . . . . .
6.1.2. . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.3. . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.4. . .
6.1.5. . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.6. . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.7. . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2. (Integer) . . . . . . . .
6.2.1. . . . . . . .
6.2.2. : Fixnum Bignum
6.2.3. . .
6.2.4. . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.5. . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.6. . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3. (Float) . . . . .
6.3.1. . . . . . . .
6.3.2. . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.3. . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.4. . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4. (Rational) . .
6.4.1. . . . . . . .
6.4.2. . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.3. . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5. (Complex) . . .
6.5.1. . . . . . . .
6.5.2. . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.3. . .
6.6. Math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
56
56
57
58
58
60
60
60
60
61
61
62
62
63
63
63
64
64
65
65
65
65
66
66
66
67
68
68
69
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
iv
7.
7.1. (String) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1.7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1.8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1.9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.1. Regexp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.2. MatchData . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.1. (Encoding) . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.2. (Encoding::Converter)
8.
8.1. Array ( ) . .
8.1.1. . . . . .
8.1.2. . . . . . . . . .
8.1.3. . . . . . . . . .
8.1.4. . . .
8.1.5. . . . .
8.1.6. . . . . . . . . .
8.1.7. .
8.1.8. . . . . . . . . .
8.2. Hash ( )
8.2.1. . . . . .
8.2.2. . . . . . . . . .
8.2.3. . . . .
8.2.4. . . . . . . . . .
8.2.5. . . . . . . . . .
8.2.6. . . . .
8.2.7. . . . . . . . . .
8.3. Range () . . . . . . .
8.3.1. . . . . .
8.3.2. . . . . . . . . .
8.3.3. . . . . . . . . .
8.3.4. . . . . . . . . .
8.3.5. . . . . . . . . .
8.4. Enumerator () . . . . . .
8.4.1. . . . . .
8.4.2. . . . . .
8.4.3. . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
72
72
72
75
79
79
83
86
86
87
87
88
88
90
92
92
93
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
98
98
98
99
102
103
106
107
108
108
110
110
111
112
113
114
114
114
115
116
116
116
116
117
118
119
119
120
8.4.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.5. (Enumerator::Lazy)
8.5. Enumerable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.3. . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
120
120
122
123
123
123
124
125
126
126
127
128
9.
9.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1.1. . . . . . . .
9.1.2. . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1.3. . . . . . .
9.1.4. . . . . . . . .
9.1.5. . . . . . . . .
9.2. . . . . . . . .
9.2.1. .
9.2.2. . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.3. . . . . . . .
9.2.4. . . . . . . .
9.2.5. . . . . . . .
9.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.1. . . . . . . . . .
9.3.2. . . . . . . . .
9.3.3. . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
129
129
129
130
131
132
133
135
135
136
136
138
138
140
140
141
141
10.
10.1. (Proc) . . . . . . . .
10.1.1. . . . . . . . .
10.1.2. - . . . . .
10.1.3.
10.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2.1. Method . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2.2. UnboundMethod . . . . . .
10.3. (Fiber) . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
145
145
146
146
147
149
149
151
152
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
11. (Random)
154
11.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
vi
12.
12.1. (Time) . . . . . .
12.1.1. .
12.1.2.
12.1.3. . . . . .
12.1.4. .
12.1.5. .
12.1.6. . . . .
12.1.7. . . . . .
12.1.8. . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
13.
13.1. . .
13.2. Symbol . . . . . . . . . .
13.2.1. .
13.2.2. . . . . . .
13.2.3.
13.2.4. . . . . . .
13.3. . . . . . . . .
13.3.1. .
13.3.2. . . . . . .
13.3.3. . . . . . .
13.3.4. . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
156
156
156
157
158
158
158
159
160
161
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
162
162
162
162
163
163
163
164
164
165
165
165
III.
14.
14.1. . . . . . .
14.2. . . . . . . .
14.3. . .
14.4. . .
167
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
168
168
168
169
169
15.
15.1. IO () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.1.1. . . . . . . . . .
15.1.2. . . . . . . . . . . .
15.1.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.1.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.1.5. . . . . . . . . . .
15.1.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.1.7. . . . . . . . . .
15.2. File () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.2.1.
15.2.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.2.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
171
171
171
174
175
178
180
181
182
183
184
185
188
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
vii
15.2.4. . . . . . . . . .
15.2.5. . . . . . . . . . .
15.3. Dir () . . . . . . . . . . .
15.3.1.
15.3.2. . . .
15.3.3. . . . . . . . . . .
15.3.4. . . . . . . . . . .
15.4. . . . . . .
15.4.1. File::Stat . . . . . . .
15.4.2. FileTest . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
189
190
191
192
192
193
193
193
194
197
16.
199
16.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
16.1.1. ARGV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
16.1.2. ARGF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
17.
203
17.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
17.2. (Ruby 2.0) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
18.
18.1. . . . . . . . . . . .
18.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.2.1. Exception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.2.2. LoadError [ruby 2.0] . . . . . . . . . .
18.2.3. SignalException . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.2.4. SystemExit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.2.5. Encoding::InvalidByteSequenceError .
18.2.6. Encoding::UndefinedConversionError
18.2.7. StopIteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.2.8. LocalJumpError . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.2.9. NameError . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.2.10. NoMethodError . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.2.11. SystemCallError . . . . . . . . . . .
18.3.
18.3.1. . . . . . . . . . .
18.3.2. . . . . . . . .
18.3.3. Catch Throw . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
209
209
210
210
211
211
211
212
212
212
213
213
213
213
213
213
214
215
19.
19.1. . . . . . . . .
19.1.1. . . . . . . . .
19.1.2. TDD . . . . . . . . . .
19.2. . . . . . . . . . . .
19.2.1.
19.2.2. . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
216
216
216
217
217
217
218
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
viii
19.2.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
20.
20.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.1.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.1.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.1.3. . . . . . . . . . . .
20.1.4. . . . . .
20.2. (Thread) . . . . . . .
20.2.1. Thread . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.2.2. (ThreadGroup)
20.2.3. (Mutex) . .
20.3. (Process) . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.3.1. Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.3.2. . . . . . . . . .
20.3.3. Ruby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.4. (Signal) . . . . . . .
20.5. . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.6. C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.6.1. Ruby 2.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
224
224
224
225
225
226
226
227
234
235
236
236
237
237
238
239
240
240
21.
21.1.
21.1.1. 0 . . . .
21.1.2. 1 . . . .
21.1.3. 2 . . . .
21.1.4. 3 . . . .
21.1.5. 4 . . . .
21.2. . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
242
242
242
242
243
243
243
244
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
245
A.
246
B.
250
C.
256
D.
259
E.
262
F.
263
G.
265
ix
H.
I. Linux
I.1. . . . . . . . . . . . .
I.2. . . . . . . . . . . . .
I.3. . . . . . . . . . .
I.4. . . . . . . . . . .
270
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
272
272
273
274
276
277

- ,
. , .
1.1.
-
- ,
, .
W. A. Wulf
24 1993 . (Matz) . Ruby.
, Perl,
Python. .
Ruby
, , ,
.
Ruby:
,
. , ;
( );
. .
,
.
. , Ruby - .
. API - .
1.2.
Ruby:
;
-;
;
;
, (DSL);
;
;
;
;
Unicode;
, ;
, , .
1.2.
- , , .
:
MRI - , YARV ( , ,
).
Rubinius - . C++, Ruby;
JRuby - Java;
IronRuby - .Net.
. , .
Windows
.
:
( );
1.3.
RubyGems;
irb ( Ruby
);
RDoc;
ri ;
Rake;
ERb.
1.3.
Ruby - ,
( - ,
).
Ruby : .rb ( )
.rbw ( Windows ).
,
. .
.
- , . , ,
.
:
- (, , );
- , :
.
. -
, (_).
.
.
ASCII (
ASCII ,
).
, ;
- , , ;
1.3.
- , . , .
.
: __LINE__; __ENCODING__; __FILE__; __END__; BEGIN;
END; =begin; =end; alias; and; begin; break; case; class; def; defined?; do; else;
elsif; end; ensure; false; for; if; in; module; next; nil; not; or; redo; rescue; retry;
return; self; super; then; true; undef; unless; until; when; while; yield;
- ,
.
. - , . ( ), ( , ).
.
, . , .
,
.
1.3.1.
Ruby ( ) , , .
.

.
:
. 80
( );
( );
, .
.
1.3.
:
( , , ENTER);

(;);
, , , (backslash - \), (
). , ,
- ;
, (.), ;
(, , ),
,
. - .
1.3.2.
- ,
.
( ) .
- . , .
,
.
,
. .
, .

.
Ruby :
, , .
# .
# .
1.4.
=begin =end . .
=begin .
.
,

.
=end
1.4.
, ,
, - .
. . . ff 255
11111111 .
,
. (code point) .
,
.
- ( ). 10000 (32
, 20 ). .
.

ASCII, 127 : , , . 127
7 , ASCII , .
.
255 . 128 ( 128 255)
: .
hello 48 65 6c 6 6a.
.

.
,
. :
.
1.4.
(Unicode).
, .
, . , ( ),
-.
U+xxxx, x ( ). , .
100 . .
, hello : U+0048 U+0065
U+006C U+006C U+006F.
- . hello
00 48 00 65 00 6 00 6 00 6,
48 00 65 00 6 00 6 00 6 00. ,
.
- UTF-8.
ASCII - , ASCII
( hello UTF-8 ASCII).
. , , ASCII
.
,
. . , ASCII ( Ruby - UTF-8,
).
, ASCII.
( ) , ASCII ( ),
.
, ASCII,
.
, : #coding: _
:
coding encoding;
;
;
;
coding -*-.
1.5.
1.5.
- ,
.
, , .
- () - , .
Smalltalk, Ruby. , , .
, ,
.
.
, , .
,
( ) .
- ,
. ,
. , Ruby , - -
- .
- , , , , , , .
- - ,
() ,
- . ,
.
:
- . , - .
- , ,
. - , .
, ,
( ). - .
1.5.
10
:
- () ( ),
.
( ).
, .
, .
, (
- ).
, .
- .
, ( ).
, .
:
. - .
, .
.
( ).
. -
, . , , , . ,
.
, ,
.
,
.
:
- ,
.
, .
,
.
,
;
1.5.
11
,
;
, , . , .
:
- ,
, ( ). ,
() , , () - . .
;
,
.
, ;
,
. (
).
:
- , .
, ;
, ;

.
:
- , , , , .
Ruby .
(
1.5.
12

).
()
.
.
() ( )
, . , .
Ruby ,
. , . ,
, .

. -
.
2.1.
, , , . -
. .
2.1.1. (Numeric)
(Integer)
, 31- ,
Fixnum.
, , Bignum.
.
- (1289).
(_), .
(1_000_000 - ).
:
, .
;
, 0x 0X, (04AF);
, 0b 0B,
(0b0111).
(-).
(+). .
2.1.
14
(Float)
- ,
: (123.051).
.
(e ), , 10 (123-10 - 123 1010 ).
(_), .
2.1.2. (String)
- . - .
. ,
,
.
(line), (string)
. , .
: ,
('Ruby').
, .
( ).
- , , .
:
\ - ;
\ - .
: ,
("Ruby").

.
- "#{}"
("#{1+2}" - 3).

.
2.1.
15
:
\* - *, . .
-
;
\b - ;
\r - . ( ).
.
(
).
\n - ( ). Windows
\r\n.
\t - , ();
\*** - ,
;
\** - \0**;
\* - \00*;
\x** - , ;
\x* - \x0*;
\u**** - ,
;
\u{*} ,
.
: %q %Q.
%q %Q. , .
%q , %Q (%Q(Ruby) - Ruby). %Q
(%(Ruby)).
: , .
<< <<-.
, .
() . ,
. ,
.
2.1.
16
<<, .
;
, . .
( ).
<<- 'DOC'
.
DOC
# -> ' '
: , ?.
, (?A
A).
2.1.3.
, .
:
: true, TrueClass;
: false, FalseClass;
: nil, NilClass. , , .
false nil false, - true.
( true)
( false).
2.1.4. (Symbol)
. -
.
Symbol.
2.2.
17
- - , (:green). , %s
(%s(Ruby) - :Ruby)
, , ,
. , , . .
- , ( ). , .
2.1.5. (Regexp)
- . , .
- (
), (slash - /).
,
(/Ruby/i).
%r.
(%r(Ruby)i
/Ruby/i).
. , . ,
.
.
2.2.
- , ( ).
.
2.2.1. (Array)
( ) - ,
,
2.2.
18
( ).
( ).
, -
. .
[1, "Ruby", ?\u0048]
, (
).
%w %W. .
%w
, %W - .
%W( Ruby ) :
[ "", "", "Ruby" ]
Ruby ,
-.
%i %I.
.
%i
, %I - .
%I( category klass ) :
[:category, :klass]
2.2.2. (Hash)
- ,
( /)
, ( ).

.
, , ( ),
.hash. ,
.
( ).
, - / .
=>. .
{ "Ruby" => "language", "" => "" }
- . -
2.2.
19
,
( ).
{ Ruby: "language", : "" }
:
{ :Ruby => "language",
: => "" }
2.2.3. (Range)
- ,
, .
, - , .
(1..3 1, 2, 3),
- (1...3 1 2).
.
<=>, , , .

- , . , . , , . , , .
. ,
( ).
() .
,
.
. . . ,
.
, Ruby,
. .
.
. .
() () .
. . ( nil). ,
, .
, .

, ( nil).
- .
, ,
.
3.
21
_. Ruby , .
:
, .
. . .
( ). .
, .
( ,
- _). ;
. ;
(
, - __). (
).
:
. .
@ ( ). ;
@@ ( ). .
:
Ruby , , .
.
,
. .
3.
22
- .
,
. , ,
. ,
, ,
( ).
,
.
- , (
) . . .
( ).
.
4.1.
-
. - . .
, , , .
:
() - ;
() - ;
() - .
.
, ,
.
( ), , . R- ,
L- - .
, , , .
4.1.
.
1
!~ +
.
R
2
3
4
**
* / %
R
R
L
+-
<< >>
7
8
&
| ^
L
L
9
10
10
< <= > >=

<=> ! = =~
!~ == ===
L
L
L
11
12
13
14
15
16
&&
||
?:
=
not
and or
L
L
R
R
R
L
24

;
;

(); ;
()
();
()
()

( )
( );

; ;
; ;

4.1.
25
1. !obj ( )
.
!1 # -> false
!nil # -> true
~ integer ( )
1.
, .
-number-1.
~1 # -> -2
~0b01 # -> -2
+ number ( )
.
+0b01 # -> 1
2. number**number ( )
. -
, - .
2**3 # -> 8
3. - number ( )
, .
-0b01 # -> -1
4. number * number ()
.
1 * 2 # -> 2
string * integer ( )
.
"R" * 3 # -> "RRR"
array * integer ( )
.
[1, ?R] * 2 # -> [1, "R", 1, "R"]
[*object] ( )
.
4.1.
26
a = [1, 2, 3]
[*a] # -> [1, 2, 3]
[*a, 1] # -> [1, 2, 3, 1]
b = { a: 1, b: 2 }
[*b] # -> [ [:a, 1], [:b, 2] ]
c = 1..4
[*c] # -> [1, 2, 3, 4]
[*1] # -> [1]
[*nil] # -> [ ]
[*?a] # -> ["a"]
number / number ()
.
-6 / 3 # -> -2
number % number ( )
. .
7 % 3 # -> 1
-7 % 3 # -> 2
7 % -3 # -> -2
string % object ()
,
. ,
, .
5. number + number ()
.
1 + 3 # -> 4
string + string ( )
.
"Ruby" + ?! # -> "Ruby!"
array + array ( )
.
[1, 2] + [3, 4] # -> [1, 2, 3, 4]
number - number ()
.
2 - 1 # -> 1
array - array ( )
.
[1, 2, 2, ?R] - [2, ?1] # -> [1, "R"]
4.1.
27
6. number integer; number integer ( )

.
1 << 2 # -> 4
string string ( )
.
, .
"Ruby" << ?! # -> "Ruby!"
"Ruby" << 33 # -> "Ruby!"
array object ( )
.
[1] << 2 # -> [ 1, 2 ]
7. integer & integer ( )

.
1,
1.
0b01 & 0b10 # -> 0
array & array ( )

, .
[1, 2, 2, 3] & [2, 3] # -> [2, 3]
8. integer | integer ( )
.
1, 1.
0b01 | 0b10 # -> 3
array | array ( )
,
.
[1, 2, 2, 3] | [2, 3] # -> [1, 2, 3]
integer ^ integer ( )
.
( )
1, 1.
0b01 ^ 0b10 # -> 3
9. < <= >= > ()

.
:
4.1.
28
1 <= 2 # -> true

1 > 2 # -> false
:
.
.
, .
, .
"" < "" # -> true
"" < "" # -> false
"1" <= "2" # -> true
10. object == object ()

. ,
.
1 == 1.0 # -> true
1 == "1" # -> false
object != object ()
.
1 != 1.0 # -> false
1 != "1" # -> true
object === object ( )

.
.
1 === 1.0 # -> true
1 === "1" # -> false
String
=== 'matz' # -> true
Numeric === 42
# -> true
string =~ regexp; regexp =~ string ( )

.
, ,
nil, .
string !~ regexp; regexp !~ string ( )
.
object <=> object ()
.
4.1.
29
< = >
# ->
-1 0 1
-1 ;
0 ;
1 ;
nil ( ).
, , (
).
1 <=> 1.0 # -> 0
1 <=> ?2 # -> nil
11. expression && expression ( )

.
4 && 2 - 1 # -> 1
3 > 4 && 2 - 1 # -> false
12. expression || expression ( )

.
4 || 2 - 1 # -> 4
3 > 4 || 2 - 1 # -> 1
13. expression ? expression : expression ( )

( ) (
)
1 > 2 ? true : false # -> false
1 < 2 ? true : false # -> true
14. identificator = object ()

.
**= *= /= %= += -= = = &&= &= ||= |= ~= ()
- ,
.
<1> op= <2> <1> = <1> op <2>
15. not object ( )
!object, .
16. expression and expression ( )
expression
&& expression,
experssion or expression ( )
expression
|| expression,
4.2.
30
4.2.
- , ( ). , end,
. , , .
4.2.1.
.
( nil).
:

.
if
_
end
,
, then.
else:
, .
...
_
else
end
else elsif.
:
_ if
,
begin end, .
4.2.
31
begin
_
end if
( _
) if
if unless, .
elsif .
4.2.2.
, . . -
. ( nil).
:
.
case
when
when
...
end
, .
.
:
( ===).
case
when
when
...
end
else.
4.2.
32
4.2.3.
- ( ). , . nil.
while .
, .
:
( ).
while
_
end
,
, do.
:
_ while
.
begin end, .
.
begin
_
end while
( _
) while
while until,
.
until while not.

Kernel - .loop { }, StopIteration
. while true.
4.3.
33
4.2.4.
- ,
.
for in
_
end
(
, ).
.each, .
,
, do.
4.2.5.

. , . , nil.
:
return [] -
, , ;
break [] - ;
next [] -
;
redo - .
.
4.3.
. - , .. ....
, ,
( 12.5).
.
, .
,
, .. .
4.3.
34
.
:
..; ...
- , , .
,
.
.
. . , .
:
1. , .
. ..
.
2. , . , .
.

. ...
, .. - .

Ruby -
- .
, , .
.

.
:
;
( )
,
. .
- , ,
;
, ;
, ;
- . ;
,
. .
5.1.
5.1.1. (Module)
- , , .
5.1.
36
.
.
. , ..
.
Math, .
- , . ,
, -
.
,
- .
module _
_
end
module , .
, . ;
. . self
.
( nil).
Module. ,
, .
::new { nil } # -> module [Module]
. . ,
.
5.1.2. (Class)
- , , . , - .
( ) .
5.1.
37
class _
_
end
class ,
. ,
. .
. .
self . ( nil).
Class. ,
, .
::new( class = Object ) # -> class [Class]
, .
, .
: , .
, , .
Ruby ::new.
: (
.allocate) ( .initialize).
.initialize . .
.
.allocate Class
.
: .
, ,
. . (metaclass).
class <<
_
end

( ).
self.
( nil).
,
, .
5.1.
38
5.1.3.

, .
::, L.
, . .
::
=, .
, ,
.
.
self.
,
.
1. , ;
2. , ;
3. , ;
4. 1-3;
5. object.const_missing , .
5.1.4.
: .
: .
: , .
(
). @@.
(
).
.
, .
. .
: ,
.
.
@.
5.1.
39
. .

. . .
, ,
, . , Class.
5.1.5.
- , , , ,
(, ). : . Ruby
- .
, .
- , ( );
- , (
).
( ) , .
, - , . .
nil. , .
.

: , .
def _()
_
end
-
.
: , .
5.1.
40
def ._()
_
end
self.
, ,
- .
- ,
( ).
:
;
( )
( ).

.
:
:
.
:
;
, ;
( );
- , - . , . .
: , (, ).
.
.
5.1.
41
, . ,
. ,
, . , , ;
(*), , . ,
. ;
(&),
( .to_proc).
, yield.
, is.
: , .
. .
self , .
: , .
.
, .
alias: alias _
, : = .
: undef. ,
( ).
undef _
Ruby 2.0
. .
, Ruby.
- , .
, . .
5.1.
42
def method(name: default); name; end

method(name: 'method') # -> method
.
def method(name: default); name; end
method(args: 'method') # -> ArgumentError!
(**), , .
( **)
def method(**options); options; end
method(name: 'method') # -> { name: 'method'}
- Ruby, .
- .
.
, - ,
. ,
. .
, .
<method> { || _ }
<method> do ||
_
end
do
- , .
, , , .
, . . , .
, .
.
Ruby - ,
(for in).
5.1.
43
:
: , (, ).
.
.
. (
*).
: . , .
self ,
, .
- , . ,
(| x, y; z, k, n |).
nil.
: . .
yield, , ( ).
. .
yield LocalJumpError.
,
.
hash = { a: [], b: [] }
hash.each { |key, (first_in_value, second_in_value)| }
. ,
( nil).
:
return [] - ,
, ;
break [] - ;
5.1.
44
next [] - .
;
redo - .

. ( ::,
),
L.
, ( ),
- .
._()
- , .
.
. .
.
self.
.
- .
;
- ,
;
- , ,
, ,
. .
, Ruby
. ,
, , ,
.
:
(
, );

, ;
5.1.
45
(*). .to_splat;
,
(&).

