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 512. 642(075.8) + 512.64(075.8)

512(07)
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2008. 140 .

512. 642(075.8) + 512.64(075.8)

512(07)
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ISBN 978-5-98314-303-6

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ISBN 978-5-98314-303-6
. . , 2008
viktor-rechkalov@mail.ru
, 2008

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15

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10).

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19

. . .

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20

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21

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22

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23

. . .

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1
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1.

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2.

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3.

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2.

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24

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[ ] [] [] [] []

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, a e 1 , e 2 , e 3 , e 4 :

25

. . .

[ ] [] [] [] []

a1
2
a
a = 3 = a1
a
4
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1
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0
0

0
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26

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a z = k a , a z = k a .
, a
:
a = i a j a k a = a x i a y j a z k .
a , . 14,
: a = a 2x a 2y a 2z .
a i, j k x , x
z
27

. . .

:
a = i acos x j acos y k acos z a = ai cos x j cos y k cos z .
, a , , -, . -
: a 0 - a .

a = ai cos x j cos y k cos z a = aa 0 ,
a 0 = i cos x j cos y k cos z .
, -, .
, M, . ( M x , M y M z ) - : r M = M x i M y j M z k .
bx
ax
A a y B b y , az
bz
, ,
AB = r B r A (. 16).

[] []
B

AB
A

r A

r B

y
i

. 16
- , :
AB = r B r A = b x i b y j b z k a x i a y j a z k =
= b x a x i b y a y j b z a z k .
, , A B, .
..
.
.
,
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: a = { a 1 , a 2 , a 3 } . , ,
, ,

28

. . .

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{ a 1 , a 2 , a3 } -, , -

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1

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1
2
3
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3
a
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3
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3
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2 .
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a
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3
3
a
a

29

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3
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4
1
3
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5 2 = 3 .
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1. .
.
a b = a x i a y j a z k b x i b y j bz k =
= a x b x i a y b y j a z b z k .
.
ax
bx
a x bx
ax
bx
ax bx
a b = a ay b b y = c a y by =
ay by = ay by .
az
bz
a z bz
az
bz
az bz

[] [] [ ][][][ ]

2. .
.
a = a x i a y j a z k = a x i a y j a z k .
.
ax
ax
ax
ax
a = a a y = a a y =
ay = ay .
az
az
az
az

[] [ ] [][ ]

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30

. . .
(22)

, .
:
ab = abcos .
, , , .
F , ,
, A, , : A = F .
.
a b = b cos
b a = a cos ,
,
:
ab = a a b = b b a .

1. , .
a b .
ab = abcos = 0 , cos = 0 , , a b .
, ab = 0 . ,
. ,
. ,
, , , , . , ,
.
2. ().
ab = ba .
3. .
ab = ba
.
4. ()
.
ab c = ab ac .
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a
2

c
bc

1
b

. 17

31

. . .

(. 17), ab c = ab ccos ,
ab ac = abcos 1 accos 2 . . 17, ,
, .

.
ab c = a a b c = a a b a c =
= a a b a a c = ab ac .

, .

, .
.
ii = iicos 0 = 1 jj = kk = 1 .

ij = i j cos = 0 jk = ki = 0 .
2
i
i 1
j 0
k 0

j
0
1
0

k
0
0
1

: ab = a x b x a y b y a z b z .

,
ab = a x i a y j a z k b x i b y j b z k .
, :
ab = a x b x a y b y a z b z .
..

a .
:
aa = a x i a y j a z ka x i a y j a z k = a 2x a 2y a 2z
, aa = a 2 = aacos 0 = a2 , ,
a2 = a 2x a 2y a 2z a = a 2x a 2y a 2z .
32

. . .

AB
k

y
i

. 18

[] []

ax
A a y
az

bx
B b y , l
bz

. - r A r B ,
AB = r B r A . AB . ,
bx
ax
bx a x
l = AB = r b y r a y = r b y a y
bz
az
bz az

[ ] [ ] [ ]

= b x a x 2 b y a y 2 b z a z 2 .
l AB , :
l AB = b x a x 2 b y a y 2 b z a z 2 .

. : -, ,
-, .

.
d =ba
b

c =ab

. 19

33

. . .

a b (. 19), .
2
a b = a b2 = a ba b = a 2 b 2 2 ab
2
a b = a b2 = a ba b = a 2 b 2 2 ab .
, :
2
2
a b a b = 2 a 2 2 b 2 = 2a2 2b 2 .
, .
, .