. ( ).
;
;
, ;
2 3;
.method_missing.
Ruby 2.0

(**). .
APP_OPTS = { name: 'play', author: 'dave' }
LOG_OPTS = { level: 2, color: 'blue', line: '3pt' }
def log(msg, options)
p msg
p options
end
log( 'Starting', **APP_OPTS )
# ->
# 'Starting'
# { name: 'play', author: 'dave' }
log( 'Connected', **APP_OPTS, **LOG_OPTS )
# ->
# 'Connected'
# { name: 'play', author: 'dave',
#
level: 2, color: 'blue', line: '3pt' }
log( 'Giving up', **APP_OPTS, **LOG_OPTS, color: 'VERY RED' )

# ->
# 'Giving up'
# { name: 'play', author: 'dave',
#
level: 2, color: 'VERY RED', line: '3pt' }
5.1.
46

. ,
( nil).
:
return [] - ;
break [] - ;
next [] - ;
redo - .
: ,
.
( ), .
def .
_
end
(
). ,
.
nil.
. , , ( ).
5.1.6.
.
.to_s .
5.1.
module OurKlass
class User
@@count = 0 # class var.
# class method.
def self.count
@@count
end
def initialize( name, age )
@name = name # instance var.
@age = age
@@count += 1
@id += 1
end
# instance method.
def to_s
"#{@name}: #{@age} years old"
end
end # class User.
end # module.
. .to_a .
user = OurKlass::User.new "Timmy", 22 # -> "Timmy: 22 years old"
OurKlass::User.count # -> 1
user.to_a # -> error!
.to_a.
class OurKlass::User
def to_a
[ @name, @age ]
end
end
user.to_a # -> ["Timmy", 22]
47
5.2.
48
def self.next_count
@@count + 1
end
end
OurKlass::User.next_count # -> 2
class << self
def prepend_count
@@count - 1
end
end
end
OurKlass::User.prepend_count # -> 0
. .
class << user
def id
@id
end
end
user.id # -> 1
user = OurKlass::User.new "Tommy", 33 # -> "Tommy: 33 years old"
user.id # -> error!
5.2.
5.2.1.

.
, . ( ) ( ).
. ,
.
5.2.
49
, , .
(<attr>=).

Module.
.attr_accessor(*attribute) # -> nil
.
.attr_reader(*attribute) # -> nil
.
.attr_writer(*attribute) # -> nil
.

.
( ), ( ).
.
:
public - . . ;
protected - .
.
( )
( ) (
);
private - . .
( ) ( )
( self).
API.
,
- .
5.2.
50
Module: .public, .private .protected. , . , , Object.

.private_class_method(*name) # -> self [Module]
.
.
.public_class_method(*name) # -> self [Module]
.
.module_function(*name) # -> self [PRIVATE: Module]
. , .
, .
5.2.2.
Ruby
( ).
Ruby . ,
.

.
class _ < _
;
. , ;
.
;
. .
- ,
(
). , .
Ruby .
5.2.
51
Ruby . , .
.
.include(*a_module) # -> self [PRIVATE: Module]
.
.
.
.extend(*a_module) # -> object [Object]
.
. .
.extend_object(object) # -> object [PRIVATE]
.
object.extend self
extend self ,

.
Ruby 2.0
Ruby ,
.
.prepend(*a_module) # -> self [PRIVATE: Module]
.
. . , super.
module Foo
def baz; 'foo-baz'; end
end
class Bat
include Foo
def baz; 'bat-baz'; end
end
Bar.new.baz # -> 'bat-baz'
class Bar
prepend Foo
def baz; 'bar-baz'; end
end
Bar.new.baz # -> 'foo-baz'
5.2.
52
.
,
.
# Ruby 1.9:
class Range
# active_support/core_ext/range/include_range.rb
# Range#include? .
def include_with_range?(value)
if value.is_a?(::Range)
# 1...10 1..9, 1..10.
operator = exclude_end? && !value.exclude_end? ? :< : :<=
include_without_range?(value.first) && value.last.send(operator, last)
else
include_without_range?(value)
end
end
alias_method_chain :include?, :range
end
Range.ancestors # -> [ Range, Enumerable, Object... ]
# Ruby 2.0
module IncludeRangeExt
# Range#include? .
def include?(value)
if value.is_a?(::Range)
# 1...10 1..9, 1..10.
operator = exclude_end? && !value.exclude_end? ? :< : :<=
super(value.first) && value.last.send(operator, last)
else
super
end
end
end
class Range
prepend IncludeRangeExt
end
Range.ancestors # -> [ IncludeRangeExt, Range, Enumerable, Object... ]
5.2.
53

- , ( Ruby
).
BasicObject,
Object, .
Object Kernel,
.
Module,
Object. Module
.
Class,
Module. Class
.
Module .
Class .
.
;
;
;
5.2.3.
Ruby
.
: , ,
. Ruby . , -
.
, , .

super, (
).
: , , . Ruby
nil.
5.2.
54
: , .
. , -
.
Ruby , .
Numeric, -
, IO, , . .
: (), . , ,
. , , .
.
, .
module Openable
def open; end
def close; end
end

Ruby , .
- .
. , , .
<op> object <-> object.<op>
first_object <op> second_object <-> first_object.<op>(second_object)
, :
., ::, &&, ||, ?:, =, , not, and, or, .., ...
II
N umeric (+ Comparable)

Complex
TTTTXXXXZXZZZZZZ
TTTT XXXXXXZZZZZZZZ
TTTT XXXXXX ZZZZZZZZ
XXXXX
TTT*
XXXXXZZZZZZZZZZZZZ
+
,
Rational
F loat
IntegerM

MMM
MMM
MMM
M&
F ixnum
Bignum
Ruby Math.
6.1. Numeric
: Comparable
.
- , .
6.1.1.

. ,
.
:
1. - ,
;
2. - , ;
3. - , .
, .
6.1. Numeric
57

.coerce(number) # -> array
.
1. , .Float;
2. , (
).
1.coerce 2.1 # -> [2.1, 1.0]
1.coerce "2.1" # -> [2.1, 1.0]
1.coerce "0xAF" # -> [175.0, 1.0]
1.coerce "q123" # -> error!
.i # -> complex
. Complex.
1.i # -> (0+1i)
.to_c # -> complex

.
1.to_c # -> (1+0i)
.to_int # -> integer

number.to_i.
2.1.to_int # -> 2
6.1.2.
.%(number)
: modulo
.
.+(number)
.-(number)
.<=>(number) .
6.1. Numeric
58
6.1.3.
.ceil # -> integer
, ( ).
2.1.ceil # -> 3
.floor # -> integer

, ( ).
2.1.floor # -> 2
.round( precise = 0 ) # -> number

.
, .
2.11355.round 4 # -> 2.1136
2.round 4 # -> 2.0
.truncate # -> integer

.
2.1.truncate # -> 2
6.1.4.
.abs2 # -> number
.
-2.1.abs2 # -> 4.41
.numerator # -> integer

, number.to_r.
2.1.numerator # -> 4728779608739021
.denominator # -> integer

, number.to_r.
2.1.denominator # -> 2251799813685248
.divmod(number) # -> array

.
1.divmod 3 # -> [0, 1]
.div(number) # -> integer

( number.to_i).
1.div 3 # -> 0
.fdiv(number) # -> float

.
1.fdiv 3 # -> 0.3333333333333333
59
6.1. Numeric
.quo(number) # -> quotient

.
.
1.quo 3 # -> (1/3)
.remainder(number) # -> integer

,
self number * ( self / number ).truncate.
1.remainder 3 # -> 1
.abs # -> number

.
-2.1.abs # -> 2.1
.arg # -> number

: angle, phase
.
, .
Math::PI.
1.arg # -> 0
-1.arg # -> 3.141592653589793
.polar # -> array

([
self.abs, self.arg ]).
1.polar # -> [1, 0]
.real # -> number

.
1.real # -> 1
.imag # -> 0
: imaginary
.
.rect # -> array
([
self, 0 ]).
1.rect # -> [ 1, 0 ]
.conj # -> self

: conjugate
( ).
6.2. (Integer)
60
6.1.5.
.integer? # -> bool
.
1.integer? # -> true
2.1.integer? # -> false
.real? # -> bool

(
).
1.real? # -> true
.nonzero? # -> bool

. , .
1.nonzero? # -> 1
0.0.nonzero? # -> nil
.zero? # -> bool

.
1.zero? # -> false
0.0.zero? # -> true
6.1.6.
.step( limit, step = 1) { |number| } # -> self
.
, .
n + n * Flt::EPSILON, n == limit self / step.
6.1.7.
.singleton_method_added(*object)
.
6.2. (Integer)
.
Fixnum Bignum .
6.2. (Integer)
61
6.2.1.
.to_i # -> self
.to_r # -> rational
: rationalize
.
0.to_r # -> (0/1)
.to_f # -> float [Fixnum Bignum]

.
1.to_f # -> 1.0
.to_s( numeral_system = 10 ) # -> string [Fixnum Bignum]

, ( 2 36).
16.to_s 16 # -> "10"
0xF.to_s 16 # -> "f"
0x16.to_s 16 # -> "16"
6.2.2. : Fixnum Bignum

.*(integer) # -> result .
./(integer) # -> result .
.**(integer) # -> result .
.+(integer) # -> result .
.-(integer) # -> result .
.~(integer) # -> result .
.[](index) # -> 0 1

.
.(integer) # -> result .
.(integer) # -> result .
.&(integer) # -> result .
.|(integer) # -> result .
.^(integer) # -> result .
6.2. (Integer)
62
6.2.3.
.next # -> integer
: succ
.
1.next # -> 2
.pred # -> integer

.
1.pred # -> 0
.gcd(integer) # -> gcd

. ,
integer.abs .
2.gcd 3 # -> 1
.lcm(integer) # -> lcm

. , .
2.lcm 3 # -> 6
.gcdlcm(integer) # -> array

[
self.gcd(integer), self.lcm(integer) ]
2.gcdlcm 3 # -> [ 1, 6 ]
6.2.4.
.even? # -> bool
.
0.even? # -> true
1.even? # -> false
2.even? # -> true
.odd? # -> bool

.
0.odd? # -> false
1.odd? # -> true
2.odd? # -> false
6.3. (Float)
63
6.2.5.
.upto(limit) { |integer| } # -> self
() +1.
.downto(limit) { |integer| } # -> self
() -1.
.times { |integer| } # -> self
0...self.
6.2.6.
.chr( encode = binary) # -> string
. RangeError.
42.chr # -> "*"
.hash # -> integer [Fixnum Bignum]

.
1.hash # -> -861462684
.size # -> integer [Fixnum Bignum]

, .
1.size # -> 4
6.3. (Float)
Ruby .
:
Float::ROUNDS - ;
Float::RADIX - ;
Float::MANT_DIG - ;
Float::DIG - ;
Float::MIN_EXP - 10;
Float::MAX_EXP - ;
Float::MIN_10_EXP - ;
Float::MAX_10_EXP - ;
Float::MIN - ;
Float::MAX - ;
Float::EPSILON - , ,
1.0;
64
6.3. (Float)
Float::INFINITY - ;
Float::NAN -
0.0 / 0.0.
6.3.1.
.to_f # -> float
.to_i # -> integer
.
2.1.to_i # -> 2
.to_r # -> rational

.
2.1.to_r # -> ( 4728779608739021 / 2251799813685248 )
.rationalize( number = Flt::EPSILON ) # -> rational

,
( self number.abs ) <= rational and rational <= ( self + number.abs )
2.1.rationalize # -> (21/10)
.to_s # -> string

.
"+Infinity" "-Infinity".
2.1.to_s # -> "2.1"
6.3.2.
.*(number) # -> result .
./(number) # -> result .
.**(number) # -> result .
.+(number) # -> result .
.-(number) # -> result .
"NaN",
6.4. (Rational)
65
6.3.3.
.finite? # -> bool
.
2.1.finite? # -> true
.infinite? # -> -1, nil, 1

.
, , , nil.
2.1.infinite? # -> nil
.nan? # -> bool

Float::NAN.
2.1.nan? # -> false
6.3.4.
.hash # -> integer
.
2.1.hash # -> 569222191
6.4. (Rational)
- , (a/b), a , b - .
.
.
.Rational( nom, denom = 1 ) # -> rational [Kernel]
(nom/denom).
Rational 2, 3 # -> (2/3)
Rational "2/3" # -> (2/3)
Rational 8, 3 # -> (8/3)
Rational 2.1, 3 # -> (4728779608739021/6755399441055744)
6.4.1.
.to_r # -> rational
.inspect # -> string
.
Rational( 2, 3 ).inspect # -> "(2/3)"
6.5. (Complex)
66
.to_s # -> string

.
Rational( 2, 3 ).to_s # -> "2/3"
.to_f # -> float

.
Rational( 2, 3 ).to_f # -> 0.6666666666666666
.to_i # -> integer

.
Rational( 2, 3 ).to_i # -> 0
6.4.2.
.*(number) # -> result .
.**(number) # -> result .
.+(number) # -> result .
.-(number) # -> result .
./(number) # -> result
: quo
.
6.4.3.
,
self number.abs <= rational && rational <= self + number.abs
6.5. (Complex)
- (a+b*i),
a b - , i - .
Numeric ( , , %, number.div, number.divmod,
number.remainder, number.step).
:
Complex::I - .
6.5. (Complex)
67
.Complex( real, imag = 0 ) # -> complex [Kernel]

.
Complex 2, 3 # -> (2+3i)
Complex "2/3" # -> ((2/3)+0i)
Complex 8, 3 # -> (8+3i)
Complex 2.1, 3 # -> (2.1+3i)
Complex ?i # -> (0+1i)
::polar( magnitude, angle = 0.0 ) # -> complex

.
Complex.polar 2, 3 # -> (-1.9799849932008908+0.2822400161197344i)
::rect( real, imag = nil ) # -> complex

: rectangular
.
Complex.rect 2, 3 # -> (2+3i)
6.5.1.
.
Complex( 2, 3 ).inspect # -> "(2+3i)"
.to_s # -> string

.
Complex( 2, 3 ).to_s # -> "2+3i"
.to_f # -> float

, .
Complex( 2, 3 ).to_f # -> error!
.to_i # -> integer

, .
Complex( 2, 3 ).to_i # -> error!
.to_r # -> rational

, .
Complex( 2, 3 ).to_r # -> error!
6.5. (Complex)
68

, . .
Complex(3).rationalize true # -> (3/1)
6.5.2.
.*(number) # -> result
.
Complex( 2, 3 ) * 2 # -> (4+6i)
./(number) # -> result

: quo
.
Complex( 2, 3 ) / 2 # -> ((1/1)+(3/2)*i)
.**(number) # -> result

.
Complex(2, 3)**2 # -> (-5+12i)
.+(number) # -> result

.
Complex( 2, 3 ) + 2 # -> (4+3i)
.-(number) # -> result

.
Complex( 2, 3 ) - 2 # -> (0+3i)
.- # -> result
.
-Complex( 2, 3 ) # -> (-2-3i)
6.5.3.
.abs2 # -> number
.
Complex( 2, 3 ).abs2 # # -> 13
.numerator # -> complex

.
Complex( 2, 3 ).numerator # -> (2+3i)
.denominator # -> complex

( ).
Complex( 2, 3 ).denominator # -> 1
6.6. Math
69
.fdiv(number) # -> complex

.
Complex( 2, 3 ).fdiv 2 # -> (1.0+1.5i)
.abs # -> number

: magnitude
.
Complex( 2, 3 ).abs # -> 3.605551275463989
.arg # -> float

: angle, phase
.
Complex( 2, 3 ).arg # -> 0.982793723247329
.real # -> number

.
Complex( 2, 3 ).real # -> 2
.imag # -> number

: imaginary
.
Complex( 2, 3 ).imag # -> 3
.rect # -> float

: rectangular
.
Complex( 2, 3 ).rect # -> [2, 3]
.conj # -> complex

: conjugate
.
Complex( 2, 3 ).conj # -> (2-3i)
6.6. Math
. ( Math),
( , Math).
, . .
6.6. Math
:
Math::PI - ();
Math::E - e.
.acos(number) # -> float .
.acosh(number) # -> float .
.asin(number) # -> float .
.asinh(number) # -> float .
.atan(number) # -> float .
.atan2( first_number, second_number ) # -> float .
.atanh(number) # -> float .
.cbrt(number) # -> float .
.cos(number) # -> float ( ).
.cosh(number) # -> float ( ).
.erf(number) # -> float .
.erfc(number) # -> float .
.exp(number) # -> float e .
.frexp(number) # -> array
[
float
float, integer],
* 2**integer == number.
.gamma(number) # -> float .

.hypot( first_number, second_number ) # -> float .
.ldexp( float, integer ) # -> float
float
* 2**integer.
.lgamma(number) # -> array

[ Math.log( Math.gamma(number).abs), Math.gamma(number) < 0 ? -1: 1 ].
70
6.6. Math
.log( number, base = Math::E ) # -> float

.log10(number) # -> float .
.log2(number) # -> float 2.
.sin(number) # -> float ( ).
.sinh(number) # -> float ( ).
.sqrt(number) # -> float .
.tan(number) # -> float ( ).
.tanh(number) # -> float ( ).
71
7.1. (String)
: Comparable
,
. , , .
::new( string = ) # -> string
.
String.new # -> ""
7.1.1.
::try_convert(object) # -> string
.to_str. , nil.
String.try_convert [1] # -> nil
.to_s # -> string

: to_str
.to_sym # -> sym
.
"abc".to_sym # -> :abc
"123a".to_sym # -> :"123a"
.to_i( numeral_system = 10 ) # -> integer

. , .
, 0.
7.1. (String)
73
"1".to_i # -> 1
"1a".to_i # -> 1
"1x".to_i # -> 1
"1.2".to_i # -> 1
"4/2".to_i # -> 4
"1 + 2".to_i # -> 1
"1
2".to_i # -> 1
"1e2".to_i # -> 1
"1_2".to_i # -> 12
"0b01 ax".to_i # -> 0
"0x01 ax".to_i # -> 0
"1+1i".to_i # -> 1
.to_r # -> rational

.
, .
, (0/1).
"1".to_r # -> 1/1
"1a".to_r # -> 1/1
"1x".to_r # -> 1/1
"1.2".to_r # -> 6/5
"4/2".to_r # -> 2/1
"1 + 2".to_r # -> 1/1
"1
2".to_r # -> 1/1
"1e2".to_r # -> 100/1

"1_2".to_r # -> 12/1
"0b01 ax".to_r # -> 0/1
"0x01 ax".to_r # -> 0/1
"1+1i".to_r # -> 1/1
.to_f # -> float

.
, .
, 0.0.
7.1. (String)
74
"1".to_f # -> 1.0

"1a".to_f # -> 1.0
"1x".to_f # -> 1.0
"1.2".to_f # -> 1.2
"4/2".to_f # -> 4.0
"1 + 2".to_f # -> 1.0
"1
2".to_f # -> 1.0
"1e2".to_f # -> 100.0

"1_2".to_f # -> 12.0
"0b01 ax".to_f # -> 0.0
"0x01 ax".to_f # -> 0.0
"1+1i".to_f # -> 1.0
.to_c # -> complex

.
, .
, (0+0i).
"1".to_c # -> 1+0i
"1a".to_c # -> 1+0i
"1x".to_c # -> 1+0i
"1.2".to_c # -> 1.2+0i
"4/2".to_c # -> 2/1+0i
"1 + 2".to_c # -> 1+0i
"1
2".to_c # -> 1+0i
"1e2".to_c # -> 100.0 + 0i

"1_2".to_c # -> 12+0i
"0b01 ax".to_c # -> 0+0i
"0x01 ax".to_c # -> 0+0i
"1+1i".to_c # -> 1+1i
.hex # -> integer

.
, . , 0.
7.1. (String)
75
"1".hex # -> 1
"1a".hex # -> 26
"1x".hex# -> 1
"1.2".hex # -> 1
"4/2".hex # -> 4
"1 + 2".hex # -> 1
"1
2".hex # -> 1
"1e2".hex # -> 482

"1_2".hex # -> 18
"0b01 ax".hex # -> 2817
"0x01 ax".hex # -> 1
"1+1i".hex # -> 1
.oct # -> integer

. , .
, 0.
"1".oct # -> 1
"1a".oct # -> 1
"1x".oct # -> 1
"1.2".oct # -> 1
"4/2".oct # -> 4
"1 + 2".oct # -> 1
"1
2".oct # -> 1
"1e2".oct # -> 1
"1_2".oct # -> 10
"0b01 ax".oct # -> 1
"0x01 ax".oct # -> 1
"1+1i".oct # -> 1
7.1.2.
, .
String [] []=, . .
, , -1.
string.[*object]
: slice(*object)
.[index] # -> string
. , nil.
7.1. (String)
76
"abc"[2] # -> "c"

"abc"[4] # -> nil
.[start, length] # -> string

.
,
;
, ("");
, nil;
, ("");
"abc"[ 2, 1 ] # -> "c"
"abc"[ 2, 2 ] # -> "c"
"abc"[ 2, 0 ] # -> ""
"abc"[ 2, -1 ] # -> nil
"abc"[ 3, 1 ] # -> ""
.[range] # -> string

.
,
;
, ,
("");
, nil.
"abc"[ 1..3 ] # -> "bc"
"abc"[ 1...3 ] # -> "bc"
"abc"[ 1...5 ] # -> "bc"
"abc"[ 1...0 ] # -> ""
"abc"[ 5...9 ] # -> nil
.[template] # -> string

, . , nil.
"abc"[ /[b-z]+/ ] # -> "bc"
"abc"[ /b-z+/ ] # -> nil
.[reg, group] # -> string

,
. , nil.
"abc"[ /(b)c/, 1 ] # -> "b"
"abc"[ /(b)c/, 3 ] # -> nil
7.1. (String)
77
string.[*object]=
, . .
.[index]=(string) # -> string
. .
"abc"[2] = "d" # -> "d"
"abc"[4] = "d"
# -> error!
.[start, length]=(string) # -> string

.
;
, ;
, ;
.
"abc"[ 4, 1 ] = "d" # -> error!
"abc"[ 3, 1 ] = "d" # -> "d"
string # -> "abdc"
"abc"[ 2, 1 ] = "d" # -> "d"
string # -> "abd"
"abc"[ 2, 2 ] = "d" # -> "d"
string # -> "abd"
"abc"[ 2, 0 ] = "d" # -> "d"
string # -> "abdc"
"abc"[ 2, -1 ] = "d" # -> error!
.[range]=(string) # -> string

.
,
;
, ,
, ;
.
7.1. (String)
78
"abc"[ 1...2 ] = "d" # -> "d"

string # -> "adc"
"abc"[1...5] = "d" # -> "d"
string # -> "ad"
"abc"[ 1...0 ] = "d" # -> "d"
string # -> "adbc"
"abc"[ 5...9 ] = "d" # -> error!
.[template]=(string) # -> string

, .
.
"abc"[ /[b-z]+/ ] = "d" # -> "d"
string # -> "ad"
"abc"[ /b-z+/ ] = "d" # -> error!
.[reg, group]=(string) # -> string

,
. .
"abc"[ /(b)c/, 1 ] = "d" # -> "d"
a # -> "adc"
"abc"[ /(b)c/, 3 ] = "d" # -> error!
.binslice(start, length = nil) # -> string

(range) # -> string
. .
.length # -> integer : size
.
"abc".length # -> 3
.bytesize # -> integer

, .
"abc".bytesize # -> 3
.getbyte(index) # -> integer

. ,
nil.
"abc".getbyte 0 # -> 97
7.1. (String)
79
.setbyte(index, byte) # -> integer

. .
"abc".setbyte 0, 120 # -> 120
string # -> "xbc"
7.1.3.
.%(object) # -> string .
.*(integer) # -> string .
.+(string) # -> text .
.(string) # -> text
: concat
.
.<=>(object) .
.=~(template) # -> integer
. , . , nil.
, object =~ string .
7.1.4.

.capitalize # -> string
,
- . ASCII .
"aBc".capitalize # -> "Abc"
.capitalize! # -> self

, .
.upcase # -> string
.
ASCII .
"aBc".upcase # -> "ABC"
7.1. (String)
80
.upcase! # -> self

, .
.downcase # -> string
.
ASCII .
"aBc".downcase # -> "abc"
.downcase! # -> self

, .
.swapcase # -> string
.
ASCII .
"aBc".swapcase # -> "AbC"
.swapcase! # -> self

, .

.clear # -> self
. .
"abc".clear # -> ""
.slice!(*object) # -> string

. , []=. .
"abc".slice! 2 # -> "c"
string # -> "ab"
.chomp( last = $/ ) # -> string

( - ). "abc".chomp ?c # -> "ab"
.chomp!( string = $/ ) # -> self
, .
, nil.
.chop # -> string
.
"abc".chop # -> "ab"
.chop! # -> self

, .
, nil.
7.1. (String)
81
.strip # -> string

(, , ) .
" abc ".strip # -> "abc"
.strip! # -> self

, .
, nil.
.lstrip # -> string
(, , ) .
" abc ".lstrip # -> "abc "
.lstrip! # -> self

, .
, nil.
.rstrip # -> string
(, , ) .
" abc ".rstrip # -> " abc"
.rstrip! # -> self

, .
, nil.

.insert(index, string) # -> self
.
"abc".insert 2, ?d # -> "abdc"
string # -> "abdc"
.prepend(string) # -> self

. .
"Ruby".prepend "Pure " # -> "Pure Ruby"
.center( length, string = ~ ) # -> text

( length). ,
, .
"abc".center 6, ?! # -> "!abc!!"
7.1. (String)
82
.ljust( length, string = ~ ) # -> text

( length). ,
, .
"abc".ljust 6, ?! # -> "abc!!!"
.rjust( length, string = ~ ) # -> text

( length). ,
, .
"abc".rjust 6, ?! # -> "!!!abc"

.dump # -> string
. . , ASCII .
"3\\n/2".dump # -> "\"3\\\\n/2\""
"3\\n/2".dump # -> "\"3\\\\n/2\\u{43b}\""

. .
"3\verb!\n!/2".inspect # -> "\"3\\verb!\\n!/2\""
"3\verb!\n!/2".inspect # -> "\"3\\verb!\\n!/2\""
.next # -> string

: succ
. .
"xyz".next # -> "xza"
.next! # -> self

: succ!
, .
.reverse # -> string
.
"abc".reverse # -> "cba"
7.1. (String)
83
.reverse! # -> self

, .
.replace(string) # -> self
: initialize_copy
.
"abc".replace ?? # -> "?"
.unpack(string) # -> array

.
"\xFF\xFE\xFD".unpack "C*" # -> [ 255, 254, 253 ]
7.1.5.
.count(*template) # -> integer

.
^ () - ().
, .
"abc".count "a-z", "^c" # -> 2
.index( template, start = 0 ) # -> integer

, .
, nil.
"abbc".index /b/ # -> 1
.rindex( template, start = 0 ) # -> integer

,
(start).
, nil.
"abbc".rindex /b/ # -> 2
.match( template, start = 0 ) # -> match

( template, start = 0 ) { |match| } # -> object
. , nil.
.partition(template) # -> array
: ,
, .
,
, - ().
"abbc".partition /b/ # -> ["a", "b", "bc"]
7.1. (String)
84
.rpartition(template) # -> array

.
"abbc".rpartition /b/ # -> ["ab", "b", "c"]
.split( sep = $;, size = nil ) # -> array

( ). .
,
.
"a
c".split # -> [ "a", "b", "c" ]
"a
c".split // # -> [ "a", " ", " ", "b", " ", " ", "c" ]
"a
c".split //, 2 # -> [ "a", "
c" ]

.delete(*template) # -> string
. ^ () - ().
, .
"abc".delete "a-z", "^A-Z" # -> ""
.delete!(*template) # -> self

, .
, nil.
.squeeze(*template) # -> string
. ^ () - ().
, .
"aabbcc".squeeze "a-z", "^A-Z" # -> "abc"
.squeeze!(*template) # -> self

, .
, nil.

.gsub( template, replace ) # -> string
(template) { |match| } # -> string
. ,
85
7.1. (String)
, (
'\K <>' )
'\1'
"abcab".gsub /(a)b/, '\1' # -> "aca"

"abcab".gsub /(a)b/, 'ab' => ?y
# -> "ycy"
"abcab".gsub( /(a)b/ ) { |match| match.next } # -> "accac"
.gsub!( template, replace ) # -> self

(template) { |match| } # -> self
, .
, nil.
.sub( template, replace ) # -> string
(template) { |match| } # -> string
.
"abcab".sub /(a)b/, '\1'
# -> "acab"
"abcab".sub /(a)b/, 'ab' => ?y # -> "ycab"

"abcab".sub( /(a)b/ ) { |match| match.next } # -> "accab"
.sub!( template, replace ) # -> self

(template) { |match| } # -> self
, .
, nil.
.tr( template, replace ) # -> string
. ^ () - (),
-.
"abc".tr "^x-z", "X-Z" # -> "ZZZ"
.tr!( template, replace ) # -> self

, .
, nil.
.tr_s( template, replace ) # -> string
, .
"aabbcc".tr_s "^x-z", "X-Z" # -> "Z"
.tr_s!( template, replace ) # -> self

, .
, nil.
7.1. (String)
86
7.1.6.
.empty? # -> bool
("").
"abc".empty? # -> false
.ascii_only? # -> bool

ASCII .
"Helo".ascii_only? # -> false
.include?(template) # -> bool

.
"abc".include? "ab" # -> true
.end_with?(*template) # -> bool

. ,
.
"abc".end_with? "a", "c" # -> true
.start_with?(*template) # -> bool

. ,
.
"abc".start_with? "a", "c" # -> true
7.1.7.
.each_byte { |byte| } # -> self
: bytes
.
Ruby .bytes .
.each_char { |char| } # -> self : chars
.
Ruby .chars .
.each_line( sep = $/ ) { |line| } # -> self : lines
. (
- ).
Ruby .lines .
.each_codepoint { |point| } # -> self : codepoints
.
Ruby .codepoints .
.upto( last, ending = false ) { |string| } # -> self
self..last,
self...last ( true).
7.1. (String)
87
7.1.8.
.valid_encoding? # -> bool
.
.encoding # -> encoding
.
"".encoding # ->
#<Encoding:UTF-8>
.force_encoding(encoding) # -> self

.
.encode( encoding = Encoding.default_internal, options = {} ) # -> string
( encoding, result, options = {} ) # -> string
. .
.encode!( encoding = Encoding.default_internal, options = {} ) # -> self
( encoding, result, options = {} ) # -> self
, .
.b # -> copy_string [Ruby 2.0]
ASCII.
7.1.9.
.ord # -> integer
. .
"abc".ord # -> 97
.crypt(salt) # -> string

.
/[\w\d./]{2,2}/.
"abc".crypt "z1" # -> "z1Pgo5xjkEf8U"
.sum( salt = 16 ) # -> integer

. (
) % 2**salt - 1.
"abc".sum # -> 294
.hash # -> integer

.
"abc".hash # -> -913021130
.casecmp(object)
(<=>). .
7.2.
88
7.2.
7.2.1. Regexp
Regexp::IGNORECASE - ( i);
Regexp::EXTENDED -
( x);
Regexp::MULTILINE - ( m);
Regexp::FIXEDENCODING - .
::new( template, object = nil ) # -> regexp
: compile
. :
, ;
?n ?N, ASCII .
Regexp.new "abc", 2 # -> /abc/x
::union( *template array = nil ) # -> regexp

( ). /!?/.
Regexp.union [ ?0, ?1, ?2 ] # -> /0|1|2/

::try_convert(object) # -> regexp
.to_regexp.
, nil.
Regexp.try_convert "abc" # -> nil
.to_s # -> string

, .
/(a-z)/i.to_s # -> "(?i-mx:(a-z))"

, .
/(a-z)/i.inspect # -> "/(a-z)/i"
.source # -> string

, c .
/(a-z)/i.source # -> "(a-z)"
7.2.
89
.===(string) # -> bool .

.=~(string) # -> integer .
.~(regexp) # -> integer
($_).

::last_match # -> match
(group) # -> string
. ,
nil.
.match( text, start = 0 ) # -> match
( text, start = 0 ) { |match| } # -> object
. , nil.

.
/(a-z)/i.encoding # -> #<Encoding:US-ASCII>
.fixed_encoding? # -> bool

, ASCII.
/(a-z)/i.fixed_encoding? # -> false
.casefold? # -> bool

( i).
/(a-z)/i.casefold? # -> true
.named_captures # -> hash

, .
/(?<group>a-z)/i.named_captures # -> { "group" => [1] }
.names # -> array

.
/(?<group>a-z)/i.names # -> ["group"]
90
7.2.
.options # -> integer

.
/(a-z)/i.options # -> 1
.hash # -> integer

.
/(a-z)/i.hash # -> -145911848
::escape(text) # -> string

: quote
.
Regexp.new( Regexp.escape string ) =~
string # -> 0
Regexp.escape "'\*?{}.'" # -> "'\\*\\?\\{\\}\\.'"
7.2.2. MatchData
.

.to_s # -> string
.
, .
.to_a # -> array
.
.[index] # -> string

(
- 0).
.[first, last] # -> array
, . ,
.
.[range] # -> array
, . ,
.
7.2.
91
.[name] # -> string

, .
.captures # -> array
, .
.offset(group) # -> array
,
.
.begin(group) # -> integer
, .
.end(group) # -> integer
, .
.pre_match # -> string
.
.post_match # -> string
.
.regexp # -> regexp

, .
.string # -> string
, .
.size # -> integer
: length
( ).
.names # -> array
, .
.hash # -> integer
.
7.3.
92
7.3.
7.3.1. (Encoding)
.
.
Encoding::UTF_8 # -> #<Encoding:UTF-8>

::default_external # -> encoding
, .
::default_external=(encoding) # -> encoding
, .
::default_internal # -> encoding
f, .
::default_internal=(encoding) # -> encoding
, . nil.
::locale_charmap # -> string
.
::list # -> array
.
::name_list # -> array
.
::aliases # -> hash
, .
::find(aliases) # -> encoding
, . (
nil).
:
external - ;
internal - ; locale - ; filesystem - .
7.3.
93
::compatible?( first_string, second_string ) # -> encoding

.
, , .
nil.
Encoding.compatible? "", "utf-8" # -> #<Encoding:UTF-8>

.
Encoding::UTF_8.inspect # -> "#<Encoding:UTF-8>"
.name # -> string

: to_s
.
Encoding::UTF_8.name # -> "UTF-8"
.names # -> array

.
Encoding::UTF_8.names
# -> ["UTF-8", "CP65001", "locale", "external", "filesystem"]
.ascii_compatible? # -> bool

ASCII.
Encoding::UTF_8.ascii_compatible? # -> true
.dummy? # -> ruby

.
.
.
Encoding::UTF_8.dummy? # -> false
.replicate(name) # -> encoding

. .
Encoding::UTF_8.replicate "8" # -> #<Encoding:8>
7.3.2. (Encoding::Converter)
7.3.
94
:
::INVALID_MASK - ;
::INVALID_REPLACE - ;
::UNDEF_MASK - ;
::UNDEF_REPLACE - ;
::UNDEF_HEX_CHARREF -
&xHH;
::UNIVERSAL_NEWLINE_DECORATOR - CR (\r) CRLF (\r\n)
LF (\n);
::CRLF_NEWLINE_DECORATOR - LF (\n) CRLF (\r\n);
::CR_NEWLINE_DECORATOR - LF (\n) CR (\r);
::XML_TEXT_DECORATOR
::XML_ATTR_CONTENT_DECORATOR
::XML_ATTR_QUOTE_DECORATOR
::PARTIAL_INPUT - ;
::AFTER_OUTPUT - .
::new( source_enc, dest_enc, options = nil ) # -> converter
(conv_path) # -> converter
. . .
. .

::asciicompat_encoding(encoding) # -> encoding
, ASCII.
, nil.
Encoding::Converter.asciicompat_encoding "utf-8" # -> nil
Encoding::Converter.asciicompat_encoding "utf-16le"
# -> #<Encoding:UTF-8>
::search_convpath( source_enc, dest_enc, options = nil ) # -> array

.
Encoding::Converter.search_convpath "ISO-8859-1", "EUC-JP",
universal_newline: true
# -> [ [ #<Encoding:ISO-8859-1>, #<Encoding:UTF-8> ],
#
[ #<Encoding:UTF-8>, #<Encoding:EUC-JP> ],
"universal_newline" ]
7.3.
95

.
Encoding::Converter.new( "ISO-8859-1", "EUC-JP" ).inspect
# -> "#<Encoding::Converter: ISO-8859-1 to EUC-JP>"
.convpath # -> array

.
Encoding::Converter.new( "ISO-8859-1", "EUC-JP" ).convpath
# -> [ [ #<Encoding:ISO-8859-1>, #<Encoding:UTF-8> ],
#
[ #<Encoding:UTF-8>, #<Encoding:EUC-JP> ] ]
.source_encoding # -> encoding

.
Encoding::Converter.new("ISO-8859-1",
"EUC-JP").source_encoding
# -> #<Encoding:ISO-8859-1>
.destination_encoding # -> encoding

.
Encoding::Converter.new("ISO-8859-1",
"EUC-JP").destination_encoding
# -> #<Encoding:EUC-JP>
.replacement # -> string

.
Encoding::Converter.new( "ISO-8859-1", "EUC-JP" ).replacement
# -> "?"
.replacement=(string) # -> string

,
.
.last_error # -> error
.
7.3.
96
.convert(text) # -> string

.
.
.primitive_convert( text, result, start = nil, bytesize = nil, options = nil )# > symbol
.
, ( ).
:
partial_input: true , ;
after_output: true , ,
.

( ):
(:invalid_byte_sequence);
.
, :partial_input (:incomplete_input);
(:undefined_conversion);
.
, :after_output (:after_output);
.
, bytesize nil (:destination_buffer_full);
.
, :partial_input (:source_buffer_empty);
(:finished).
.primitive_errinfo # -> array
:
[ symbol, source_enc, dest_enc, ivalid_byte, undef_char ],
symbol - .primitive_convert.
:invalid_byte_sequence,
:incomplete_input :undefined_conversion.
.putback # -> string
,
.primitive_convert.
7.3.
97
.insert_output(string) # -> nil

, .
, , .
.
.finish # -> string
.

: Enumerable
8.1. Array ( )
::new( size = 0, object = nil ) # -> array
(array) # -> array
(size) { |index| } # -> array
.
.
Array.new 3, ?R # -> ["R", "R", "R"]
Array.new [1, 2] # -> [1, 2]
Array.new(3) { |index| index**2 } # -> [0, 1, 4]
::[*object] # -> array

.
Array[1, 2, 3] # -> [1, 2, 3]
8.1.1.
.to_a # -> array
: to_ary
::try_convert(object) # -> array

object.to_ary. , nil.
Array.try_convert 1 # -> nil
.to_s # -> string

: inspect
.
[ 1, 2, 3 ].to_s # -> "[1, 2, 3]"
.join( sep = $, ) # -> string

(join - , .), ( nil).
8.1. Array ( )
99
[1, 2, 3].join # -> "123"

[
"#{msg}",
"Class: <#{e.class}>",
"Message: <#{e.message.inspect}>",
"---Backtrace---",
"#{MiniTest::filter_backtrace(e.backtrace).join("\n")}",
"---------------",
].join "\n"
.pack(format) # -> string

, apppack.
[-1, -2, -3].pack "C*" # -> "\xFF\xFE\xFD"
8.1.2.
[] []=. . , , -1.
- ,
.
array.[*object]
: slice(*object)
.[index] # -> object
: at
. , nil.
[1, 2, 3][2] # -> 3
[1, 2, 3][4] # -> nil
.[start, size] # -> array

.
,
;
,
([]);
, nil;
, .
8.1. Array ( )
100
[1, 2, 3][2, 1] # -> [3]

[1, 2, 3][2, 2] # -> [3]
[1, 2, 3][2, 0] # -> [ ]
[1, 2, 3][2, -1] # -> nil
[1, 2, 3][3, 1] # -> [ ]
.[range] # -> object

.
,
;
, ,
;
, nil.
[1, 2, 3][1...3] # -> [2, 3]
[1, 2, 3][1...5] # -> [2, 3]
[1, 2, 3][1...0] # -> [ ]
[1, 2, 3][5...9] # -> nil
array.[*object]=
. .
. nil.
.
.[index]=(object) # -> object
.
[1, 2, 3][2] = "d" # -> "d"
array # -> [1, 2, "d"]
[1, 2, 3][4] = "d"
# -> "d"
array # -> [1, 2, 3, "d"]
.[start, size]=(object) # -> object

.
, .
.
8.1. Array ( )
101
[1, 2, 3][4, 1] = "d" # -> "d"

array # -> [1, 2, 3, nil, "d"]
[1, 2, 3][3, 1] = "d" # -> "d"
array # -> [1, 2, 3, "d"]
[1, 2, 3][2, 1] = "d" # -> "d"
array # -> [1, 2, "d"]
[1, 2, 3][2, 2] = "d" # -> "d"
array # -> [1, 2, "d"]
[1, 2, 3][2, 0] = "d" # -> "d"
array # -> [1, 2, "d", 3]
[1, 2, 3][2, -1] = "d" # -> error!
.[range]=(object) # -> object

.
, , , .
[1, 2, 3][1...2] = "d" # -> "d"
array # ->[1, "d", 3]
[1, 2, 3][1...5] = "d"# -> "d"
array # -> [1, "d"]
[1, 2, 3][1...0] = "d"# -> "d"
array # -> [1, "d", 2, 3]
[1, 2, 3][5...9] = "d"# -> "d"
array # -> [1, 2, 3, nil, nil, "d"]
:
.fetch(index, object) # -> object2
(index) { |index| } # -> object
array[index]. .
[ 1, 2, 3 ].fetch 3, 4 # -> 4
.values_at(*object) # -> array

array[*object] .
[ 1, 2, 3 ].values_at 1, 1 # -> [ 2, 2 ]
8.1. Array ( )
102
.sample( size = nil ) # -> object

( size = nil, random: a_random ) # -> object [Ruby 2.0]
(
). nil . , .
[ 1, 2, 3 ].sample 4 # -> [ 2, 1, 3 ]
(Ruby 2.0).
.last(size = 1) # -> object
.
[ 1, 2, 3 ].last 2 # -> [ 2, 3 ]
.index(object) # -> integer

{ |object| } # -> integer
, .
[ 1, 2, 3 ].index { |elem| elem < 3 } # -> 0
.rindex(object) # -> integer

, .
[ 1, 2, 3 ].rindex { |elem| elem < 3 } # -> 1
8.1.3.
.*(integer) # -> array .
.*(sep) # -> string
.
[1, 2, 3] * ?? # -> "1?2?3"
.+(array) # -> new_array .

.-(array) # -> new_array .
.(object) # -> self . .
.&(array) # -> new_array .
.|(array) # -> array .
8.1. Array ( )
103
8.1.4.
.concat(array) # -> self
. .
[ "a", "b" ].concat [ "c", "d" ] # -> [ "a", "b", "c", "d" ]
a = [ 1, 2, 3 ]
a.concat [ 4, 5 ]
a # -> [ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ]

- , ,

. LIFO - ,
, .
Ruby .
.push(*object) # -> self
(
).
a = %w[ a b c ]
a.push 'd', 'e', 'f' # -> [ 'a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f' ]
[ 1, 2, 3 ].push(4).push(5) # -> [ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ]
.pop( size = 1 ) # -> object || array

(
). , nil.
a = %w[ a b c d ]
a.pop
# -> 'd'
a.pop 2 # -> [ 'b', 'c' ]

a
# -> ['a']
.unshift(*object) # -> self

(
).
a = %w[ b c d ]
a.unshift 'a'
# -> [ 'a', 'b', 'c', 'd' ]
a.unshift 1, 2 # -> [ 1, 2, 'a', 'b', 'c', 'd' ]
8.1. Array ( )
104
.shift( size = 1 ) # -> object || array

(
). , nil.
args = %w[ -m -q filename ]
args.shift
# -> '-m'
args
# -> [ '-q', 'filename' ]
args = %w[ -m -q filename ]

args.shift 2
args
# -> [ '-m', '-q' ]

# -> [ 'filename' ]

.clear # -> self
. .
[ 1, 2, 3 ].clear # -> [ ]
.compact # -> array

, nil.
[ 1, 2, 3 ].compact # -> [ 1, 2, 3 ]
.compact! # -> self

, .
.uniq # -> array
.
[ 1, 2, 3, 3, 2, 1 ].uniq # -> [ 1, 2, 3 ]
.uniq! # -> self

, .
, nil.
.slice!(*object) # -> delete
self[*object].
[1, 2, 3].slice! 1, 1 # -> [2]
.delete(object) # -> removed_object

(object) { }
,
( ). , nil, .
8.1. Array ( )
105
[ 1, 2, 3 ].delete(4) { "error!" } # -> "error!"