.
b
c=ba

. 20
a b (. 20), b a .
2
b a = b a2 = b ab a = a 2 b 2 2 ab
: b a2 = a 2 b2 2 a b cos .
, a b .

34

. . .

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b

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b

b
a

S4
x

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a x, b y. . 21
.
a b :

35

. . .

[] [
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]

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ax
sa x a
a
1
=a
=
= sa x a
;
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0
0
0
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0 = sb b 0
b=b 0 =b
=
sb y
.
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by
sb y b
b
1
a b , sa x .
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. .
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a=a

1.
2.
3.
4.

S 1 = ab = a x b y ;
S 2 = ab = a x b y = a x b y ;
S 3 = ab = a x b y = a x b y ;
S 4 = ab = a x b y = a x b y .

.
, S = ab = a x b y .
: -
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.
(23)

, a b ,
, a b .
, a b ,
, , .
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S , ,
, .
, , , , , , S a , b = S b , a . S , , S a , b = S b , a .
, , , , . , , .
21, (. 22).

36

. . .

y
a
b

S1

S2

S3

j
i

S4
x

. 22
a b :
0
0 = sa a 0
a=a 0 =a
=
sa y
;
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ay
s a y a
a
1
b=b

[] [
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]
]

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sb x b
b
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= sb x b
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.
1. S 1 = ab = a y b x ;
2. S 2 = ab = a y b x = a y b x ;
3. S 3 = ab = a y b x = a y b x ;
4. S 4 = ab = a y b x = a y b x .
, , ,
.
: S a , b = a y b x .
, , , -
.
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a b
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ay by
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a b
a bx
, x x , det x
, a , b , a , b
a y by
ay by
, , a b
. x x = a x b y a y b x a y by
.
,
.

[ ]

37

. . .

2. b x; a .
, , a b (. 23).
B a

B'

C'

b
b'
A

. 23
b b ' = b a ABCD AB'C'D . . , . , : S a , b = S a , b' = S a , b a . , S a , b = S a ' , b = S a b , b . . , .
a b , ,
b x (. 24).
y
b

a
a'

b
x

. 24
a a ' = a b , a '
x. , , b x. S a , b = S a ' , b . a ' .
ax
bx
a 'x

a =
, b=
, a' =
, ay
by
ay
:
a 'x
a
b
a' =
= x x , , :

0
ay
by
ay
ay
a x b y a y b x
1. =
a ' x = a x b x =
.
by
by
by
a x b y a y b x 1
, a ' x =
.

by
0

[] []
[ ][] []

[ ]

[]

b b ' = b a ' , y (. 25).

38

. . .

y a'
b

b'

a'

. 25
b ' .
a x b y a y b x 1
bx
0

a ' x =
, b=
, b' =
,
b'y
by
0
by
:
a b a y b x 1
b
0
b' = b a' =
= x x y

.
by
b'y
0
by
, b ' y = b y . ,
0
b' =

.
by
, ,
a b , , a '
b . :
a b a y b x
a bx
S a , b = S a ' , b' = a ' x b' y = x y
b y = a x b ya y b x = x
.
by
ay by
, :
a b
S a , b = a x b y a y b x = x x = a , b = a , b .
a y by
, :
3. b x, a .
b x,
a ' = a b , . ,
. 26.

[]

[]

[ ] []

[ ]

[]

[]

y
a'

b'
a
b

. 26
a a ' = a b , y.
0

, a ' =
. a ' b :
ay

[]

39

. . .

0 bx
= a , b = a , b .
ay 0
, :
a b
S a , b = a x b y a y b x = x x = a , b = a , b
a y by
.
S a , b = S a ' , b = a y bx =

. , . a b , , ,
. , a b ,
! , , . a b ,
i j, , , .
,
.
..
,
. , ,
.
, S a , b = a x b y a y b x
.
a b (. 26).
OABC.
y
by N
ay
O

B
A

EFM

x
D G
ax

bx

. 27
BC x D. ,
OABC OAMD . , OAMD ONED.
ONED, , ONFG,
EFGD. , S OABC = S ONFG S EFGD .
40

. . .