[ 1, 2, 3, 1 ].delete 1 # -> 1
array # -> [ 2, 3 ]
array = [ 2, 3, 4 ]
[ 1, 2, 3 ].each { |elem| array.delete elem } # -> [ 1, 2, 3 ]
array # -> [4]
.delete_at(index) # -> delete

( ). , nil.
[1, 2, 3].delete_at 1 # -> 2
array # -> [1, 3]
.delete_if { |object| } # -> self

: reject!
( ). ,
nil.
[1, 2, 3].delete_if { |elem| elem < 3 } # -> [3]
.select! { |object| } # -> self

( ). ,
nil. [1, 2, 3].select! { |elem| elem < 3 } # -> [1, 2]

.replace(array) # -> self
: initialize_copy
.
[1, 2, 3].replace [ ] # -> [ ]
.insert( *(index, *object) ) # -> self

array[integer]
.
= *object -
[ 1, 2, 3 ].insert 1, 2, 3 # -> [ 1, 2, 3, 2, 3 ]
.fill( object, start = 0, size = self.size ) # -> self

( start = 0, size = self.size ) { |index| } # -> self
( object, range ) # -> self
(range) { |index| } # -> self
( ).
, .
[1, 2, 3].fill 1 # -> [1, 1, 1]
8.1. Array ( )
106
.flatten( deep = nil ) # -> array

. .
[ [[1]], [[2]], [[3]] ].flatten # -> [1, 2, 3]
.flatten!(deep) # -> self
.
.rotate( step = 1 ) # -> array
.
[1, 2, 3].rotate
# -> [2, 3, 1]
[1, 2, 3].rotate -1
# -> [3, 1, 2]
.rotate!( step = 1 ) # -> self , .
8.1.5.
.reverse # -> array
.
[1, 2, 3].reverse # -> [3, 2, 1]
.reverse! # -> self

, .
.shuffle # -> array
(random: a_random) # -> array [Ruby 2.0]
. (Ruby 2.0).
[ 1, 2, 3 ].shuffle # -> [ 2, 3, 1 ]
[ 1, 2, 3 ].shuffle random: Random.new(1) # -> [ 1, 3, 2 ]
.shuffle! # -> self

(random: a_random) # -> self [Ruby 2.0]
, .
.sort! # -> self
{ |object, object2| } # -> self
8.1. Array ( )
107
( ). <=>,
.
.sort_by! { |object, object2| } # -> self
( ) .
8.1.6.
.each { |object| } # -> self .
.each_index { |index| } # -> self .
.collect! { |object| } # -> self
: map!
(
). .
[1, 2, 3].collect! { |elem| elem + 1 } # -> [2, 3, 4]
[1, 2, 3].collect! &:to_s # -> ["1", "2", "3"]
.combination(size) { |array| } # -> self

.
.
, [[]];
, , .
.repeated_combination(size) { |array| } # -> self
, .
.permutation( size = self.size ) { |array| } # -> self
, .
.repeated_permutation( size = self.size ) { |array| } # -> self
, .
8.1. Array ( )
108
8.1.7.
.assoc(key) # -> array
,
. , nil.
[ [:a, 1], [:b, 2], [:a, 3] ].assoc :a # -> [:a, 1]
.rassoc(object) # -> array

,
. , nil.
[ [:a, 1], [:b, 2], [:a, 3] ].rassoc :a # -> nil
.transpose # -> array

. , . , - .
[ [:a, 1], [:b, 1] ].transpose # -> [ [:a, :b], [1, 1] ]
8.1.8.
.product(*array) # -> array2
(*array) { |part| } # -> array3
self.size,
. .
.
, ;
,
.
[1, 2].product [3] # -> [ [1, 3], [2, 3] ]
[1, 2, 3].product # -> [ [1], [2], [3] ]
[1, 2, 3].product [ ] # -> [ ]
.bsearch { |x| } # -> elem [Ruby 2.0]

( , ). , O(log
n), n - . , .
, . ()
.
8.1. Array ( )
109

. i, :
false ,
i.
true ,
i.
i. , nil.
ary = [0, 4, 7, 10, 12]
ary.bsearch {|x| x >=
4 } # -> 4
6 } # -> 7
-1 } # -> 0
ary.bsearch {|x| x >= 100 } # -> nil
( )

F(x) = 0.
. i j (i <= j), :

0...i.
i...j.

j...size.

i...j. i == j, .. , ,
nil.
ary = [0, 4, 7, 10, 12]
# 4...8
ary.bsearch {|x| 1 - x / 4 } # -> 4 7
# 8...10
ary.bsearch {|x| 4 - x / 2 } # -> nil
.hash # -> integer

.
[1, 2, 3].hash # -> -831861323
110
8.2. Hash ( )
.empty? # -> bool

.
[1, 2, 3].empty? # -> false
.size # -> integer

: length
. , .
[ 1, 2, 3 ].size # -> 3
8.2. Hash ( )
::new( object = nil ) # -> hash
{ |hash, key| } # -> hash
.
::[ key, object ] # -> hash
[ *[key,object] ] # -> hash
[object] # -> hash
.
Hash[:Ruby, "languages", :Ivan, "man"]
# -> { Ruby: "languages", Ivan: "man" }
Hash[ [ [:Ruby, "languages"], [:Ivan, "man"] ] ]
Hash[Ruby: "languages", Ivan: "man"]
8.2.1.
.to_hash # -> hash
.to_h # -> self [Ruby 2.0]
, . , .
::try_convert(object) # -> hash
,
, nil.
Hash.try_convert[1] # -> nil
object.to_hash.
8.2. Hash ( )
111
.to_s # -> string

: inspect
. .
{ a: ?a, "b" => '\n' }.to_s # -> "{:a=>\"a\", \"b\"=>\"\\\\n\"}"
.to_a # -> array

[ *[key, object] ].
.
{ a: ?a, "b" => '\n' }.to_a # -> [ [:a, "a"], ["b", "\\n"] ]
8.2.2.
.[key] # -> object
. , .
{ a: ?a, "b" => 1 }[:a] # -> "a"
.values_at(*key) # -> array

.
{ a: ?a, "b" => 1 }.values_at :a, :b, ?b # ->
["a", nil, 1]
.select { |key, object| } # -> hash

, .
{ a: ?a, "b" => 1 }.select { |key| key == ?b } # -> { "b"=>1 }
.key(object) # -> key

.
, nil.
{ a: ?a, "b" => 1 }.key ?a # -> :a
.keys # -> array

.
{ a: ?a, "b" => 1 }.keys # -> [:a, "b"]
.values # -> array

.
{ a: ?a, "b" => 1 }.values # -> [ "a", 1 ]
.[key]=(object) # -> object

: store
.
{ a: ?a, "b" => 1 }[:a] = 2 # -> 2
hash # -> { :a => 2, "b" => 1 }
8.2. Hash ( )
112
.fetch( key, default = nil ) # -> object

(key) { |key| } # -> object
. ,
.
{ a: ?a, "b" => 1 }.fetch :b, ?a # -> "a"
8.2.3.

.merge(hash) # -> hash2
(hash) { |key, self_value, arg_value| } # -> hash2
. .
{ a: ?a, "b" => 1 }.merge( { "b" => ?b } ) # -> { a: "a", "b" => "b" }
.merge!(hash) # -> self

(hash) { |key, self_value, arg_value| } # -> self
: update
, .

.clear # -> self
( ).
{ a: ?a, "b" => 1 }.clear # -> { }
.shift # -> array

( ).
[key, value].
{ a: ?a, "b" => 1 }.shift # -> [ :a, "a" ]
.delete(key) # -> object

(key) { |key| } # -> object
( ). . ,
.
{ a: ?a, "b" => 1 }.delete :a # -> "a"
hash # -> { "b"=>1 }
8.2. Hash ( )
113
.delete_if { |key, value| } # -> self

( ).
{ a: ?a, "b" => 1 }.delete_if { |key| key == ?b } # -> { a: "a" }
.reject { |key, value| } # -> hash

, .
{ a: ?a, "b" => 1 }.reject { |key| key == ?b } # -> { a: "a" }
.reject! { |key, value| } # -> self || nil

, .
, nil.
{ a: ?a, "b" => 1 }.reject! { |key| key == ?c } # -> nil
.keep_if { |key, value| } # -> self

( ).
{ a: ?a, "b" => 1 }.keep_if { |key| key == ?b } # -> { "b"=>1 }
.select! { |key, value| } # -> self

, nil,
.
{ a: ?a, "b" => 1 }.select! { |key| key == ?b } # -> { "b"=>1 }
.replace(hash) # -> self

: initialize_copy
.
{ a: ?a, "b" => 1 }.replace( { } ) # -> { }
.invert # -> hash

.
{ a: ?a, "b" => 1 }.invert # -> { "a" => :a, 1 => "b" }
8.2.4.
.has_key?(key)
: include?, key?, member?
.
{ a: ?a, "b" => 1 }.has_key? :a # -> true
.has_value?(object)
: value?
8.2. Hash ( )
114
.
{ a: ?a, "b" => 1 }.has_value? :a # -> false
.compare_by_identity? # -> bool

-.
.empty? # -> bool
.
{ a: ?a, "b" => 1 }.empty? # -> false
8.2.5.
.each { |key, value| } # -> self
: each_pair
.
.each_key { |key| } # -> self .
.each_value { |value| } # -> self .
8.2.6.
.assoc(key) # -> array
,
. , nil. ==.
{ a: ?a, "b" => 1 }.assoc :a # -> [:a, "a"]
.rassoc(object) # -> array

, .
{ a: ?a, "b" => 1 }.rassoc ?a # -> [:a, "a"]
.flatten( deep = 0 ) # -> array

, . .
{ 1 => "one", 2 => [ [2], ["two"] ], 3 => "three" }.flatten 3
# -> [1, "one", 2, 2, "two", 3, "three"]
8.2.7.
.compare_by_identity # -> self
.
8.3. Range ()
115
{ a: ?a, "b" => 1 }.compare_by_identity

# -> { :a => "a", "b" => 1 }
hash[:a] # -> "a"
hash["b"] # -> nil
hash[:b] # -> nil
hash.key 1 # -> "b"
.size # -> integer

: length
.
{ a: ?a, "b" => 1 }.size # -> 2
.default # -> object .

.default_proc # -> proc
, ( nil).
.default=(object) # -> object
.
.default_proc=(proc) # -> proc
, .
nil (Ruby 2.0).
.hash # -> integer
.
{ a: ?a, "b" => 1 }.hash # -> -3034512
.rehash # -> hash .
8.3. Range ()
. .
::new( first, last, include_last = false ) # -> range
.
.
Range.new 1, 5, 0 # -> 1...5
116
8.3. Range ()
8.3.1.
,
.
.inspect
(1..3).inspect # -> "1..3"
.to_s # -> string .

(1..3).to_s # -> "1..3"
8.3.2.
.begin # -> object
.
(1..3).begin # -> 1
.end # -> object

.
(1..3).end # -> 3
.last( size = nil ) # -> array

.
(1..3).last 2 # -> [ 2, 3 ]
8.3.3.
.===(object)
: cover?, member?, include?
. (1..3)
=== 2 # -> true
8.3.4.
.each { |object| } # -> self .succ.
.step( step = 1 ) { |object| } # -> self
, , .succ.
117
8.3. Range ()
8.3.5.
.exclude_end? # -> bool
.
(1..3).exclude_end? # -> false
.bsearch { |x| } # -> elem [Ruby 2.0]

( , ). , O(log
n), n - . ,
.
, .

. x, :
false x.
true , x.
x nil.
ary = [0, 4, 7, 10, 12]
(0...ary.size).bsearch { |i| ary[i] >= 4 } # -> 1
(0...ary.size).bsearch { |i| ary[i] >= 100 } # -> nil
(0.0...Float::INFINITY).bsearch { |x| Math.log(x) >= 0 } # -> 1.0
( )

F(x) = 0.
. x y (x <= y), :
x.
x...v.
y.

, , nil.
x...y.
8.4. Enumerator ()
118
ary = [0, 100, 100, 100, 200]

(0..4).bsearch { |i| 100 - ary[i] } # -> 1, 2 3
(0..4).bsearch { |i| 300 - ary[i] } # -> nil
(0..4).bsearch { |i|
50 - ary[i] } # -> nil
.hash # -> integer

. (1..3).hash
# -> -337569967
8.4. Enumerator ()
- , ,
.
.
, .
::new( object, method, *arg ) # -> enum
{ |enum| } # -> enum
.
.
enum << object ( yield).
.
Enumerator.new( [1, 2, ?R], :delete_at, 2 )
# -> #<Enumerator: [1, 2, "R"]:delete_at(2)>
Enumerator.new { |enum| enum << 3 }
# -> #<Enumerator: <Enumerator::Generator:0x87378e8>:each>
.enum_for( method = :each, *arg ) # -> enum

: to_enum
.
[1, 2, ?R].enum_for # -> #<Enumerator: [1, 2, "R"]:each>
Ruby ,
( ).
8.4. Enumerator ()
119
module Enumerable
# .
def repeat(n)
raise ArgumentError, "#{n} is negative!" if n < 0
if block_given?
each { |*val| n.times { yield *val } }
else
# __method__ == :repeat
enum_for( __method__, n ) { size * n if size }
end
end
end
enum = (1..14).repeat(3)
enum.first(4) # -> [1, 1, 1, 2]
enum.size # -> 42
8.4.1.
.
Enumerate.new( [1, 2, ?R], :delete_at, 2 ).inspect
# -> "#<Enumerator: [1, 2, \"R\"]:delete_at(2)>"
8.4.2.
.next # -> object
. StopIteration.
.next_values # -> array
, .
yield
yield nil.
.peek # -> object
. StopIteration.
.peek_values # -> array
, .
yield
yield nil.
.rewind # -> enum
.
8.4. Enumerator ()
120
8.4.3.
.each( start = 0 ) { |object| } # -> self .
.with_index( start = 0 ) { |object, index| } # -> self
.
.with_object(object) { |object2, object| } # -> object
.
8.4.4.
.feed( object = nil ) # -> nil
.
, yield nil.
.size # -> integer [Ruby 2.0]
.
, nil.
(1..100).to_a.permutation(4).size # -> 94109400
loop.size # -> Float::INFINITY
(1..100).drop_while.size # -> nil
8.4.5. (Enumerator::Lazy)
( Enemerator).
Ruby ( )
.
, .
::new( enum, size = nil ) { | yielder, *values | } # -> a_lazy_enum
. , .
8.4. Enumerator ()
121
# .
module Enumerable
def filter_map(&block)
map(&block).compact
end
end
# .
class Enumerator::Lazy
def filter_map
Lazy.new(self) do | yielder, *values |
result = yield *values
yielder << result if result
end
end
end
(1..Float::INFINITY).lazy.filter_map{ |i| i*i if i.even? }.first(5)
# -> [ 4, 16, 36, 64, 100 ]
.lazy # -> a_lazy_enum

,
.
[1,2,3].lazy # -> #<Enumerator::Lazy: [1, 2, 3]>
.force # -> array

: to_a
.
.collect_concat { |object| } # -> a_lazy_enum
: flat_map
, .
[ 'foo', 'bar' ].lazy.flat_map { |i| i.each_char.lazy }.force
# -> [ 'f', 'o', 'o', 'b', 'a', 'r' ]
,
( .each .force) (
.to_ary).
[ {a:1}, {b:2} ].lazy.flat_map { |i| i }.force
#=> [ {a:1}, {b:2} ]
8.5. Enumerable
122
.enum_for( method = :each, *args ) # -> a_lazy_enum

( method = :each, *args ) { |*args| } # -> a_lazy_enum
: to_enum
Kernel.
, Enumerable ,
.
r = 1..Float::INFINITY
# .
r.repeat(2).first(5) # -> [ 1, 1, 2, 2, 3 ]
r.repeat(2).class # -> Enumerator
r.repeat(2).map{ |n| n ** 2 }.first(5) # -> !
# .
r.lazy.repeat(2).class # -> Enumerator::Lazy
r.lazy.repeat(2).map{ |n| n ** 2 }.first(5) # -> [ 1, 1, 4, 4, 9 ]
;
.
lines = File.foreach('a_very_large_file')
.lazy # .
.select { |line| line.length < 10 }
.map(&:chomp)
.each_slice(3)
.map { |lines| lines.join(';').downcase }
.take_while { |line| line.length > 20 }
#
# 20 .
lines.first(3)
lines.to_a # ...
lines.force #
lines.each { |elem| puts elem } # .
8.5. Enumerable
, .each.

<=>.
8.5. Enumerable
123

.to_a.
8.5.1.
.to_a # -> array
: entry
.
8.5.2.
.first( size = nil ) # -> object
. , .
[1, 2, 3].first 2 # -> [1, 2]
.take(size) # -> array

. , .
[1, 2, 3].take 2 # -> [1, 2]
.drop(size) # -> array

.
[1, 2, 3].drop 2 # -> [3]
8.5.3.
.sort # -> array
{ |first, second| } # -> array
<=>,
.
{ a: 1, b: 2, c: 3 }.sort # -> [ [:a, 1], [:b, 2], [:c, 3] ]
.sort_by { |first, second| } # -> array

.
{ a: 1, b: 2, c: 3 }.sort_by { |array| -array[1] }
# -> [ [:c, 3], [:b, 2], [:a, 1] ]
.group_by { |object| } # -> hash

.
[1, 2].group_by { |elem| elem > 4 } # -> { false => [1, 2] }
8.5. Enumerable
124
.zip(*object) # -> array

(*object) { |array| } # -> nil
.
.
, .
, nil.
{ a: 1, b: 2 }.zip [1, 2], [1]
# -> [ [ [:a, 1], 1, 1 ], [ [:b, 2], 2, nil ] ]
.chunk { |object| } # -> enum

(buffer) { |object, buffer| } # -> enum
.
.
:
nil :_ - ;
:_alone - .
.slice_before(object) # -> enum
{ |object| } # -> enum
(buffer
{ |object, buffer| } # -> enum
. ( ===), .
.
.
8.5.4.
.count( object = nil ) # -> integer
, , . .
[ 1, 2, 3 ].count { |elem| elem < 4 } # -> 3
.grep(object) # -> array

(object) { |object| } # -> array
,
( ===).
8.5. Enumerable
125
.
[ 1, 2, 3 ].grep(2) { |elem| elem > 4 } # -> [false]
.find_all { |object| } # -> array

: select

.
[1, 2, 3].find_all { |elem| elem > 4 } # -> [ ]
.reject { |object| } # -> array

.
[1, 2, 3].reject { |elem| elem > 4 } # -> [1, 2, 3]
.partition { |object| } # -> array

.
[1, 2, 3].partition { |elem| elem > 2 } # -> [ [3], [1, 2] ]
.detect( default = nil ) { |elem| } # -> object

: find

. , nil, .
[1, 2, 3].detect { |elem| elem > 4 } # -> nil
.find_index( object = nil ) # -> index

{ |object| } # -> index
, , .
, nil.
[1, 2, 3].find_index { |elem| elem > 4 } # -> nil
8.5.5.
<=>.
.min # -> object
.
[1, 2, 3].min # -> 1
.max # -> object

.
[1, 2, 3].max # -> 3
.minmax # -> array

.
[1, 2, 3].minmax # -> [1, 3]
8.5. Enumerable
126
.min_by { |object| } # -> object

.
[1, 2, 3].min_by { |elem| -elem } # -> 3
.max_by { |object| } # -> object

.
[1, 2, 3].max_by { |elem| -elem } # -> 1
.minmax_by { |object| } # -> array

.
[1, 2, 3].minmax_by { |elem| -elem } # -> [3, 1]
8.5.6.
.include?(object)
: member?
, ( ==).
[1, 2, 3].include? 4
# -> false
.all? { |object| }
.
.
[1, 2, 3].all? { |elem| elem < 4 } # -> true
.any? { |object| }

. .
[1, 2, 3].any? { |elem| elem < 4 } # -> true
.one? { |object| }
. .
[1, 2, 3].one? { |elem| elem < 4 } # -> false
.none? { |object| }
.
.
[1, 2, 3].none? { |elem| elem < 4 } # -> false
8.5.7.
.collect { |object| } # -> array
: map, collect_concat, flat_map
.
8.5. Enumerable
127
[1, 2, 3].collect { |elem| elem < 4 } # -> [true, true, true]

(1..3).collect(&:next) * ?| # -> "2|3|4"
.reverse_each( *arg ) { |object| } # -> self

.
.each_with_index { |object, index| } # -> self
.
.each_with_object(object) { |elem, object| } # -> object
.
.each_slice(size) { |array| } # -> nil
.
.each_cons(size) { |array| } # -> nil
.
,
.
.each_entry { |object| } # -> nil
. , yield
.each, .
8.5.8.
.drop_while { |object| } # -> array

. ,
.
. [1, 2, 3].drop_while { |elem| elem < 4 } # -> [ ]
.take_while { |object| } # -> array

. ,
.
.
[1, 2, 3].take_while { |elem| elem < 4 } # -> [1, 2, 3]
.cycle( step = nil ) { |object| } # -> nil

. . ,
.
8.5. Enumerable
128
8.5.9.
.lazy # -> a_lazy_enumerator [Ruby 2.0]
,
.
.inject(method) # -> object
(first, method) # -> object
(first = nil) { |buffer, first| } # -> buffer
: reduce
, . .

.
[1, 2, 3].inject( 100, :+ ) # -> 106
9.1.
- ,
.

Object, Class, Module.
Ruby . Class Module, Kernel.
9.1.1.

.
:
# -> expression;
# -> global-variable;
# -> local-variable;
# -> class-variable;
# -> instance-variable;
# -> constant;
true # -> true;
false # -> false;
nil # -> nil;
self # -> self;
yield # -> yield;
super # -> super;
# -> assignment;
# -> method.
defined?,
9.1.
130
9.1.2.
.class # -> class [Object]
.
1.class # -> Fixnum
.singleton_class # -> class [Object]

.
nil, true, false NilClass, TrueClass, FalseClass .
.
?1.singleton_class # -> #<Class:#<String:0x921114c>>
.nil? # -> [Object]

. nil true.
.===(object) # -> [Module]
.
Fixnum === 1 # -> true
Integer === 1 # -> true
Comparable === 1 # -> true
case, .
.is_a?(module) # -> [Object]
: kind_of?
.
1.is_a? Fixnum # -> true
1.is_a? Integer # -> true
1.is_a? Comparable # -> true
.instance_of?(module) # -> [Object]

.
1.instance_of? Fixnum # -> true
1.instance_of? Integer # -> false
1.instance_of? Comparable # -> false
9.1.
131
9.1.3.
.superclass # -> class [Class]
. BasicObject nil.
Fixnum.superclass # -> Integer
.name # -> string [Module]

. nil.
Fixnum.name # -> "Fixnum"
.to_s # -> string [Module]

( ). nil.
Fixnum.to_s # -> "Fixnum"
.ancestors # -> array [Module]

, .
Fixnum.ancestors
# -> [Fixnum, Integer, Numeric, Comparable, Object, Kernel, BasicObject]
.included_modules # -> array [Module]

.
Fixnum.included_modules # -> [ Comparable, Kernel ]
.include?(module) # -> [Module]

.
Fixnum.include? Comparable # -> true
.<=>(module) # -> -1. 0, 1 nil [Module]

.
-1 - ;
0 - ;
1 - ;
nil - .
.<(module) # -> [Module]
.
, nil.
Integer < Numeric # -> true
Numeric < Comparable # -> true
Integer < Comparable # -> true
.>(module) # -> [Module]

.
, nil.
9.1.
132
Integer > Numeric # -> false

Numeric > Comparable # -> false
Integer > Comparable # -> false
.<=(module) # -> [Module]

.
, nil.
Integer <= Integer # -> true
Numeric <= Comparable # -> true
Integer <= Comparable # -> true
.>=(module) # -> [Module]

.
, nil.
Integer >= Integer # -> true
Numeric => Comparable # -> false
Integer => Comparable # -> false
9.1.4.
.to_s # -> string [Object]
.
.inspect # -> string [Object]
. .
Ruby .to_s .
.object_id # -> integer [Object]
.
1.object_id # -> 3
.__id__ # -> integer [Object]

.
1.__id__ # -> 3
.constants( inherited = true ) # -> array [Module]

.
.
9.1.
133
.const_defined?( name, inherited = true ) # -> [Module]

.
.
Comparable.const_defined? :Fixnum # -> true
.const_get( name, inherited = true ) # -> object [Module]

. NameError.
.
Ruby .
const_get("Foo::Bar") # -> 'Foo Bar!'