S ONFG = a x b y . EFGD. b y , DG, , , MH. ,

MH, GFH CFM.
ay
a y bx
DG
GC
MH
=
=
, , ,

DG =
.
GF
FH
by
bx
by
a ybx
b = a y b x . EFGD: S EFGD =
by y
:
S OABC = S ONFG S EFGD = a x b y a y b x .
, , :
a b
S a , b = a x b y a y b x = x x = a , b = a , b .
a y by

1. ,
.
a x b x
a b
= a x b y a y b x = a x b y a y b x = x x .
a y b y
ay by

D
C
a

a
B

. 28
,
, (. 27).
2. a , b
a , b = a ' a '' , b , a , b a ' , b
a '' , b :
a , b = a ' a '' , b = a ' , b a '' , b .

F
a ''
B
a'
A

E
C

a
D

. 29
41

. . .

. 29. AEFD ABCD BEFC.

3. .
a x bx
b a
= x x , , , a y by
by a y
a b .

4. , .
.
5. , a x bx
a b a x
= x x
, :
.
a y b y a y b y a y
.
.
a x b x a x
= a x b y a y a y b x a x =
a y b y a y
a b
= a x b y a y b x a x a y a y a x = a x b y a y b x = x x .
ay by
6. .
: "" , , .

7. . 6 1.
8. .
1 0
=1.
0 1

9. :
ax 0
= axby 1 0 = ax by .
0 1
0 by

10. .
b
a x b x x a x
a x bx
ax
a 0
=
= x
= ax by .
0 by
bx
0 by
0 b y 0
ax
a b
: x x = a x b y 0b x = a x b y .
0 by
11. , .

42

. . .

a x bx
a ay
= x
.
a y by bx by

, : ,
, .
, ,
.
..
, ,
.
1. , .
C
D
b

d=

c
a

1
b a
2
B

. 30
.
1
1
c = b a a = b a ;
2
2
1
1
ax
ax bx
2
2 = 1 a x bx
S ABD = S a , c =
;
1
1
2 ay by
ay
a b
2 y 2 y
1
1
a x bx bx
1 ax bx
2
S ADC = S c , b = 2
=
,
1
1
2 ay by
a b by
2 y 2 y
, , S ABD = S ADC .

2. , .
, , .
E b

d
A

a
D

. 31
43

. . .

ABC AED . ,
(. 30).
a = AC , b = AB , c = AD , d = AE . a c ,
c
d
c = a , c = c a = a . d = b .
a
b
c
d
ax
bx
ax bx
c d a x b x cd
a
b
S a , b =
=
=
S a , b .
, S c , d =
ay by
c
d
a b a y b y ab
a
b
a y b y
S AED AEAD
S c , d cd
=
=
,
=>
.
S a , b ab
S ABC ABAC

3. .
, , .

e
D

. 32
, ,
S ABD ac a
=
= .
:
S ADC cb b
d
b a =
: c = a
d e
d
d
e
d
=a
b
a=
a
b.
d e
d e
de
d e
e
d
ax
ax
bx
d ax bx
d

e
d

e
=
: S ABD =
;
e
d
d e ay by
ay
a
b
d e y d e y
e
d
ax
bx b x
e a x bx
d

e
d

e
S ADC =
=
,
e
d
d e a y by
a
b b
d e x d e y y
S ABD d
= .
, ,
S ADC e
, :
S ABD d
a
= = , .
S ADC e
b

44

. . .

. , , , , .
.
.. ,
- ? ,
. . . , ,
. . -
...
, . , , , - . , , .
, , , . , , . , . ,
.
, , .
, a , b c (. 33).
z

a
c

a
b
a

b
c

c
b
c

b
c

c
c
b

a
y

. 33
, , : V = a x b y c z . a x b y c z
, ; , . , ,
, .

45

. . .
(24)

, , , , , , .

, a , b c ,
V a , b , c , "" V a , b ,c = V a , b , c .
.
a y z. . 48. , , , .
, , , - .
, , ,
. , , ,
.
:
,
.

d
c
c
b
a

. 34
, ,
. 31. c c ' = c d . d
, , ,
a b . : d = 1 a 2 b . , , c c ' = c 1 a 2 b . , , .
, ,
, .
, , . , V a , b , c = V a , b , c' .
.
46

. . .

c
c
y

a
x

y
b

a
x

. 35
a , b c .
. . 35 , .
, .
1.
, , c , z.
z, . c
c ' = c 1 a 2 b . .
cx
ax
bx
0
c=
0 = c y 1 a y 2 b y .
c 'z
cz
az
bz

[ ][] [] []

0 = c x 1 a x 2 b x
0 = c y 1 a y 2 b y ,
c ' z = c z 1 az 2 bz

, :
a b c a y bz c x a z b x c y az b y c x a y b x c z a x b y c z
c'z = x y z
, a x b y a y bx

[]

, , c ' =

0 ,
ax by ay bx
1

= a x b y c z a y bz c x a z b x c y a x b z c y a y b x cz a z b y cx .
, , , z. , ,
, ,
a , b : a x b y a y b x = S a xy , b xy (. 36).