.class_variables # -> array
.
.class_variable_defined?(name)
.
.class_variable_get(name) # -> object
. NameError.

.instance_variables # -> array
()
.
.instance_variable_defined?(name)
.
.instance_variable_get(name) # -> object
. NameError.
9.1.5.
.respond_to?( method, include_private = false ) # -> [Object]
.
.
9.1.
134
Ruby
. Ruby .
,
.respond_to_missing?.
.singleton_methods( inherited = true ) # -> array [Object]
.
.methods( inherited = false ) # -> array [Object]
.
.public_methods( inherited = true ) # -> array [Object]
.
.protected_methods( inherited = true ) # -> array [Object]
.
.private_methods( inherited = true ) # -> array [Object]
.
.instance_methods( inherited = false ) # -> array [Module]
.
.public_instance_methods( inherited = true ) # -> array [Module]
.
.protected_instance_methods( inherited = true) # -> array [Module]
.
.private_instance_methods( inherited = true ) # -> array [Module]
.
.method_defined?(name) # -> [Module]
.
Fixnum.method_defined? :next -> true
.public_method_defined?(name) # -> [Module]

.
Fixnum.public_method_defined? :next -> true
.protected_method_defined?(name) # -> [Module]

.
Fixnum.protected_method_defined? :next -> false
.private_method_defined?(name) # -> [Module]

.
Fixnum.private_method_defined? :next -> false
9.2.
135
.block_given? # -> bool [Kernel]

: iterator?
.
9.2.
- , , ,
.
9.2.1.
.binding # -> binding [PRIVATE: Kernel]
.
kernel.eval.
.eval( code, file = nil, line = nil ) # -> object [Binding]
, . .
.eval( code, binding = nil, file = nil, line = nil ) # -> object [PRIVATE: Kernel]
{ } # -> object
. .
.module_exec(*arg) { |*arg| } # -> self [Module]
: class_exec
.
.module_eval( code, file = nil, line = nil ) # -> self [Module]
{ } # -> self
: class_eval
.
.
.instance_exec(*arg) { |*arg| } # -> self [Object]
( self ).
.instance_eval( code, file = nil, line = nil ) # -> object [Object]
{ } # -> self
( self ).
.
9.2.
136
.tap { |object| } # -> object [Object]

,
.
9.2.2.
.send( name, *arg ) # -> [Object]
: __send__
.
.
.public_send( name, *arg ) # -> [Object]
. . ,
.
9.2.3.
- ,
.
, .
.method_missing(name, *arg)
.
.respond_to_missing?( name, include_private = nil )
object.respond_to? .
Ruby .
.const_missing(name)
.
.singleton_method_added(name)
.
.singleton_method_removed(name)
.
.singleton_method_undefined(name)
.
.method_added(name)
.
9.2.
137
.method_removed(name)
.
.method_undefined(name)
.
.inherited(class)
.
.append_features(module)
, . ,
, .
.prepend_features(module)
,
. , , , .
Ruby.
.extended(module)
.
.included(module)
.
.prepended(module)
.
Ruby.
module A
def self.prepended(mod)
puts "#{self} prepended to #{mod}"
end
end
module Enumerable
prepend A
end
# -> "A prepended to Enumerable"
9.2.
138
9.2.4.
.const_set( name, object ) # -> object [Module]
.
.remove_const(name) # -> object [PRIVATE: Module]
.
.
.class_variable_set( sym, obj ) # -> object [Module]
.
.remove_class_variable(name) # -> object [Module]
.
.instance_variable_set( name, object ) # -> object [Object]
.
.remove_instance_variable(name) # -> object [PRIVATE: Object]
.
9.2.5.
.define_singleton_method( name, block ) # -> block [Object]
.
.define_method(name) { } # -> proc [PRIVATE: Object]
(name, method) # -> new_method [Ruby 2.0]
.
, .
(
.instance_eval).
Ruby .
9.2.
139
class A
def fred; puts "In Fred"; end
def create_method(name, &block)
self.class.send(:define_method, name, &block)
end
define_method(:wilma) { puts "Charge it!" }
end
class B < A
define_method(:barney, instance_method(:fred))
end
a = B.new
a.barney # -> 'In Fred'
a.wilma # -> 'Charge it!'
a.create_method(:betty) { p self }
a.betty # -> '#<B:0x97dccfc>'
Ruby .
# 1.9.3
define_method(:hello) { "Hello World!" } # -> NoMethodError!
# 2.0.0
define_method(:hello) { "Hello World!" }
hello # -> "Hello World!"
.alias_method( new_name, old_name ) # -> self [PRIVATE: Module]

.
.remove_method(name) # -> self [PRIVATE: Module]
.
.
.undef_method(name) # -> self [PRIVATE: Module]
.
9.3.
140
9.3.
9.3.1.
-
.
:
Ruby , .
, , object.to_i, object.to_s, object.to_a, object.to_f, object.to_c,
object.to_r, object.to_h (ruby 2.0) ..
, , object.to_int, object.to_str, object.to_ary, object.to_sym,
object.to_regexp, object.to_proc, object.to_hash ..

Kernel. nil.
.Array(object) # -> array
1.
object.to_ary
2.
object.to_a
.Float(object) # -> float

1.
object.to_f
.Integer( object, numeral_system = 10 ) # -> integer

1.
object.to_int
2.
object.to_i
, ( 2 36). 0b (0B) 0x (0X).

.
.String(object) # -> string
1.
object.to_s
.Hash(object) # -> hash [Ruby 2.0]

1.
object.to_hash
141
9.3.
nil {}.
Hash([])
# -> {}
Hash(nil)
# -> {}
Hash(key: :value) # -> {:key => :value}

Hash( [1, 2, 3] ) # -> TypeError!
.format( format, *object ) # -> string

: sprintf
format
% [*object].
9.3.2.

.==(object) # -> [Object]
: ===
.
1 == 1.0 -> true
.eql?(object) # -> [Object]

.
1.eql? 1.0 -> false
.equal?(object) # -> [Object]

.
1.equal? 1.0 -> false
"1".equal? "1" -> false
1.equal? 1 -> true
:a.equal? :a -> true
Comparable
(<, <=, >, >=, ==), .<=>.
.between?( first, last )
.
9.3.3.

,
.
.
, .
9.3.
142
a = { t1: 'sa ma ra', t2: 'john' }

b = a.clone
b[:t2] = 'jack'
b[:t1].sub!('ma', 'ha')
a[:t1] == 'sa ha ra' # -> true
.clone # -> object [Object]

, .
.dup # -> object [Object]
, .
.initialize_clone(object) # -> object
,
( ). .
Ruby .
.initialize_dup(object) # -> object
, ( ). .
Ruby .
.initialize_copy(object) # -> object
( ).
.
9.3.
143
class Object
def clone
clone = self.class.allocate
clone.copy_instance_variables(self)
clone.copy_singleton_class(self)
clone.initialize_clone(self)
clone.freeze if frozen?
clone
end
def dup
dup = self.class.allocate
dup.copy_instance_variables(self)
dup.initialize_dup(self)
dup
end
def initialize_clone(other)
initialize_copy(other)
end
def initialize_dup(other)
initialize_copy(other)
end
def initialize_copy(other)
# ...
end
end
(Marshal)
,
(
).
:
Marshal::MAJOR_VERSION - ;
Marshal::MINOR_VERSION - .
9.3.
144
::dup( object, io = nil, deep = -1 ) # -> string

.
( ).
, .
:
;
, (, , .);
MatchData, Data, Method, UnboundMethod, Proc, Thread,
ThreadGroup, Continuation;
, .
Marshal.dump ?$ # -> "\x04\bI\"\x06$\x06:\x06ET"
::load(marshal_data) # -> object

(marshal_data) { |result| } # -> object
: restore
.
Marshal.load Marshal.dump(?$) # -> "$"
10
- ,
. ( ), .
10.1. (Proc)
(. closure) - ,
,
( ).
,
.
.
, .
.
.
self , .
class FirstKlass
def self.first; 1; end
def first; 2; end
@@first = proc { first }
def klass; @@first.call; end
def instance; instance_exec &@@first; end
end
FirstKlass.new.klass # -> 1
FirstKlass.new.instance # -> 2
( , ) - (
).
10.1. (Proc)
146
10.1.1.
return , . ,
LocalJumpError.
.
::new { |*params| } # -> proc
.
def proc_from
Proc.new
end
proc = proc_from { "hello" }
proc.call # -> "hello"
.proc { |*params| } # -> proc [PRIVATE: Kernel]

Kernel.
def foo
f = Proc.new { return "return from foo from inside proc" }
f.call # f foo
# foo f
return "return from foo"
end
puts foo # "return from foo from inside proc"
10.1.2. -
return - .
- .
.
. .
->(*params) { } # -> lambda
.lambda { |*params| } # -> lambda

.
def bar
f = lambda { return "return from lambda" }
f.call # f bar
return "return from bar"
end
puts bar # "return from bar"
10.1. (Proc)
147
10.1.3.

.to_proc # -> self
.to_s # -> string
.
Proc.new { }.to_s # -> "#<Proc:0x8850f18@(irb):31>"
.==(proc)
: eql?
. ,
.
proc {} == proc {} # -> true
Ruby . , .
proc {} == proc {} # -> false
.===(arg) # -> object

.
proc { |a| a } === 1 # -> 1

.call(*arg) # -> object
: yield, .(*arg), [*arg]
.
-> x {x**2}.(5) # -> 25
.curry( count = nil )*arg # -> proc

. ,
. .
( nil).
10.1. (Proc)
148
b = proc { | x, y, z | x + y + z }
b.curry[1][2][3] # -> 6
b.curry[1, 2][3, 4] # -> 6
b.curry[1][2][3][4][5] # -> 0
b.curry(5) [ 1, 2 ][ 3, 4][5] # -> 6
b.curry(1) [1] # -> type_error!
b = lambda { | x, y, z | x + y + z }
b.curry[1][2][3] # -> 6
b.curry[1, 2][3, 4] # -> argument_error!
b.curry(5) # -> argument_error!
b.curry(1) # -> argument_error!
.arity # -> integer

. . ~
.
proc {}.arity # -> 0
proc { || }.arity # -> 0
proc { |a| }.arity # -> 1
proc { |a, b| }.arity # -> 2
proc { |a, b, c| }.arity # -> 3
proc { |*a| }.arity # -> -1
proc { |a, *b| }.arity # -> -2
proc { | a, *b, c | }.arity # -> -3
.parameters # -> array

.
proc = lambda { | x, y = 42, *other | }
proc.parameters
# -> [ [:req, :x],
[:opt, :y], [:rest, :other] ]
.binding # -> binding

.
.lambda? # -> bool
-.
proc {}.lambda? # -> false
149
10.2.
.source_location # -> array

, Ruby, nil.
[filename, line].
proc {}.source_location # -> ["(irb)", 19]
.hash # -> integer

.
proc {}.hash # -> -259341767
- .
closure = proc { counter = 0; proc {counter += 1} }.call
closure.call # -> 1
closure.call # -> 2
closure.call # -> 3
10.2.

Method UnboundMethod.
10.2.1. Method
,
.
.method(name) # -> method
. .
12.method(?+) # -> #<Method: Fixnum#+>
.public_method(name) # -> method

.
12.public_method(?+) # -> #<Method: Fixnum#+>
.==(method)
: eql?
. , .
12.method(?+) == 13.method(?+) # -> false
150
10.2.

.to_proc # -> lambda
- .
12.method(?+).to_proc # -> #<Proc:0x88cdd60 (lambda)>
.to_s # -> string

.
12.method(?+).to_s # -> "#<Method: Fixnum#+>"
.unbind # -> umethod

,
.
12.method(?+).unbind -> #<UnboundMethod: Fixnum#+>

.call(*arg) # -> object
.
12.method(?+).call 3 # -> 15
.arity # -> integer

. . ~ . ,
Ruby -1.
12.method(?+).arity # -> 1
.name # -> symbol

.
12.method(?+).name # -> :+
.owner # -> module

, .
12.method(?+).owner # -> Fixnum

.
12.method(?+).parameters # -> [ [:req] ]
.receiver # -> object

, . 12.method(?+).receiver
# -> 12
151
10.2.

[filename,
, Ruby, nil.
line].
12.method(?+).source_location # -> nil
.hash # -> integer

.
12.method(?+).hash # -> -347045594
10.2.2. UnboundMethod
.
.instance_method(name) # -> umethod [Module]
.
.
Math.instance_method :sqrt # -> #<UnboundMethod: Math#sqrt>
.public_instance_method(name) # -> umethod [Module]

.
Math.public_instance_method :sqrt # -> error
.==(umethod)
: eql?
. ,
.
Math.instance_method(:sin) == Math.instance_method(:sin) # -> true

.to_s # -> string : inspect
.
Math.instance_method(:sqrt).to_s # -> "#<UnboundMethod: Math#sqrt>"
.bind(object) # -> method

, . , .
12.method(?+).unbind.bind 1 # -> #<Method: Fixnum#+>
12.method(?+).unbind.bind 1.0 # -> error!
152
10.3. (Fiber)
.arity # -> integer

. . ~ . ,
Ruby -1.
Math.instance_method(:sqrt).arity # -> 1
.name # -> symbol

.
Math.instance_method(:sqrt).name # -> :sqrt
.owner # -> module

, .
Math.instance_method(:sqrt).owner # -> Math

.
Math.instance_method(:sqrt).parameters # -> [ [:req] ]

[filename,
, Ruby, nil.
line].
Math.instance_method(:sqrt).source_location # -> nil
.hash # -> integer

.
Math.instance_method(:sqrt).hash # -> 563385534
10.3. (Fiber)
- ,
.
,
.

( ). green thread.

, .
,
. /,
.
.
10.3. (Fiber)
153
::yield .resume.
::new { |*params| } # -> fiber
. .
::yield(*temp_result) # -> object
. .resume.
, .resume .
.resume(*args) # -> temp_result
.
,
.
::yield .
, FiberError.
11
(Random)
Ruby
, 1997 . (2 ** 19937 - 1),
623 , ( 2-3 ,
). , , , , .
::new( seed = Random.new_seed ) # -> random
. , , . .
Random.new # -> #<Random:0xa0a1fa4>
::rand( number = 0 ) # -> random_number

.
number.to_i.abs:
nil,
0.0...1.0.

0...number.to_i.abs.
Random.rand # -> 0.8736231696463861
.rand( number = 0 ) # -> random_number [PRIVATE: Kernel]

Kernel.
::new_seed # -> integer
.
Random.new_seed # -> 69960780063826734370396971659065074316
::srand( number = 0 ) # -> number

. ,
, .
. .
.srand( number = 0 ) # -> number [PRIVATE: Kernel]
Kernel.
11.1.
155
11.1.
.bytes(bytesize) # -> string
.
Random.new.bytes 2 -> "\xA1W"
.rand( object = nil ) # -> number

, 0...object;
;
, 0.0...object;
, .
- () + ();
.
.seed # -> integer
.
Random.new.seed # -> 173038287409845379387953855893202182131
12

12.1. (Time)
: Comparable
Time - , . , 01.01.1970 00:00 UTC. GMT ( ) UTC ( )
.
,
UTC.
:
year - ;
month - : 1 12, ,
();
day - : 1 31;
wday - : 0 6, ;
yday - : 1 366;
isdst - : ;
zone - : ;
hour - : 0 23;
min - : 0 59;
sec - : 0 60;
usec - : 0 999.
12.1.1.
::new # -> time
(year, month = 1, day = 1, hour = 0, min = 0, sec = 0, usec = 0, zone)
# -> time
.
. UTC +00:00 .
.
Time.new 1990, 3, 31, nil, nil, nil, "+04:00"
# -> 1990-03-31 00:00:00 +0400
12.1. (Time)
157
::now # -> time

.
Time.now -> 2011-09-17 10:36:26 +0400
::at(time) # -> time

( sec, usec = nil ) # -> time
. ,
UTC.
.
Time.at 1 -> 1970-01-01 03:00:01 +0300
::utc( year, month = 1, day = 1, hour = 0, min = 0, sec = 0, usec = 0)

( sec, min, hour, day, month, year, wday, yday, isdst ) # -> time
: gm
.
Time.utc 1990, 3, 31 -> 1990-03-31 00:00:00 UTC
::local( year, month = 1, day = 1, hour = 0, min = 0, sec = 0, usec = 0, zone )

(sec, min, hour, day, month, year, wday, yday, isdst, zone) # -> time
: time
, .
Time.local 1990, 3, 31 -> 1990-03-31 00:00:00 +0400
12.1.2.
.to_s # -> string
: inspect
.
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).to_s -> "1990-03-31 00:00:00 +0400"
.to_a # -> array

:
[ self.sec, self.min, self.hour,
self.day, self.month, self.year,
self.wday, self.yday,
self.isdst, self.zone ]
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).to_a
# -> [ 0, 0, 0, 31, 3, 1990, 6, 90, true, "MSD" ]
.to_i # -> integer

: tv_sec
1970-01-01 00:00:00 UTC.
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).to_i # -> 638827200
12.1. (Time)
158
.to_r # -> rational

1970-01-01 00:00:00 UTC .
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).to_r # -> (638827200/1)
.to_f # -> float

1970-01-01 00:00:00 UTC .
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).to_f # -> 638827200.0
12.1.3.
.+(number) # -> time
.
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ) + 3600 # -> 1990-03-31 01:00:00 +0400
.-(time) # -> float

.
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ) - Time.new( 1990, 3, 31 ) -> 0.0
.-(number) # -> time

.
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ) - 3600 -> 1990-03-30 23:00:00 +0400
.<=>(time)
.
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ) <=> Time.new( 1990, 3, 31 ) -> 0
12.1.4.
.strftime(format) # -> string

.
12.1.5.
.getutc # -> time
: getgm
UTC ( ).
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).getutc # -> 1990-03-30 20:00:00 UTC
.utc # -> self

: gmtime
, .
12.1. (Time)
159
.getlocal( zone = nil ) # -> time

. ( ).
Time.local(1990, 3, 31).getutc.getlocal # -> 1990-03-31 00:00:00 +0400
.localtime( zone = nil ) # -> self

, .
12.1.6.
.asctime # -> string
: ctime
.
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).asctime # -> "Sat Mar 31 00:00:00 1990"
.utc_offset # -> integer

: gmt_offset, gmtoff
UTC .
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).utc_offset # -> 14400
.zone # -> string

.
verb!Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).zone # -> "MSD"
.year # -> integer

.
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).year # -> 1990
.month # -> integer

: mon
.
verb!Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).month # -> 3
.yday # -> integer

1 366.
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).yday # -> 90
.day # -> integer

: mday
.
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).day # -> 31
.wday # -> integer

( 0 6, ).
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).wday # -> 6
12.1. (Time)
.hour # -> integer

( 0 23).
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).hour # -> 0
.min # -> integer

( 0 59).
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).min # -> 0
.sec # -> integer

( 0 60).
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).sec # -> 0
.subsec # -> integer

.
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).subsec # -> 0
.usec # -> integer

: tv_usec
.
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).usec # -> 0
.nsec # -> integer

: tv_nsec
.
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).nsec # -> 0
12.1.7.
.monday? # -> bool
.
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).monday? # -> false
.tuesday? # -> bool

.
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).tuesday? # -> false
.wednesday? # -> bool

.
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).wednesday? # -> false
.thursday? # -> bool

.
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).saturday? # -> false
.friday? # -> bool

.
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).friday? # -> false
160
12.1. (Time)
161
.saturday? # -> bool

.
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).saturday? # -> true
.sunday? # -> bool

.
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).saturday? # -> false
.utc? # -> bool

: gmt?
UTC.
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).utc? # -> false
.dst? # -> bool

: isdst
.
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).dst? # -> true
12.1.8.
.hash # -> integer
.
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).hash # -> -494674000
.round( precise = 0 ) # -> time

. .
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).round 2 # -> 1990-03-31 00:00:00 +0400
13

13.1.
TrueClass, FalseClass NilClass -
true, false nil . TRUE, FALSE, NIL,
( ?).
NilClass
nil & obj -> false
nil ~ bool -> bool
nil | bool -> bool
nil.to_s ->
FalseClass
false & obj -> false
false ~ bool -> bool
false | bool -> bool
false.to_s -> false
TrueClass
true & bool -> bool
true ~ bool -> !bool
true | object -> true
true.to_s -> true
nil.nil? # -> true

nil.inspect # -> "nil"
nil.rationalize # -> (0/1)
nil.to_r # -> (0/1)
nil.to_a # -> []
nil.to_c # -> (0+0i)
nil.to_f # -> 0.0
nil.to_i # -> 0
nil.to_h # -> {} [Ruby 2.0]
13.2. Symbol
: Comparable
.
::all_symbols # -> array .
13.2.1.
.to_sym # -> symbol : intern
.to_s # -> string
: id2name
.
:Ruby.to_s # -> "Ruby"
13.2. Symbol
163

.
:Ruby.inspect # -> ":Ruby"
.to_proc # -> proc

, ,
.
1.next # -> 2
:next.to_proc.call(1) # -> 2
13.2.2.
symbol <=> object # -> symbol.to_s <=> object
symbol =~ object # -> symbol.to_s =~ object
symbol[*object] # -> symbol.to_s[*object]
symbol.slice(*object) # -> symbol.to_s.slice(*object)
13.2.3.
.capitalize # -> symbol : self.to_s.capitalize.to_sym.
.swapcase # -> symbol : self.to_s.swapcase.to_sym.
.upcase # -> symbol : self.to_s.upcase.to_sym.
.downcase # -> symbol : self.to_s.downcase.to_sym.
13.2.4.
.
:Ruby.encoding # -> #<Encoding:US-ASCII>
.empty? # -> bool : self.to_s.empty?.