47

. . .

z
a

ax
x

ax

bx

by

bxy

a xy

. 36
a b , z, , , .
, .
. 35 ( ). , b b ' , y. ,
, y. .
bx
ax
0
0
b ' = b 1 a 2 c ' =
b ' y = b y 1 a y 2 c ' 0 .
1
0
bz
az

[ ] [ ] [ ] []

2 c ' = , :
0 = bx a x
b' y = b y a y
0 = bz a z

, :

[]

a x b y a y bx 0
axby a y bx
b'y =
b' =

1 .
ax
ax
0
, y, a x .
: , , a , x (. 35, ). , . a
ax
a 'x
0
0
a ' = a 1 b' 2 c ' =
=

c
'
0
ay
0 .
1 b'y
2
1
0
0
az

[ ] [ ] [ ] []

, , a ' x = a x , :
1
a' =
ax 0 .
0
,
a ' , b ' c ' ,

[]

48

. . .

. a ' , b ' c ' , , . 32.

:
a b a ybx

V a , b , c = V a ' , b' , c ' = a ' x b' y c ' z = a x x y

= ,
ax
ax by a ybx
,
V a , b , c = a x b y c z a y b z c x a z b x c y a x b z c y a y b x c z a z b y c x .
a , b c ,
, .
,
z? . x. , , c ' , . ,
, , . , a ' , b ' c ' . ,
,
0
bx
0
a=
0 ,
ay , b =
0 c=
cz
0
0
V a , b , c = 00c z a y0c x 0b x0 000 a yb xc z 000

V a , b , c = a x b y c z . a ' , b ' c '

, , , . , , , , .

[] [] []

..
(25)

= a x b y c z a y bz cx a z b x c y a x b z c y a y b x c z a z b y cx
.

. , :
a x bx c x
a x bx cx
a y by cy = a y b y c y =
a z bz cz
az bz cz
= a x b y c z a y b z c x a z bx c y a x bz c y a y bx c z a z b y c x .

[ ]

, ,
a , b , c .
.

49

. . .

ax bx cx
V a , b , c = a , b , c = a y b y c y .
az bz cz

, . , ,
. .
, .
.
, ,
= a x b y cz a y bz cx a z b x c y a x b z c y a y b x cz a z b y c x =
= a x b y c z b z c y a y b x c z b z c x a z b x c y b y c x .
:
a x bx c x
a y b y c y = a x b y c z b z c y a y b x c z b z c x a z b x c y b y c x .
az bz cz
,
:
a x bx c x
b c
b c
b c
a y b y c y = ax y y a y x x az x x .
bz cz
bz c z
by cy
az bz cz

. . , .
. -
. ,
:
. ,
, , . , :
a1 b1 c1 d 1
a 2 b2 c2 d 2
=
a3 b3 c3 d 3
a 4 b4 c4 d 4
b2 c2 d 2
b1 c 1 d 1
b1 c 1 d 1
b1 c1 d 1
= a 1 b 3 c 3 d 3 a 2 b3 c 3 d 3 a 3 b 2 c 2 d 2 a 4 b 2 c 2 d 2 .
b4 c4 d 4
b4 c 4 d 4
b4 c 4 d 4
b3 c3 d 3

,
, .

50

. . .

, , , . ,
a x bx cx
a y b y c y .
az bz cz

V a , b , c = a , b , c . , , , .
..
, :
, , .
. . , .
, .
, - ,
. , , - . , ,
. .
, , , , -
. , , . ,
, , . .
, .
. . , .
, ,
.
, , , , . , , .
:
, ,
( , ). , , . , "-

,
, ".
51

. . .

. . , , ,
, , -
- , , .
, , , ,
, , - .
.
,
. ,
, .
, ,
. ,
, . .
- , . , , , . , , , , ,
, , .
, . . ,
.
, .
, .
: ,
.
, , . ,
.
,
.
cx ax bx
cx 0 0 a x bx
V c , a , b = c , a , b = c y a y b y = 0 c y 0 a y b y =
cz az bz
0 0 c z a z bz

1 a x bx
0 ax bx
0 ax bx
= c x 0 a y b y c y 1 a y b y cz 0 a y b y =
0 az bz
0 az bz
1 a z bz

, :
1 a x bx
0 a x bx
0 ax bx
= c x i c y j c z k 0 a y b y i 1 a y b y j 0 a y b y k =
0 a z bz
0 az bz
1 a z bz

1 ax bx
0 a x bx
0 ax bx
= c 0 a y b y i 1 a y b y j 0 a y b y k
0 a z bz
0 a z bz
1 az bz
52

. . .

1 ax bx
0 ax bx
0 a x bx
V c , a , b = c , a , b = c 0 a y b y i 1 a y b y j 0 a y b y k .
0 az bz
0 az bz
1 a z bz
, V c , a , b
c ,
a b .
a b ab .
, a b
1 ax bx
0 a x bx
0 ax bx
ab = 0 a y b y i 1 a y b y j 0 a y b y k .
0 a z bz
0 a z bz
1 az bz

, ,
.
, :
a b
a b
a b
ab = y y i x x j x x k .
az bz
a z bz
ay by

, .
, ,
.
i ax bx
ay by
a x bx
ax bx
ab =
i
j
k = j a y b y , ,
az bz
a z bz
ay by
k a z bz
:
i ax bx
ab = j a y b y .
k az bz

(26)

a b
a b
a b
ab = y y i x x j x x k
az bz
a z bz
ay by

i
ab = j
k

.

53

ax bx
ay by
az bz

. . .

. , . , i j , .
,
j a y by
i ax bx
ab{ j i k } = i a x b x = j a y b y = ab{i j k } ,
k a z bz
k az bz
ab{ i j k } {ijk},
ab{ j i k } {jik}.
ab{ j i k } = ab{i j k } .
,
ab .

:
cx ax bx
V c , a , b = c , a , b = c y a y b y = c ab .
cz az bz

cab ,
, , :
c x a x bx
cab = c y a y b y .
cz az bz

.
.

1.
c x a x bx
cx bx ax
bx c x a x
cab = c y a y b y = c y b y a y = b y c y a y =
cz az bz
cz bz az
bz cz a z
= bca = cab .

2.
.
3. , .
4. ,
.
, ,
abc = a b c [10, . 110] abc = a b c [12, . 65]. , , 54

. . .

, , :
abc = a , b , c . ,
, .
, .
. . , . ,
. . :

? ; ?
. . .
, ,
, .
n
h

a
n

. 37
-, ,

ay by
a b
a bx
i x x j x
k =
a z bz
az bz
ay by
ax ax cx
a y by
a x bx
a x bx
= ax
ay
az
= ay a y cy = 0
a z bz
az bz
a y by
az az cz
, : bab = 0 , ab a b . , , (. 37).
-, cab = cabcos = hab ,
h .
:
cab = V c , a , b = h S a , b ,
S a , b , , , a b .
, ab ,
. nn, aab = a x i a y j a z k

55

. . .

. ,
.
c , a b ,
cab = cabcos = V c , a , b0 .
c , a b ,
cab = cabcos = V c , a , b0 .
, ab , a b .
.
(27)

ab a b , :
1. .
2. a b .
3. ab , a b .
, (. 37). :
2().
ab = absin .

. . ,
" " ? , , . , , .
. , , .
.
(28)

ab a b , :
1. .
2. a b .
3. ab , a b (
), .
,
.
, , ,
. , , () .
,
.
. : 56

. . .

,
? . ,
. . . ,
. ,
, .
.
.

.
1. a b , a b .
,
a b
a b
a b
ab = y y i x x j x x k = 0 , , , az bz
a z bz
ay by
, :
a y = k1 by
a x = k 2 bx
ax = k 3bx
;
;
.
a z = k 1 bz
a z = k 2 bz
a y = k3 by
,
a x = k bx
a y = k b y , .
a z = k bz

.
2. . , .
ab = ba .
3. .
ab = ab = a b , .
4. .
a bc = ac bc .
.
a by cy
a bx cx
a bx c x
a bc = y
i x
j x
k
a z b z cz
az bz cz
a y by c y
,
a c
a c
a c
a bc = y y i x x j x x k
az cz
az cz
ay cy
b c
b c
b c
y y i x x j x x k = ac bc .
bz c z
bz c z
by cy

57

. . .