.length # -> integer
: size
: self.to_s.length self.to_s.size.
.casecmp(object)
: self.to_s.casecmp(object).
.next # -> symbol

: succ
: self.to_s.next.to_sym self.to_s.succ.to_sym
13.3.
164
13.3.
: Enumerable
- , .
.
Struct.
::new( name = nil, *attribute ) # -> class
Struct
( nil). ,
. ,
.
,
.
Struct.new "K", : # -> Struct::K
# . :)
Struct::K.new [1, 2, 3]
# ->
#<struct Struct::K =[1, 2, 3]>
13.3.1.
.to_s # -> string
: inspect
.
Struct::K.new( [1, 2, 3] ).to_s
# -> "#<struct Struct::K =[1, 2, 3]>"
.to_a # -> array

: values
.
Struct::K.new( [1, 2, 3] ).to_a # -> [ [1, 2, 3] ]
.to_h # -> hash [Ruby 2.0]

.
Customer = Struct.new :name, :address, :zip
joe = Customer.new "Joe Smith", "123 Maple, Anytown NC", 12345
joe.to_h[:address] # -> "123 Maple, Anytown NC"
13.3.
165
13.3.2.
. [] []=. .
0 ,
. (, -1).
.
.[attr] # -> object
.
Struct::K.new( [1, 2, 3] )[""] # -> [1, 2, 3]
Struct::K.new( [1, 2, 3] )[0] # -> [1, 2, 3]
Struct::K.new( [1, 2, 3] )[-1] # -> [1, 2, 3]
.[attr]=(object) # -> object

.
Struct::K.new( [1, 2, 3] )[""] = :array # -> :array
Struct::K.new( [1, 2, 3] )[0] = :array # -> :array
Struct::K.new( [1, 2, 3] )[-1] = :array # -> :array
.values_at(*integer) # -> array

. .
Struct::K.new( [1, 2, 3] ).values_at 0, -1
# -> [ [1, 2, 3], [1, 2, 3] ]
13.3.3.
.each { |object| } # -> self
.
.each_pair { | name, object | } # -> self
.
13.3.4.
.hash # -> integer
.
Struct::K.new( [1, 2, 3] ).hash # -> -764829164
.size # -> integer

: length
13.3.
.
Struct::K.new( [1, 2, 3] ).size # -> 1
.members # -> array

.
Struct::K.new( [1, 2, 3] ).members # -> [:]
166
III
14

14.1.
. :
ruby [keys] [path] [args]
keys - ,
;
path - . .
, , ,
( ).
args - ,
ARGV.
, ( ), (shebang)
:
#!/usr/bin/env ruby [keys] [args]

.
.
- , . Linux env.
14.2.
- .
: ,
.
BEGIN END - ,
.
.
14.3.
169
BEGIN - .
, ;
END - .
, . File, DATA;
__END__ - END;
at_exit - END.
14.3.
Kernel ( ,
).
.sleep( sec = nil ) # -> sec
( ). .
.exit( state = true )
SystemExit.
.exit!( state = false )
.
.abort( mesage = nil )
. .
exit false.
14.4.
Ruby ,
. Kernel.
.(code) # -> string
.
ruby --help
%x (%x[ruby --help]).
.exec( env, command, options )
. .
14.4.
170
Ruby
.
:
env (hash): .
name: ;
name: nil, .
command: .
string - : Unix "/bin/sh", Windows - ENV["RUBYSHELL"] ENV["COMSPEC"];
string, *arg - ;
[ string, first_arg ], *arg - , .
option (hash): .
unsetenv_others: true, , ;
pgroup: :
true ;
integer ;
nil .
chdir: ;
umask: .
.syscall( number, *args )

( Unix
syscall.h).
( ) ,
, .

SystemCallEror.
NotImplementedError.
.
15

15.1. IO ()
: Enumerable File::Constants
- ,
. () , -
() .

( , , ), .
/:
: . .
.
: . , .
(polling) .
.
: .
.
: (
).
15.1.1.
.

, .
, , IO.
::new( file, mode, options = nil ) # -> io
: for_fd
15.1. IO ()
172
, .
, .
::open( file, mode, options = nil ) # -> io
( file, mode, options = nil ) { |io| } # -> object
,
( ).
::sysopen( path, mode = nil, *perm ) # -> integer
.
.
::copy_stream( old_io, new_io, start = nil, syze = nil ) # -> integer
. . . ,
.

.reopen(io) # -> self
( path, mode ) # -> self
.
.binmode # -> self
.
.autoclose=(bool) # -> bool
.
.close_on_exec=(bool) # -> nil
.
Ruby
. .spawn.
.advise( symbol, start = 0, size = 0 ) # -> nil
.
, .
:normal - ( );
:sequintial - ; :random -
;
:willneed - ;
:dontneed - ;
:noreuse - .
15.1. IO ()
173
.fcntl( integer, object ) # -> integer2

. fcntl(2).
.ioctl( integer, object ) # -> integer2
. ioctl(2).

.
.close # -> nil
.
.close_read # -> nil
. ( ) .
.close_write # -> nil
.
( ) .
.external_encoding # -> encoding

. ,
, nil.
.internal_encoding # -> encoding
nil.
.set_encoding( *encoding, options = nil ) # -> io
. .
.autoclose? # -> bool

.
.binmode? # -> bool
.
.eof? # -> bool
: eof
15.1. IO ()
174
( ).
,
.
.tty? # -> bool
: isatty
. , , , .
,
.
.closed? # -> bool
.
.close_on_exec? # -> bool
.
f = open '/dev/null'
f.close_on_exec?
# -> false
f.close_on_exec = true
f.close_on_exec?
# -> true
f.close_on_exec = false
f.close_on_exec?
# -> false
.stat # -> a_file_stat

.
15.1.2.
::try_convert(object) # -> io

.to_io. , nil.
.to_i # -> integer
: fileno
.
.to_io # -> io
15.1. IO ()
175
15.1.3.
.
.
:
encoding: . ;
mode: . r ;
open_args: , .
::read( path, start = nil, bytesize = nil, options = nil ) # -> string
( ). .
, .
::binread( path, start = nil, size = nil ) # -> string
rb:ASCII.
.read( bytesize = nil, buffer = nil ) # -> buffer
( ).
, .
.
, ;
, nil
( ).
.
.sysread( bytesize, buffer = nil ) # -> buffer
.
.read_nonblock( bytesize, buffer = nil ) # -> buffer
, ,
. .
.
.readpartial( bytesize, buffer = nil ) # -> buffer
, ,
:
15.1. IO ()
176
;
;
;
. ,
EOFError.
, -
.
io.sysread, ,
, IOError. Errno::EWOULDBLOCK Errno::EINTR, (
NONBLOCK).
::readlines( path, sep = $/, options = nil ) # -> array

( path, size, options = nil ) # -> array
( path, sep, size, options = nil ) # -> array
(
). (
, /n/n).
.readlines( sep = $/, size = nil ) # -> array
.
.gets( sep = $/, bytesize = nil ) # -> string
(
). ( , /n/n).
, nil.
$_.
.readline( sep = $/, bytesize = nil ) # -> string
, .
.lineno # -> integer
( ) ($.).
.lineno=(pos) # -> integer
( )
. .
.seek( offset, object = IO::SEEK_SET ) # -> 0
( )
.
15.1. IO ()
177
-> _ = _ + offset
-> _ = _ + offset
IO::SEEK_SET -> _ = offset
IO::SEEK_CUR
IO::SEEK_END
.sysseek( offset, object = IO::SEEK_SET ) # -> 0

,
.
.rewind # -> 0
( ) . , , .
.getc # -> string

.
, nil.
.readchar # -> string
, .
.getbyte # -> integer

. , nil.
.readbyte # -> integer
, .
.pos # -> integer
: tell
( ) .
.pos=(pos) # -> integer
( )
. .
15.1. IO ()
178
::foreach( path, sep = $/, options = nil ) { |string| } # -> nil

( path, size, options = nil ) { |string| } # -> nil
( path, sep, size, options = nil ) { |string| } # -> nil
( IO::readlines).
.each( sep = $/ ) { |string| } # -> self
(size) { |string| } # -> self
( sep, size) { |string| } # -> self
: each_line, lines
( .readlines). Ruby lines .
.bytes { |byte| } # -> self
: each_byte
. Ruby bytes .
.chars { |char| } # -> self
: each_char
. Ruby chars .
.codepoints { |point| } # -> self
: each_codepoint
. Ruby codepoints .
15.1.4.
.
.to_s.
.
:
encoding: . ;
mode: . r ;
perm: ;
open_args: , .
::write( path, string, start = nil, options = nil ) # -> string.length
( - ).
.
179
15.1. IO ()
::binwrite( path, string, start = nil ) # -> string.length

rb:ASCII-8BIT.
.write(object) # -> object.to_s.bytesize
.
.syswrite(object) # -> object.to_s.bytesize
,
.
. object # -> io
.
.write_nonblock(string) # -> string.length
, , .
. . .
.print( *object = $_ ) # -> nil
.
$,, ,
nil, .
$\, , nil, .
.printf( format, *objects ) # -> nil
string
% [*object].
.putc(object) # -> object

. .
.puts( *object = $\ ) # -> nil
.
. .

, . , .

.
15.1. IO ()
180
.ungetbyte(object) # -> nil

( , io.sysread).
.ungetc(char) # -> nil
( , io.sysread).
.fdatasync # -> 0
.
.fsync # -> 0
.
.flush # -> 0
.
.sync=(bool) # -> bool
-
, .
.sync # -> bool
.
15.1.5.
.
. , .
:
STDIN ($stdin) - ().
.
STDOUT ($stdout, $>) - ().
;
STDERR ($stderr) - .
.

, . ,
,
.
15.1. IO ()
181

Kernel. .
Kernel.print
Kernel.printf
Kernel.putc
Kernel.puts
.display( io = $> ) # -> nil

. .
.p(*args) # -> args
(object.inspect) .
$/
.warn(message) # -> nil
.
.
Ruby
IO.puts. . .

,
kernel.gets kernel.readline.
.

.
15.1.6.
- , .
, , . Linux
.
.
. .
.
182
15.1. IO ()
: <process> | <processs> |
: mkfifo <name>
Ruby-.
<process>
::pipe( *encoding, options = nil ) # -> array

( *encoding, options = nil ) { |read, write| } # -> object
. ,
.
. .
rd, wr = IO.pipe
wr.puts "Text" # -> nil
rd.gets "Text" # -> "Text\n"
15.1.7.
,
, .
::select ( reads, writes = nil, errors = nil, sec = nil)
.
, , .
, . , , nil.
15.2. File ()
183
rp, wp = IO.pipe
mesg = "ping "
100.times {
rs, ws, = IO.select([rp], [wp])
if r = rs[0]
ret = r.read(5)
print ret
case ret
when /ping/
mesg = "pong\n"
when /pong/
mesg = "ping "
end
end
if w = ws[0]
w.write(mesg)
end
}
# ->
ping pong
ping pong
ping pong
(snipped)
ping
15.2. File ()
.
- Linux. Linux , .
. Linux .
File, IO,
, .
, , .
- .
:
File::SEPARATOR - , .
Windows (\), Linux - (/);
15.2. File ()
184
File::ALT_SEPARATOR - ;
File::PATH_SEPARATOR - , (:);
File::NULL - .
::new( name, mode, *perm ) # -> file
.
::open( name, mode, *perm ) # -> 0
( name, mode, *perm )
{ |file| } # -> object
, ,
.
15.2.1.
::delete(*path) # -> integer
: unlink
. .
::truncate( path, bytesize ) # -> 0
( ).
.truncate(bytesize) # -> 0
, .
::rename( path, new_name ) # -> 0
. .
::symlink( path, name ) # -> 0
.
::link( path, new_name ) # -> 0
.
.
::utime( atime, mtime, *path ) # -> integer
. .
::readlink(path) # -> filename
, .
.flock(constants) # -> 0
. .
15.2. File ()
185
- ( ). . ;
File::LOCK_EX
File::LOCK_NB - -
;
- ( ).

.
;
File::LOCK_SH
File::LOCK_UN
- .
15.2.2.
- ;
- (ruby 2.0).
File.dirname __FILE__.
__FILE__
__dir__
::path(object) # -> path

.to_path. .
.path # -> path
: to_path
( ).
::absolute_path( filename, basedir = File::pwd ) # -> path
. .
File.expand_path "test.rb", "~"
# -> "/home/krugloff/~/test.rb"
File.expand_path "/test.rb", ".rb" # -> "/test.rb"
::expand_path( filename, basedir = File::pwd ) # -> path

. .
File.expand_path "test.rb", "~" # -> "/home/krugloff/test.rb"
File.expand_path "/test.rb", ".rb" # -> "/test.rb"
File.expand_path('../config/environment', "my_app/config.ru")
# -> "/home/mak/my_app/config/environment"
::realdirpath( filename, basedir = File::pwd ) # -> path

. . . .
File.realdirpath "test.rb", "~" # -> error!
File.realdirpath "/test.rb", ".rb" # -> "/test.rb"
186
15.2. File ()
::realpath( filename, basedir = File::pwd ) # -> path

. . .
File.realpath "test.rb", "~" # -> error!
File.realpath "/test.rb", ".rb" # -> error!
::basename( path, extname = nil ) # -> filename

( ).
.
File.basename "/test.rb", ".rb" # -> "test"
::dirname(path) # -> basedir

( ).
File.dirname "/test.rb" # -> "/"
::split(path) # -> array

.
File.split "/test.rb" # -> [ "/", "test.rb" ]
::extname(path) # -> extname

.
.
File.extname "/test.rb" # -> ".rb"
::join(*name) # -> path

.
File::SEPARATOR.
File.join "/", "test", ".rb" # -> "/test/.rb"
::fnmatch?( pattern, path, constants = nil )

: fnmatch
.
File.fnmatch? 'cat', 'cat'
# -> true
File.fnmatch? 'cat', 'category' # -> false

File.fnmatch? 'c{at,ub}s', 'cats'
# -> false
File.fnmatch? 'c{at,ub}s', 'cats', File::FNM_EXTGLOB # -> true [Ruby 2.0]

File.fnmatch? 'c?t',
'cat'
# -> true
File.fnmatch? 'c??t',
'cat'
# -> false
File.fnmatch? 'c*',
'cats'
# -> true
File.fnmatch? 'c*t',
'c/a/b/t' # -> true
File.fnmatch? 'ca[a-z]', 'cat'
# -> true
File.fnmatch? 'ca[^t]',
# -> false
'cat'
187
15.2. File ()
File.fnmatch? 'cat', 'CAT'
# -> false
File.fnmatch? 'cat', 'CAT', File::FNM_CASEFOLD # -> true

File.fnmatch? '?',
'/', File::FNM_PATHNAME
# -> false
File.fnmatch? '*',
'/', File::FNM_PATHNAME
# -> false
File.fnmatch? '[/]', '/', File::FNM_PATHNAME
# -> false
File.fnmatch? '\?',
'?'
# -> true
File.fnmatch? '\a',
'a'
# -> true
File.fnmatch? '\a',
'\a', File::FNM_NOESCAPE
# -> true
File.fnmatch? '[\?]', '?'
# -> true
File.fnmatch? '*',
'.profile'
# -> false
File.fnmatch? '*',
'.profile', File::FNM_DOTMATCH
# -> true
File.fnmatch? '.*',
'.profile'
# -> true
rbfiles = '**/*.rb'
File.fnmatch? rbfiles, 'main.rb'
# -> false
File.fnmatch? rbfiles, './main.rb'
# -> false
File.fnmatch? rbfiles, 'lib/song.rb'
# -> true
File.fnmatch? '**.rb', 'main.rb'
# -> true
File.fnmatch? '**.rb', './main.rb'
# -> false
File.fnmatch? '**.rb', 'lib/song.rb'
# -> true
File.fnmatch? '*',
# -> true
'dave/.profile'
pattern = '*/*'
File.fnmatch? pattern, 'dave/.profile', File::FNM_PATHNAME
# -> false
File.fnmatch? pattern, 'dave/.profile',

File::FNM_PATHNAME | File::FNM_DOTMATCH
# -> true
pattern = '**/foo'
File.fnmatch? pattern, 'a/b/c/foo', File::FNM_PATHNAME
# -> true
File.fnmatch? pattern, '/a/b/c/foo', File::FNM_PATHNAME
# -> true
File.fnmatch? pattern, 'c:/a/b/c/foo', File::FNM_PATHNAME
# -> true
File.fnmatch? pattern, 'a/.b/c/foo', File::FNM_PATHNAME
# -> false
File.fnmatch? pattern, 'a/.b/c/foo',

File::FNM_PATHNAME | File::FNM_DOTMATCH
# -> true
::identical?( path, path2 )

.
15.2. File ()
188
15.2.3.

::chmod( *perm, *path ) # -> integer
. .
::lchmod( perm, *path ) # -> integer
,
, , .
::chown( user, group, *path ) # -> integer
. .
.
. . 0 -1 .
::lchown( user, group, *path ) # -> integer
, ,
, .
::umask( mask = nil ) # -> old_perm
, . ,
, .
::readable?(path)
.
::readable_real?(path)
.
::world_readable?(path)
(
).
::writable?(path)
.
::writable_real?(path)
.
15.2. File ()
189
::world_writable?(path)
(
).
::executable?(path)
.
::executable_real?(path)
.
::setuid?(path)
.
::setgid?(path)
.
::sticky?(path)
(sticky bit) .
::owned?(path)
( ).
::grpowned?(path)

(
).
15.2.4.
::stat(path) # -> a_file_stat
File::Stat, .
::lstat(path) # -> a_file_stat
, ,
, .
.lstat # -> file_stat
, .
::atime(path) # -> time
.
.atime # -> time
.
15.2. File ()
190
::ctime(path) # -> time

( ).
.ctime # -> time
(
).
::mtime(path) # -> time
.
.mtime # -> time
.
::size(path) # -> integer
.
.size # -> integer
.
::ftype(path) # -> string
.
file - ;
directory - ;
blockSpecial - ;
characterSpecial - ;
fifo - ;
link - ;
socket - ;
unknown - .
15.2.5.
::exist?(path)
: exists?
.
::size?(path) # -> integer
.
.
::zero?(path)
.
::file?(path)
.
15.3. Dir ()
191
::symlink?(path)
.
::directory?(path)
.
::blockdev?(path)
.
::chardev?(path)
.
::pipe?(path)
.
::socket?(path)
.
15.3. Dir ()
: Enumerable
- , -
.
- , ;
- , . ;
- , .
::new(path) # -> dir
.
::open(path) # -> dir
(path) { |dir| } # -> dir
, .
.
.close # -> nil
.
.
15.3. Dir ()
192
15.3.1.
::mkdir( name, *perm ) # -> 0
.
.
::delete(path) # -> 0
: rmdir, unlink
. , ,
.
::chdir( path = Dir.home ) # -> 0
( path = Dir.home ) { |path| } # -> object
, .
::chroot(path) # -> 0
Unix- .
, ,
, . .
15.3.2.
::entries(path) # -> array
, .
::glob( pattern, constants = nil ) # -> array
( pattern, constants = nil ) { |name| } # -> nil
( ).
. . ,
.
::[pattern] # -> array
Dir.glob
pattern, 0.
.read # -> name

. nil.
.pos # -> integer : tell
.
.seek(pos) # -> self
.
.pos=(pos) # -> integer
.
15.4.
193
.rewind # -> self

.
15.3.3.
.each { |name| } # -> self
.
::foreach(path) { |name| } # -> nil
.
15.3.4.
::directory?(path)
: exist?, exists?
,
.
::getwd # -> path
: pwd
.
::home( user = nil ) # -> path
.
.
.path # -> path
( ).
15.4.
.test( type, first_path, second_path = nil )
.
15.4.
194
:
?A - ;
?C - ;
?M - ;
?e - ;
?s - . nil;
?z - ;
?f - ;
?L - ;
?d - ;
?b - ;
?c - ;
?S - ;
?p - ;
?r - ;
?R - ;
?w - ;
?W - ;
?x - ;
?X - ;
?u - ;
?g - ;
?K - (sticky bit) ;
?o -
( );
?O - ( );
?G - ( );
?- - ;
?= - ;
?< - ;
?> - .
15.4.1. File::Stat
file.stat file.lstat.
,
.
15.4.
195
::new(path) # -> stat

.
.

.
.<=>(stat)
.

, File.
.readable?
.readable_real?
.world_readable?
.writable?
.writable_real?
.world_writable?
.executable?
.executable_real?
.setuid?
.setgid?
.sticky?
.owned?
.grpowned?
.uid # -> integer

.
.gid # -> integer
.
.mode # -> perm
.
15.4.
196
,
File.
.atime
.ctime
.mtime
.size
.ftype
.blksize # -> integer

, . , nil.
.blocks # -> integer
, . , nil.
.dev # -> integer
, .
.dev_major # -> integer
.
.dev_minor # -> integer
.
.rdev # -> integer
, .
.rdev_major # -> integer
.
.rdev_minor # -> integer
.
.ino # -> integer
Inode .
.
.nlink # -> integer
.
15.4.
197
, File.
.zero?
.file?
.symlink?
.directory?
.blockdev?
.chardev?
.pipe?
.socket?
15.4.2. FileTest

,
File.
FileTest::readable?(path)
FileTest::readable_real?(path)
FileTest::world_readable?(path)
FileTest::writable?(path)
FileTest::writable_real?(path)
FileTest::world_writable?(path)
FileTest::executable?(path)
FileTest::executable_real?(path)
FileTest::setuid?(path)
FileTest::setgid?(path)
FileTest::sticky?(path)
FileTest::owned?(path)
FileTest::grpowned?(path)
, File.
FileTest::exist?(path)
(: exists?)
FileTest::size?(path) # -> integer

FileTest::zero?(path)
FileTest::file?(path)
FileTest::symlink?(path)
FileTest::directory?(path)
FileTest::blockdev?(path)
FileTest::chardev?(path)
FileTest::pipe?(path)
FileTest::socket?(path)
15.4.
, File.
FileTest::size(path) # -> integer

FileTest::identical?( first_path, second_path )
198
16

, ,
ARGV.
16.1.
, , ,
. ARGV,
- ARGF.
16.1.1. ARGV
, , kernel.gets kernel.readline. .
16.1.2. ARGF
: Enumerable
ARGF ($<) - , , ARGV.
, ARGV .
, ARGV
(, ).
.
.
, .
ARGV , ARGF
.

. .
ARGF::binmode
ARGF::close
ARGF::skip
ARGF::binmode?
( IOError)
( )
16.1.
ARGF::closed?
ARGF::eof?
200
(: eof)
::argv # -> ARGV

::filename # -> path
: path
.
"-".
$FILENAME.
. .
ARGF::external_encoding
ARGF::internal_encoding
ARGF::set_encoding

::to_s # -> ARGF
::to_io # -> io
: file
( ).
::to_i # -> integer
: fileno
. ArgumentError.
::to_a( sep = $/, size = nil ) # -> array
: readlines
( ). ( ,
\n\n).
::to_write_io # -> io
, ( -
-i).
16.1.
201

. .
:
ARGF::read
ARGF::read_nonblock
ARGF::readpartial
:
+ ARGF::gets
+ ARGF::readline
+ ARGF::lineno
+ ARGF::lineno=(pos)
+ ARGF::seek
+ ARGF::rewind
:
ARGF::getc
ARGF::readchar
ARGF::getbyte
ARGF::readbyte
ARGF::pos
ARGF::pos=(pos)
(: tell)
ARGF::each
(: each_line,
ARGF::bytes
(: each_byte)
ARGF::chars
(: each_char)
ARGF::codepoints
lines)
(: each_codepoint, Ruby 2.0)
16.1.
202

ARGF
-i.
. . .
::inplace_mode # -> string
, .
::inplace_mode=(ext) # -> self
, .
ARGF::write
ARGF::print
ARGF::printf
ARGF::putc
ARGF::puts
17

, , . - , (
).
17.1.
.
,
. .
,
$LOAD_PATH ($:) ( Ruby 2.0; String
object.to_path). , (
).
.require(path) # -> bool
.
$LOAD_FEAUTURES ($) ( Ruby 2.0; String
object.to_path).
. 0.
,
.
. .rb. , (,
.so .dll).
.require_relative(path) # -> bool
, .
.load( path, anonym = false )
.
.
17.2. (Ruby 2.0)
204
. .
.autoload( name, path ) # -> nil
( ).
.
.autoload?(name) # -> path
, . , nil.
module.autoload module.autoload?.
17.2. (Ruby 2.0)

Ruby , , . - , . , .
.
:
.
:
.
.
.
.refine(a_class) { } # -> a_module [private Module]
.
, (self ). .
( ).
,
.
#
class String
def bang
"#{self}"
end
end
"Hello".bang # -> "Hello"
17.2. (Ruby 2.0)
205
#
module StringBang
"Hello".bang # -> NoMethodError!
refine String do
def bang; "#{self}"; end
end
"Hello".bang # -> "Hello!"
end
"Hello".bang # -> NoMethodError!
.using(module) # -> main [MAIN]

. Kernel.eval, Kernel.instance_eval
Kernel.module_eval.
, .
,
(
super).
module Foo
def foo
puts "C#foo in Foo"
end
end
class C
prepend Foo
def foo
puts "C#foo"
end
end
class D < C
def foo
super
end
end
17.2. (Ruby 2.0)
206
module M
refine C do
def foo
puts "C#foo in M"
end
end
end
C.new.foo # -> 'C#foo in Foo'
using M
C.new.foo # -> "C#foo in M"
D.new.foo # -> "C#foo in Foo"
class E < C
def foo
super
end
end
E.new.foo # -> "C#foo in M"
, . Kernel.send,
Kernel.method, Kernel.respond_to?.
C = Class.new
module M
refine C do
def foo
puts "C#foo in M"
end
end
end
def call_foo(x)
x.foo
end
using M
x = C.new
x.foo
# -> "C#foo in M"
x.send :foo # -> NoMethodError!

x.respond_to? :foo # -> false
call_foo(x) # -> NoMethodError!
17.2. (Ruby 2.0)
207
, , .
# c.rb:
class C
end
# m.rb:
require "c"
module M
refine C do
def foo
puts "C#foo in M"
end
end
end
# m_user.rb:
require "m"
using M
class MUser
def call_foo(x)
x.foo
end
end
# main.rb:
require "m_user"
x = C.new
m_user = MUser.new
m_user.call_foo(x)
# -> C#foo in M
x.foo
# -> NoMethodError!
, .using .
17.2. (Ruby 2.0)
208
# :
# not activated here
using M
# activated here
class Foo
# activated here
def foo
# activated here
end
# activated here
end
# activated here
# eval:
eval <<EOF
using M
# activated here
EOF
# :
if false
using M
end
, ,
.
18
- ,
, , . ,
.
Exception .
, .

StandartError RuntimeError.
, ,
. Errno Exception.
SystemCallError,
Errno.
Errno (Errno::<ErrorKlass>::Errno).
18.1.
Exception - .
NoMemoryError - ;
ScriptError- ;
* LoadError - ;
NotImplemenetedError - ;
SyntaxError - ;
SecuirityError - ;
SignalException - ;
* Interrupt - ( Ctrl+C);
SystemExit - ;
SystemStackError - ;
StandardError - ;
* Math::DomainError - ;
ArgumentError - ;
EncodingError - , ;
18.2.
210
Encoding::CompatibilityError - ;
Encoding::ConverterNotFoundError -
;
Encoding::InvalidByteSequenceError - ;
Encoding::UndefinedConversionError - ;
FiberError - ;
IOError - ;
EOFError - ;
IndexError - ;
KeyError - ;
StopIteration - ;
LocalJumpError - ;
NameError - ;
NoMethodError - ;
RangeError - ;
FloatDomainError -
(NaN ..);
RegexpError - ;
RuntimeError - ;
SystemCallError - ;
ThreadError - ;
TypeError - .
;
ZeroDivisionError - .
18.2.
18.2.1. Exception
::exception( message = nil ) # -> exception
.
object.to_str.
::new( mesage = nil ) # -> exception

.
.exception( message = nil ) # -> exception
.
.to_str.
18.2.
211
.backtrace # -> array

.
:
"_:_: in '_'"
"_:_"
.set_backtrace(array) # -> array

.
.to_s # -> string
: message
( ).
.inspect # -> string .
18.2.2. LoadError [ruby 2.0]

.path # -> string
, .
18.2.3. SignalException
::new(sig_name) # -> a_signal_exception
(sig_number, name = nil)
.
.
.signo # -> number
.
18.2.4. SystemExit
::new( status = 0 ) # -> exception
.
.status # -> integer .
.success? # -> bool
.
18.2.
212
18.2.5. Encoding::InvalidByteSequenceError
.destination_encoding_name # -> string .
. .
.source_encoding_name # -> string
.
.
.error_bytes # -> string
- .
.incomplete_input? # -> bool
-
.
.readagain_bytes # -> string
, .
18.2.6. Encoding::UndefinedConversionError
.destination_encoding_name # -> string .
. .
.source_encoding_name # -> string
.
.
.error_char # -> string
- .
18.2.7. StopIteration
.result # -> object .
18.3.
213
18.2.8. LocalJumpError
.exit_value # -> object
, .
.reason # -> symbol
,
(:break, :redo, :retry, :next, :return, :noreason).
18.2.9. NameError
::new( message, name = nil ) # -> exception
.
.name # -> name
, .
18.2.10. NoMethodError
::new( message, name, *args ) # -> exception
.
.args # -> object
, .
18.2.11. SystemCallError
::new( message, integer ) # -> exception
Errno ( )
SystemCallError.
.errno # -> integer .
18.3.
18.3.1.

Kernel.
.raise( message = nil ) # -> exception
( exc = RuntimeError, message = nil, pos = caller ) # -> exception
: fail
18.3.
214

( RuntimeError), $! nil.
, .exception, .
18.3.2.
rescue, begin, def, class, module.
, .
, .
,
.
.

begin
_
rescue
_
else
code
ensure
code
end

. $!
.

rescue => _.
StandardError .
rescue class rescue class => _.
.
else . , .
ensure .
( return, break .)
18.3.
215
:
rescue _
, . StandardError .
18.3.3. Catch Throw

catch throw. Ruby
Kernel, .
.catch(name = nil) { |name| } # -> object
. object.throw . .
.throw( name, *args )
, object.catch
( ). c . object.catch.
19

19.1.
, , .
19.1.1.
, ,
. -
.
.
- .
. - . ,
.
, , , .
, , , .
,
- .
:
- (unit test);
- ;
- , ;
-
.
.
, .
19.2.
217
testrb ( Ruby, Test::Unit).

(
) .

irb.
19.1.2. TDD
- ,
(TDD, Test-Drive Development). :
, ;
. ( );
;
. .
(.. ).
-> -> ->
().
19.2.
19.2.1.
, .
.global_variables # -> array [PRIVATE: Kernel]
.
.local_variables # -> array [PRIVATE: Kernel]
.
::constants # -> array [Module]
( Object).
::nesting # -> array [Module]
.
.__method__ # -> symbol [Kernel]
: __callee__
. nil.
Ruby ,
.
19.2.
218
def first; __callee__; end

first # -> :first
alias second first
second # -> :first

RUBY_PATCHLEVEL - ;
RUBY_PLATFORM - ;
RUBY_RELEASE_DATE - ;
RUBY_VERSION - ;
$PROGRAM_NAME ($0) - ( );
__dir__ - (ruby 2.0).
File.dirname __FILE__;
__FILE__ - ;
__LINE__ - ;
__Encoding__ - .
19.2.2.
.caller( offset = 1 ) # -> array [Kernel]
, :
":_" ": _ in ".
Ruby .
, , nil.
Ruby 2.0

.
.caller_locations( start = 1, length = nil ) # -> array or nil [Ruby 2.0]
(range) # -> array or nil
, Thread::Backtrace::Location.
, nil.
19.2.
219
# Ruby 1.9:
def whoze_there_using_caller
caller[0][/`([^']*)'/, 1]
end
# Ruby 2.0:
def whoze_there_using_locations
caller_locations(1, 1)[0].label
end
Thread::Backtrace::Location
.absolute_path # -> string
.
caller_locations.last.absolute_path # -> "/usr/bin/irb"
.base_label # -> string

.
.
caller_locations.last.base_label # -> "main"

.
caller_locations.last.inspect # -> "\"/usr/bin/irb:12:in '<main>'\""
.label # -> string

. , , .. .
caller_locations.last.label # -> "<main>"

.
caller_locations.last.lineno # -> 12
.path # -> string

.
loc = caller_locations(0..1).first
loc.path # -> 'caller_locations.rb'
.to_s # -> string

Kernel.caller.
caller_locations.last.to_s # -> "/usr/bin/irb:12:in '<main>'"
19.2.
220
19.2.3.
Kernel.
.set_trace_func( proc = nil )

. .
: , , , , Binding .
nil .
:
c-call - ;
c-return - ;
call - Ruby ;
return - Ruby ;
class - ;
end - ;
line - ;
raise - .
Ruby. TracePoint.
.trace_var( name, code ) # -> nil
(name) { |object| } -> nil
.
.
.untrace_var( name, code = nil ) # -> array
. , .
TracePoint (ruby 2.0)
Kernel.set_trace_func .
.

::new(*events) { |a_trace_point| } # -> a_trace_point
.
.
.
:
19.2.
221
line: ;
class: ;
end: ;
call: ;
return: ;
c_call: ;
c_return: ;
raise: ;
b_call: ;
b_return: ;
thread_begin: ;
thread_end: .
trace = TracePoint.new(:call) do |tp|
p [tp.lineno, tp.defined_class, tp.method_id, tp.event]
end
# -> #<TracePoint:0x007f17372cdb20>
ThreadError.
, , RuntimeError.
TracePoint.trace(:line) do |tp|
p tp.raised_exception
end
# -> RuntimeError!
RuntimeError.
TracePoint.trace(:line) do |tp|
$tp = tp
end
$tp.line # -> RuntimeError!
::trace(*events) { |a_trace_point| } # -> a_trace_point

, .

.enable # -> boolean
{ } # -> self
. false.
trace.enabled?
# -> false
trace.enable
# -> false
trace.enabled?
# -> true
trace.enable
# -> true
19.2.
222
, .
trace.enabled? # -> false
trace.enable do
trace.enabled?
end
.disable # -> boolean

{ } # -> self
. false.
trace.enabled? # -> true
trace.disable
# -> false

trace.disable
# -> false
,
.
trace.disable do
trace.enabled?
end
.enabled? # -> boolean

.
.binding # -> a_binding

.
.defined_class # -> a_module
(
), .
.
19.2.
223
class C; def foo; end; end

p tp.defined_class # -> C
end.enable do
C.new.foo
end
module M; def foo; end; end
class C; include M; end;
p tp.defined_class # -> M
end.enable do
C.new.foo
end
class C; def self.foo; end; end
p tp.defined_class # -> #<Class:C>
end.enable do
C.foo
end
.event # -> symbol

.
.
.
.method_id # -> string
.
.path # -> string
.
.raised_exception # -> an_exception

( :raise).
.return_value # -> object
( :return, :c_return, :b_return).
.self # -> a_trace_point
, .
20

20.1.
Ruby
. .
20.1.1.
- . ( ).
,
. .
- . . ,
.
. ,
.
(thread) (io). - (, , ..), -
, .
,
() ( ), .
,
.
, ;
;
.
, - .
20.1.
225
.
.
,
, , . , ( ,
).
20.1.2.
Ruby ,
(GIL), . GIL , .
- ,
. .
, .
, Ruby
( ).
Ruby .
, . , , , .
. ( ). - ,
.
20.1.3.
, . -
.
.

, , ,
.
20.2. (Thread)
226
register = i
register = register + 1
i = register
,
, .
20.1.4.
Ruby
. .
: ;
(STM): ,
, (Clojure);
: ,
. ,
(Scala,
Erlang).
20.2. (Thread)
, -
, .
: , . , ,
,
.
Edward A. Lee
, , , , - .
, , .
,
, .
,
, , , .
( ), , , .
20.2. (Thread)
227
Ruby
(, , ).
-
.
:
- , ;
- , ( , );
- , .
, .
. .
. ( /).
20.2.1. Thread
Thread POSIX .
::start(*arg) { |*arg| } # -> thread
: fork, new
.
Thread.start { } # -> #<Thread:0x962817c run>
::list # -> array

, .
Thread.list # -> [#<Thread:0x94da0a4 run>, #<Thread:0x964b4d8 sleep>!
::current # -> thread

.
Thread.current # -> #<Thread:0x94da0a4 run>
::main # -> thread

.
Thread.main # -> #<Thread:0x94da0a4 run>

::pass # -> nil
. (.. ).
Thread.start { Thread.pass } # -> #<Thread:0x962e554 run>
20.2. (Thread)
228
::stop # -> nil

.
::exit # -> thread
C: kill
. , Thread.

.join( sec = nil ) # -> thread

, (
-
nil).
a = Thread.new { print ?a; sleep(10); print ?b; print ?c }
x = Thread.new { print ?x; Thread.pass; print ?y; print ?z }
x.join
# -> "axyz"
y = Thread.new { 4.times { sleep 0.1; puts 'tick... ' } }
puts "Waiting" until y.join 0.15
# ->
"tick...
Waiting
tick...
Waiting
tick...
tick..."
Ruby
ThreadError.
.value # -> object
( .join).
.run # -> self
. ,
, .
.wakeup # -> self
(
).
20.2. (Thread)
229
.exit(status) # -> self

: kill, terminate
. , Thread.
.priority # -> integer
. . , .
, .
.
.priority=(integer) # -> self
.
.add_trace_func( proc = nil ) # -> proc
: set_trace_func
. nil, .

.[name]=(object) # -> object
.
, (
).
[
Thread.new { Thread.current["name"] = "A" },
Thread.new { Thread.current[:name]
= "B" },
Thread.new { Thread.current["name"] = "C" }

].each do |th|
th.join
puts "#{th.inspect}: #{th[:name]}"
end
# ->
#<Thread:0x00000002a54220 dead>: A
#<Thread:0x00000002a541a8 dead>: B
#<Thread:0x00000002a54130 dead>: C
Thread.main[:local] = 4 # -> 4
20.2. (Thread)
230
.[name] # -> object

. , nil.
Thread.main[:local] # -> 4
.keys # -> array

.
Thread.main.keys # -> [:local]
.key?(name)
.
Thread.main.key? :global # -> false
Ruby 2.0
Ruby . .[],
.
.thread_variable_set(name, value)
.
.thread_variable_get(name) # -> value
.
Thread.new {
Thread.current.thread_variable_set("foo", "bar")
Thread.current["foo"] = "bar"
Fiber.new {
Fiber.yield [
Thread.current.thread_variable_get("foo"), # -> 'bar'
Thread.current["foo"],
# -> nil
]
}.resume
}.join.value # -> ['bar', nil]
.thread_variable?(name) # -> bool

.
me = Thread.current
me.thread_variable_set(:oliver, "a")
me.thread_variable?(:oliver)
# -> true
me.thread_variable?(:stanley)
# -> false
20.2. (Thread)
231
.thread_variables # -> array

.
thr = Thread.new do
Thread.current.thread_variable_set(:cat, 'meow')
Thread.current.thread_variable_set("dog", 'woof')
end
thr.join
# -> #<Thread:0x401b3f10 dead>
thr.thread_variables
# -> [:dog, :cat]

::abort_on_exception # -> bool
. - false.
::abort_on_exception=(bool) # -> bool
.
, .
$DEBUG true ( -d).
Thread.main.exit(0).
.abort_on_exception # -> bool
. - false.
.abort_on_exception= (bool) # -> bool
.
, .
$DEBUG true ( -d).
.raise( message = nil )
( exc, message = nil, pos = nil )
. .
[ruby 2.0]
Ruby . (.raise), (.kill) (
).
20.2. (Thread)
232
::handle_interrupt(options) { } # -> result

(
). , .
.
:
:immediate - ;
:on_blocking - ;
:never - .
# `RuntimeError` .
th = Thread.new do
Thread.handle_interrupt(RuntimeError => :never) {
begin
# You can write resource allocation code safely.
Thread.handle_interrupt(RuntimeError => :immediate) {
# ...
}
ensure
# You can write resource deallocation code safely.
end
}
end
Thread.pass
# ...
th.raise "stop"
::pending_interrupt?(exception_klass = nil) # -> boolean

( ). , .
20.2. (Thread)
233
th = Thread.new{
Thread.handle_interrupt(RuntimeError => :on_blocking){
loop do
# ...
# ( ).
if Thread.pending_interrupt?
Thread.handle_interrupt(Object => :immediate){}
end
# ...
end
}
}
# ...
th.raise # .
.pending_interrupt?(exception_klass = nil) # -> boolean

.
.group # -> thgroup

, .
, nil.
Thread.main.group # -> #<ThreadGroup:0x94d9d98>

.
Thread.main.inspect -> "#<Thread:0x94da0a4 run>"
.status # -> object

.
run - ;
sleep - ;
false - ;
nil - ;
aborting - ;
Thread.main.status -> "run"
.alive? # -> bool

( ).
Thread.main.alive? -> true
.stop? # -> bool

( ).
Thread.main.stop? -> false
20.2. (Thread)
234
.safe_level # -> integer

.
Thread.main.safe_level -> 0
.backtrace # -> array

.
.backtrace_locations(*args) # -> array || nil [Ruby 2.0]
. .caller_locations.
20.2.2. (ThreadGroup)
- . . ,
. ,
.
::Default # -> thgroup
, . .
::new # -> thgroup
.
ThreadGroup.new # -> #<ThreadGroup:0x9711728>
.add(thread) # -> thgroup

.
Thread.main.group # -> #<ThreadGroup:0x94d9d98>
ThreadGroup.new.add Thread.main # -> #<ThreadGroup:0x96f0154>
Thread.main.group # -> #<ThreadGroup:0x96f0154>
.enclose # -> thgroup

, .
Thread.main.group.enclose # -> #<ThreadGroup:0x96f0154>
ThreadGroup.new.add Thread.main # -> error
.enclosed? # -> bool

.
Thread.main.group.enclosed? # -> true
.list # -> array

, .
Thread.main # -> #<Thread:0x94da0a4 run>
Thread.main.group.list # -> [#<Thread:0x94da0a4 run>]
20.2. (Thread)
235
20.2.3. (Mutex)
, ( ).
: . , Ruby, (Mutex - mutual exclusion, ). , .

. , Matz
.
, , Mutex. , .
.
::new # -> mutex
.
.lock # -> mutex
. , ThreadError.
Ruby (.trap) ThreadError.
.try_lock # -> bool
. .
.synchronize # -> bool
.
@mutex = Mutex.new
@mutex.synchronize do
i += 1
end

.locked? # -> bool
.
.owned? # -> bool [Ruby 2.0]
?
20.3. (Process)
236
.unlock # -> mutex

. , ThreadError.
.sleep( sec = nil ) # -> sec
. ,
ThreadError.
( ).
20.3. (Process)
20.3.1. Linux
, , , .
init
.
, ( / ).
( ) .
- , .
:
PID - ;
PPID - ;
UID - ( , );
EUID - .
;
GUID - ;
EGUID - . , ;
20.3. (Process)
237
;
;
.
:
();
;
();
- .
- .
20.3.2.
- , .
:
ps
: kill -15 PID kill -TERM PID

: kill -9 kill -KILL
:
: nice -5 NAME ( 10);
: nice 7 NAME;
: renice 7 PID
,
, ,
.
20.3.3. Ruby
- . Ruby , .

, .
.fork { nil } # -> status
, , , .
PID ;
PPID PID ;
20.4. (Signal)
238
, . .

exec, . .
Linux , .
.
.
. 0.
, :
;
nil.

::wait ::detach, .
,
Process.respond_to?(:fork) false.
.fork { nil } # -> status [PRIVATE: Kernel]
Kernel.
20.4. (Signal)
- .
::list # -> hash
, .
::trap( name, command ) # -> object
(name) { } # -> object
.
( SIG ), . .
Ruby :SEGV, :BUS, :ILL, :FPE, :VTALRM
ArgumentError.
20.5.
239
command:
, ;
:
- ;
"DEFAULT" ("SIG_DFL") - ;
"SYSTEM_DEFAULT" - ;
"EXIT" (0) - .
"IGNORE" ("SIG_IGN")
- : Unix - "/bin/sh", Windows - ENV["RUBYSHELL"]

ENV["COMSPEC"];
string, *arg - ;
{ [string, first_arg], *arg } - ,
.
string
.trap( name, command ) # -> object [PRIVATE: Kernel]

(name) { } # -> object
Kernel.
::signame(signo) # -> string [Ruby 2.0]
.
Signal.trap("INT") { |signo| puts Signal.signame(signo) }
Process.kill "INT", 0
# -> 'INT'
20.5.
, IO .
IO.
, .
IO . IO .
Goliath Thin.
. / (
).
20.6. C
240
20.6. C
, , .
RArray, RHash, RFile ..
,
. - RValue.
RValue , . .
, .
:
;
(
).
. , ( ).
:
-
FL_MARK. ;
.
. . ( )
. ,
( 10 ).
,
.
( ). .
. ,
, ,
.
20.6.1. Ruby 2.0

Bitmap marking ( ). ( -, ).
20.6. C
241
ree (ruby enterprise edition).

, ,
. , . 1
FL_MARK.
( ), .

( ), . , .
,
.
, , ,
. malloc() posix_memalign().
21
- Ruby.
Ruby
,
.
:
, ( ARGV);
( ENV);
, , ;
, .
. .
-T
( - 0).
SecurityError.
$SAFE
21.1.
.
21.1.1. 0
.
21.1.2. 1
:
, ;
, ;
, ;
, ;
-e,
-i, -l, -r, -s, -S, -X;
21.1.
243
Dir, IO, File, FileTest, ;

test, eval, require, load, trap, .
RUBYLIB RUBYOPT .
21.1.3. 2

fork
syscall
exit!
Process.equid=
Process.fork
Process.setpgid
Process.setsid
Process.kill
Process.seeprioprity
21.1.4. 3
, . .untaint .
21.1.5. 4
:
;
require load ( );
;
;
;
;
;
.srand Random.srand.
.eval, .
21.2.
244
21.2.
.
.freeze # -> self
.
.frozen? # -> bool
.
.taint # -> self
.
.
.untaint # -> self
.
.tainted? # -> bool
.
.untrust # -> self
, .
,
4.
.trust # -> self
, .
.untrusted? # -> bool
.
:
--copyright - ;
--version - ;
-(-h)elp - ;
-0 [codepoint] - ,
($/). .
, ;
-00,
;
-0777, .
-C (-X) <dir> - ;
--encoding (-E) <external>[:internal] - ;
-F <pattern> - ($;),
.split.
;
-I <dirs> - . $LOAD_PATH ($:) . (Linux)
(Windows);
-K <encoding> - .
e - EUC-JP;
s - Windows-31J (CP932);
u - UTF-8;
n - ASCII-8BIT (BINARY).
-S - PATH;
-T [security] - (
1);
-U - UTF-8 ;
-W [verbose] - :
A.
247
0 - , $VERBOSE nil;
1 - , $VERBOSE false;
2 ( ) - , $VERBOSE
true.
-a - -n
-p. : $F = $_.split!;
-c - . ,
"Syntax OK";
-(-d)ebug - ($DEBUG true).
,
$DEBUG true;
{verbatim} if $DEBUG
-e <verbatim> - ;
-i [ext] - ,
ARGF. ;
-l - . , -, $\ $/, ,
-, .chop!;
-n - ( ):
while gets
# code
end
-p - (
, ):
while gets
# code
end
print
-r <lib> - .require;
-s - , . --. ARGV.
-x=y, $x y;
-x, $x true.
-(-v)erbose - -w. ,
.
A.
248
,
$VERBOSE true;
{verbatim} if $VERBOSE
-w - ($VERBOSE
true);
-x [dir] - , !# ruby. EOF (
), ^D (control-D), ^Z (control-Z), __END__. ;
-(-y)ydebug - ;
--disable-... (--enable-...) - :
gems - (
);
rubyopt - RUBYOPT;
all - .
--dump <target> - .
:
RUBYLIB - , ;
RUBYOPT - , .
-d, -E, -I, -K, -r, -T, -U, -v, -w, -W, --debug, -disable-... --enable-...;
RUBYPATH - , ;
RUBYSHELL - .
mswin32, mingw32, OS/2;
PATH - .
ENV - , . .to_hash,
.
:
$F - $_.split.
, -a, -n -p;
$-W - ;
$-i - , ;
$-d # -> bool ;
$-l # -> bool ;
A.
249
$-v # -> bool ;

$-p # -> bool ;
$-a # -> bool ;
$* - , ;
$> - ;
$; ($-F) - string.split.
( nil);
$/ ($-0) - kernel.gets. (
- "\n"). nil, ;
$\ - , (
nil);
$, - array.join kernel.printf
( nil);
$~ - MatchData ;
$& - ;
$ - , ;
$ - , ;
$+ - ;
$1, $2, $3, $4, $5, $6, $7, $8, $9 - ,
;
$LOAD_FEAUTURES ($) - ( Ruby 2.0;
String object.to_path);
$LOAD_PATH ($:, $-I) - , ( Ruby 2.0;
String object.to_path);
$. - ;
$_ - ;
$! - ;
$@ - ;
$DEBUG - true, -(-d)ebug;
$VERBOSE ($-v, $-w)
nil, -W0;
true, -w -(-v)erbose;
false .
$$ - ;
$? - ;
$FILENAME - ARGF. "-";
$SAFE - .

Ruby
Onigmo: http://github.com/k-takata/Onigmo.

http://perldoc.perl.org/perlre.html.
:
i ;
m . ;
x (, , )
;
o
, ;
u, e, s, n
. : u - UTF-8, e - EUC-JP , s - Windows-31J , n - ASCII8BIT.
ASCII :
. - (
);
\w - , ;
\W - , , ;
\s - (, ,
);
\S - , ;
\d - ;
\D - , ;
\h - ;
\H - , .
B.
251
Unicode :
\R - Ruby ,
. non really.
(?>\x0D\x0A|[\x0A-\x0D\x{85}\x{2028}\x{2029}]) Unicode
(?>\x0D\x0A|[\x0A-\x0D]) .
"\n" =~ /^\R$/
# -> 0
"\r" =~ /^\R$/
# -> 0
"\r\n" =~ /^\R$/ # -> 0
\X - Ruby Unicode. eXtended

Unicode character.
"P\u{307}" =~ /^\X$/ # -> 0
[[::]] - , :
alnum - ;
alpha - ;
ascii - ASCII ;
blank - ;
cntrl - ;
digit - ;
graph - , ;
lower - ;
print - , , ;
punct - ;
space - (, , );
upper - ;
word - , ( );
xdigit - ;
\p{} - , .
\p{^} - , .
B.
252
Alnum - ;
Alpha - ;
Any - Unicode ;
ASCII - ASCII ;
Assigned - ;
Blank - ;
Cntrl - ;
Digit - ;
Graph - , ;
Lower - ;
Print - , , ;
Punct - ;
Space - (, , );
Upper - ;
Word - , ( );
Xdigit - .
Unicode- :
C - ; Cc - ; Cf - ,
; n - ; Co - ; Cs -;
L - ; Ll - ; Lm - ; Lo - ; Lt - ; Lu - ;
M , ; Mn - , ; Mc - ,
; Me - ,
;
N - ; Nd - ; Nl - ; No -
;
P - ; Pc - ; Pd - ; Ps - ; Pe - ; Pi -
; Pf - ; Po - ;
S - ; Sm - ; Sc -
; Sk - ; So -
;
Z - , ; Zs - ;
Zl - ; Zp - .
, .
: Arabic, Armenian, Balinese, Bengali, Bopomofo, Braille, Buginese,
Buhid, Canadian_Aboriginal, Carian, Cham, Cherokee, Common, Coptic, Cuneiform,
B.
253
Cypriot, Cyrillic, Deseret, Devanagari, Ethiopic, Georgian, Glagolitic, Gothic, Greek,

Gujarati, Gurmukhi, Han, Hangul, Hanunoo, Hebrew, Hiragana, Inherited, Kannada,
Katakana, Kayah_Li, Kharoshthi, Khmer, Lao, Latin, Lepcha, Limbu, Linear_B,
Lycian, Lydian, Malayalam, Mongolian, Myanmar, New_Tai_Lue, Nko, Ogham,
Ol_Chiki, Old_Italic, Old_Persian, Oriya, Osmanya, Phags_Pa, Phoenician, Rejang,
Runic, Saurashtra, Shavian, Sinhala, Sundanese, Syloti_Nagri, Syriac, Tagalog,
Tagbanwa, Tai_Le, Tamil, Telugu, Thaana, Thai, Tibetan, Tifinagh, Ugaritic, Vai, and
Yi.
:
[...] - .
(a-z);
[^...] - ,
;
(?:...) -
;
(...) -
. ( 1 9);
(?<>...) -
. .
, , ,
, nil, .
.
$1 $9
, .
:
\_ - , ;
\K <> - ,
;
\g <...> - ,
. Ruby (. Onigmo).
B.
254
:
...? - 0 1 ;
...* - 0 .
( );
...*? - 0 .
( );
...+ - 1 .
( );
...+? - 1 .
( );
...{a, b} - a b .
( );
...{a, b}? - a b .
( ).
a, b, .
:
^... - ;
...$ - ;
\A... - ;
...\z - ;
...\Z -
, ;
...\b - ;
\b... - ;
...\B - , ;
\B... - , .
/^...$/
. , , /\A...\z/.
\b...\b .
:
1|2 - ;
1&&2 - ;
1(?=2) - 1, 2 ( );
B.
255
1(?!2) - 1, 2
( );
1(?<=2) - 1, 2
( );
\K - Ruby , ( ).
(/1 \K 2/ /(?<=1) 2/).
keep.
1(?<!2) - 1, 2
( ).
(?(cond)yes|no) - Ruby .
/.
regexp = /^([A-Z])?[a-z]+(?(1)[A-Z]|[a-z])$/
regexp =~ "foo"
# -> 0
regexp =~ "foO"
# -> nil
regexp =~ "FoO"
# -> 0
:
(?#...) - ;
(?>...) - ;
(?1-2) - 1 2
;
(?1-2:...) - 1 2
.

- , .
, .
.
.
( , ):
%[][][.]< >
.
.
"%5d"%2 # -> "
2"
(
- 6).
:
:
b - .
2 .. .
"%b" % 2 # -> "10"
"%b" % -2 # -> "..10"
B - , 0B .
d ( i u) - .
"%d" % 0x01 # -> "1"
o - . 2 ..
.
"%o" % 2 # -> "2"
"%o" % -2 # -> "..76"
x - . 2
.. .
C.
257
"%x" % 2 # -> "2"

"%x" % -2 # -> "..fe"
X - , 0X, .
:
e - .
"%e" % 1.2 # -> "1.200000e+00"
E - , E.
f - .
"%.3f" % 1.2 # -> "1.200"
g - ,
-4 .
.
"%.1g" % 1.2 # -> "1"
"%g" % 123.4 # -> "1e+02"
G - , E.
a - : ,
0x, p, .
"%.3a" % 1.2 # -> "0x1.333p+0"
A - , 0X
P.
:
c - .
"%" % ?h # -> "h"
p - object.inspect .
"%p" % ?h # -> "\"h\""
s - . .
"%.3s" % "Ruby" # -> "Rub"
:
- - , .
4b" % 2 # -> "10
"
0 ( ) - .
"%04b" % 2 # -> "0010"
C.
258
+ ( ) -
. oxXbB .
"%+b" % -2 # -> "-10"
# ( bBoxXaAeEfgG) - .
o
, .
"%#o" % 2 # -> "02"
xXbB .
"%#X" % 2 # -> "0X2"
aAeEfgG .
"%#.0E" % 2 # -> "2.E+00"
gG .
"%#G" % 1.2 # -> "1.20000"
* - . .
"%*d" % [ -2, 1 ] # -> "1 "
, ,
.
$ ( 1).
.
"%3$d, %1$d, %1$d" % [ 1, 2, 3 ] # -> "3, 1, 1"
<>
.
"%<two>d, %<one>d" % { one: 1, two: 2, three: 3 } # -> "2, 1"
:

. .
x = ?R # -> "R"
,
object.to_ary,
. .
x, y
[ 1, 2 ] # -> [ 1, 2 ]
x # -> 1
y # -> 2
, . .
x
?Y, ?N # -> [ "Y", "N" ]
x # -> "Y"
. .
x, y
?Y, ?N # -> [ "Y", "N" ];
x # -> "Y"
y# -> "N"
x, y
y, x # -> [ "N", "Y" ]
x # -> "N"
y # -> "Y"
, ,
.
, .
x,
?Y, ?N # -> [ "Y", "N" ]
x# -> "Y"
, ,
. , . .
D.
x, y, z
?Y, ?N
260
# -> [ "Y", "N" ]
x # -> "Y"
y # -> "N"
z # -> nil
, ,
, .
.
x, y
?Y, ?N, ?Q # -> [ "Y", "N", "Q" ]
x # -> "Y"
y # -> "N"
(*),
.
( object.to_splat). .
. .
x, y
*(1..3) # -> [ 1, 2, 3 ]
x # -> 1
y # -> 2
(*),
. .
*x, y
?Y, ?N # -> [ "Y", "N" ]
x # -> [ "Y" ]
y # -> "N"
*x, y
?Y, ?N, ?Q # -> [ "Y", "N", "Q" ]
x # -> [ "Y", "N" ]

y # ->"Q"
x, *y, z
?Y, ?N, ?Q, ?R # -> [ "Y", "N", "Q", "R" ]
x # ->"Y"
y # ->[ "N", "Q" ]
z # ->"R"
,
:
1. ;
2. .
D.
.
x, (y, z) = ?Y, ?N
x = ?Y
(y, z) = ?N
y, z = ?N
y = ?N
z = nil
# -> [ "Y", "N" ]
261
:
replace: , . uFFFD Unicode ? ;
:invalid => :replace - ;
:undef => :replace - ;
:fallback => encoding - ;
:xml => :text - XML CharData.
HTML 4.0:
& &
< <
> >
&x ( x - ).
:xml => :attr - XML AttrValue.
HTML 4.0:
& &
< <
> >
"
"
&x ( x - ).
cr_newline: true - LF (\n) CR (\r);
crlf_newline: true - LF (\n) CRLF (\r\n);
universal_newline: true - CR (\r) CRLF (\r\n) LF (\n).

.
() ( ).
:
;
,
;
(*) ;
sSiIlL , ;
> < (l_> L!<).
:
C - 8- (unsigned integer unsigned char);
c - 8- (signed integer signed char);
S - 16- (uint_16t);
s - 16- (int_16t);
L - 32- (uint_32t);
l - 32- (int_32t);
Q - 64- (uint_64t);
S_ (S!) - (unsigned
short);
s_ (s!) - (signed short);
I (I_ I!) - (unsigned integer);
i (i_ i!) - (signed integer);
L_ (L!) - (unsigned
long);
l_ (l!) - (signed long);
N - 32- ( );
F.
264
n - 16- ( );
V - 32- (VAX);
v - 16- (VAX);
U - UTF-8 ;
w - BER- .
:
D, d - ;
F, f - ;
E - , ;
e - ;
G - , ;
g - .
:
A - ASCII
;
a - ;
Z - ;
B - (MSB );
b - (LSB );
H - (hight nibble );
h - (low nibble );
u - UU- ;
M - MIME- (RFC2045);
m - base64- (RFC2045, 0, RFC4648);
P - ( );
p - , .
:
@ - ;
X - ;
x - .

:
%[][][].
, .
. ,
, .
:
_
0
^
#
- ;
- ;
- ( );
- ;
- .
:
%Y - ;
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime ": %Y" # -> ": 1990"
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime ": %7Y" # -> ": 0001990"
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime ": %-7Y" # -> ": 1990"
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime ": %_7Y" # -> ":
1990"
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime ": %07Y" # -> ": 0001990"
%G - , ;
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime ": %G" # -> ": 1990"
%y - 100 ( 00 99);
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime ": %y" # -> ": 90"
%g - 100 ( 00 99),
;
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime ": %g" # -> ": 90"
%C - , 100 (20 2011);

Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime ": %C" # -> ": 19"
266
G.
:
%b (%h) - ( );
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime ": %b" -> ": Mar"
%B - ;
Time.local(1990, 3, 31).strftime ": %B" # -> ": March"
Time.local(1990, 3, 31).strftime ": %^B" # -> ": MARCH"
Time.local(1990, 3, 31).strftime ": %#B" # -> ": MARCH"
%m - ( 01 12);
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime ": %m" -> ": 03"
:
%U - ( 00 53), ;
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime ": %U" -> ": 12"
%W - ( 00 53), ;
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime ": %W" -> ": 13"
%V - ( ISO 8601 - 01 53);

Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime ": %V" -> ": 13"
:
%j - ( 001 366);
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime ": %j" # -> ": 090"
%d - ;
Time.local( 1990, 3, 3 ).strftime ": %d" # -> ": 03"
%e - ;
Time.local( 1990, 3, 3 ).strftime ": %e" # -> ":
3"
%a - ( );
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime ": %a" # -> ": Sat"
%A - ;
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime ": %A" # -> ": Saturday"
%u - ( 1 7, - 1);
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime ": %u" # -> ": 6"
%w - ( 0 6, - 0);
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime ": %w" # -> ": 6"
267
G.
:
%H - 24 ( 00 23);
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime ": %H" # -> ": 00"
%k - 24 ( 0 23);
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime ": %k" # -> ":
0"
%I - 12 ( 01 12);
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime ": %I" # -> ": 12"
%l - 12 , - ( 0 12);
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime ": %l" # -> ": 12"
%p - (AM PM);
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime "%I %p" # -> "12 AM"
%P - (am pm);
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime "%I %P" # -> "12 am"
:
%M - ( 00 59);
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime ": %M" # -> ": 00"
%S - ( 00 60);
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime ": %S" # -> ": 00"
%N - .
%3N - ;
%6N - ;
%9N - ( );
%12N - .
%L - ( 000 999);
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime ": %L" # -> ": 000"
%s - , 1970-01-01 00:00:00 UTC;

Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime "%s" # -> "638827200"
:
%D - "%m/%d/%y";
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime ": %D"
# -> ": 03/31/90"
%F - "%Y-%m-%d" ( ISO 8601);
G.
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime ": %F"

# -> ": 1990-03-31"
%v - "%e-%b-%Y" ( VMS);
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime ": %v"
# -> ": 31-MAR-1990"
%c - ;
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime ": %c"
# -> ": Sat Mar 31 00:00:00 1990"
%r - "%I:%M:%S
%p";
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime "%r" # -> "12:00:00 AM"
%R - "%H:%M";
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime "%R" # -> "00:00"
%T - "%H:%M:%S";
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime "%T" # -> "00:00:00"
:
%n - ;
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime "%D %n %F %n %c"
# -> "03/31/90 \n 1990-03-31 \n Sat Mar 31 00:00:00 1990"
%t - ;
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime "%D %t %F %t %c"
# -> "03/31/90 \t 1990-03-31 \t Sat Mar 31 00:00:00 1990"
:
%x - ;
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime "%x" # -> "03/31/90"
%X - ;
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime "%X" # -> "00:00:00"
%z - UTC;
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime "%z" # -> "+0400"
%:z - ;
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime "%:z" # -> "+04:00"
268
G.
%::z - , ;
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime "%::z" # -> "+04:00:00"
%Z - ;
Time.local( 1990, 3, 31 ).strftime "%Z" # -> "MSD"
%% - .
269

(mode) .
:
r - ;
r+ - , ( );
w - ( ).
;
w+ - , ( ).
;
a - ( ). ;
a+ - , ( ).
;
b - ( ). ASCII .
Windows;
t - ( ).
:
.
- .
.
-
. .
,
, - .
,
: "w+:ascii:utf-8". , .
- File::Constants.
H.
271
:
mode: ;
textmode: true, ;
binmode: true, ;
autoclose: true, , ;
external_encoding: ;
internal_encoding: . , ;
encoding: external:internal.
, .
Linux
- Linux ( ). ( ).
I.1.
- , , (
);
- , .
, . -
, .
.

( , ..);
() - , .
, . -
, .
1. .
2. ;
- , .
, . .
- ;
- ,
- .
.
I.2.
273
.
- .
- , , .
I.2.
.
Ruby - ,
object.to_path.
- , ( ), .
:
- ,
;
- , .
:
, ..;
.;
~;
Windows
(\), Linux - (/);
.
* - ;
** - ( );
? - ;
[...] -
;
[^...] - , ;
{ } - , (Ruby 2.0).
, .
I.3.
274
:
File::FNM_SYSCASE - ( );
File::FNM_CASEFOLD - ;
File::FNM_PATHNAME - ?,
( );
File::FNM_NOESCAPE -
, ;
File::FNM_DOTMATCH -
, (
Linux);
File::FNM_EXTGLOB - (Ruby 2.0).
. , ,
.
I.3.

.
: , .
.
, .
,
(
).
, ;
,
.
Windows. .
I.3.
275
(permission):
700 - , ;
400 - ;
200 - ;
100 - ( );
70 - , ;
40 - ;
20 - ;
10 - ( );
7 - , ;
4 - ;
2 - ;
1 - (
).
,
.
:
4000 - ;
2000 - ;
1000 - , .
,
.
0444 - .
. ;
UID - , ;
EUID - , ;
GUID - , , ;
EGUID - ,
;

.
,
.
I.4.
276
I.4.
:
File::RDONLY - ;
File::WRONLY - ;
File::RDWR - , ;
File::APPEND - ( );
File::CREAT - .
. ;
File::DIRECT - ;
File::EXCL - ;
File::NONBLOCK - , , ;
File::TRUNC - ( );
File::NOCTTY - , ;
File::BINARY - ;
File::SYNC, File::DSYNC, File::RSYNC - c .
, , ;
File::NOFOLLOW - , ;
File::NOATIME - .

- - .

, . , - . ,
. , , ( ..)
. , Ruby
.
.
. Ruby. -
, .
,
.
Ruby, :
http://www.google.com - ;
http://www.rubygems.org - ( Ruby RubyGems);
http://www.ruby-toolbox.com - , gem- ();
http://github.com - .
Ruby-.

Ruby 20

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Ruby 20

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

c

< <= > >=

6. number integer; number integer ( )

7. integer & integer ( )

array & array ( )

9. < <= >= > ()

1 <= 2 # -> true

10. object == object ()

object === object ( )

=== 'matz' # -> true

string =~ regexp; regexp =~ string ( )

11. expression && expression ( )

12. expression || expression ( )

13. expression ? expression : expression ( )

14. identificator = object ()

def method(name: default); name; end

level: 2, color: 'blue', line: '3pt' }

log( 'Giving up', **APP_OPTS, **LOG_OPTS, color: 'VERY RED' )

level: 2, color: 'VERY RED', line: '3pt' }

Module: .public, .private .protected. , . , , Object.

.to_c # -> complex

.to_int # -> integer

.floor # -> integer

.round( precise = 0 ) # -> number

.truncate # -> integer

.numerator # -> integer

.denominator # -> integer

.divmod(number) # -> array

.div(number) # -> integer

.fdiv(number) # -> float

.quo(number) # -> quotient

.remainder(number) # -> integer

.abs # -> number

.arg # -> number

.polar # -> array

self.abs, self.arg ]).

1.polar # -> [1, 0]

.real # -> number

.conj # -> self

.real? # -> bool

.nonzero? # -> bool

.zero? # -> bool

.to_f # -> float [Fixnum Bignum]

.to_s( numeral_system = 10 ) # -> string [Fixnum Bignum]

6.2.2. : Fixnum Bignum

.pred # -> integer

.gcd(integer) # -> gcd

.lcm(integer) # -> lcm

.gcdlcm(integer) # -> array

.odd? # -> bool

.hash # -> integer [Fixnum Bignum]

.size # -> integer [Fixnum Bignum]

.to_r # -> rational

.rationalize( number = Flt::EPSILON ) # -> rational

.to_s # -> string

.infinite? # -> -1, nil, 1

.nan? # -> bool

.to_s # -> string

.to_f # -> float

.to_i # -> integer

.Complex( real, imag = 0 ) # -> complex [Kernel]

::polar( magnitude, angle = 0.0 ) # -> complex

::rect( real, imag = nil ) # -> complex

log( 'Giving up', APP_OPTS, LOG_OPTS, color: 'VERY RED' )