..
, ,
.
,
ii = j j = kk = 0 , i j = i jsin 90 = 1 ,
, ,
jk = 1 , ki = 1 .
.
i j i j, ,
z. ,
z. ,
i j = k , , ,
jk = i ;
ki = j .
, , , .

i
j
k

i
0
-k
j

j
k
0
-i

k
-j
i
0

" " (. 38).
k
k i = j
i

i j = k

k
j k = i

i k = j

k j= i

j i = k

k
i

. 38
, , , . ,
, , ,
, . , -1.
, .
.
ab = a x i a y j a z kb x i b y j b z k =
= a x b x i i a x b y i j a x b z i k
a y bx ji a y b y j j a y b z jk
a z b x ki a z b y k j a z b z kk =
58

. . .

= 0 a x b y k a x bz j a y bx k 0 a y b z i a z b x j a z b y i 0 =
= a y b z a z b y i a x b z a z b x j a x b y a y b x k =
a by
a bx
a bx
= y
i x
j x
k.
a z bz
a z bz
ay by

, . ,
,
, .

59

. . .

.
. , .

. , . ,
.
,
,
.
. ,
,
. , .
, . ,
, . ,
, , .
e 1 , e 2 e 3 . ,
e 1' , e 2 ' , e 3' .
,
.

e1 ' = e1 1 ' e1 e2 1 ' e 2 e3 1 ' e3

e 2' = e 1 2 ' e 1 e 2 2 ' e 2 e 3 2 ' e 3 ;
1
2
3
e 3 ' = e 3 ' e 1 e 3 ' e 2 e 3' e 3

e 1 = e 1 ' 1 e 1' e 2 ' 1 e 2 ' e 3' 1 e 3 '

e 2 = e 1' 2 e 1 ' e 2 ' 2 e 2 ' e 3 ' 2 e 3' .
1'
2'
3'
e 3 = e 3 e 1' e 3 e 2 ' e 3 e 3 '

e i' i ' - ()
i'
, e i i - ()
(. 39).

i
k

. 39
60

. . .

. :
e i' = e i i' e i e i = e i ' i e i' .
, a :
a = a 1 e 1 a 2 e 2 a 2 e 2 = a i e i ; a = a 1 ' e 1' a 2 ' e 2 ' a 3 ' e 3 ' = a i' e i ' .
.
a = a1 e1 a 2 e2 a 2 e2 =
= a 1 e 1' 1 e 1 ' e 2 ' 1 e 2 ' e 3 ' 1 e 3 '
a 2 e 1 ' 2 e 1' e 2' 2 e 2' e 3 ' 2 e 3 '
a 3 e 1' 3 e 1 ' e 2 ' 3 e 2' e 3 ' 3 e 3' =
= e 1' 1 a 1 e 1' 2 a 2 e 1' 3 a3 e 1 '
e 2 ' 1 a 1 e 2 ' 2 a 2 e 2 ' 3 a 3 e 2'
e 3' 1 a 1 e 3 ' 2 a 2 e 3 ' 3 a 3 e 3 ' =
= e 1 ' i a i e 1' e 2 ' i a i e 2 ' e 3 ' i a i e 3 ' = e i' i a i e i '

, , a ,
.

a 1 ' = e 1' 1 a 1 e 1' 2 a 2 e 1' 3 a 3

a2 ' = e 2 ' 1 a1 e2 ' 2 a2 e 2 ' 3 a3
3'
3'
1
3'
2
3'
3
a = e 1a e 2 a e 3a

a
.

a 1 = e 1 1' a 1 ' e 1 2' a 2 ' e 1 3 ' a 3'

a 2 = e 2 1 ' a 1 ' e 2 2 ' a 2 ' e 2 3' a 3 '
3
3
1'
3
2'
3
3'
a = e 1' a e 2 ' a e 3 ' a

[][

e 1 ' 1 e 1' 2 e 1 ' 3

a1 '
a 2 ' = e 2' 1 e 2 ' 2 e 2 ' 3
3'
3'
3'
a3 '
e 1 e 2 e 3

][ ] [ ] [

e1 1 ' e1 2 ' e1 3 '

a1
a1
a 2 a 2 = e 2 1' e 2 2 ' e 2 3'
3
3
3
a3
a3
e 1' e 2' e 3'

][ ]

a 1'
a2' .
a 3'

, , . ,
, , . ,
61

. . .

. , :

[][

e 1 ' 1 e 1' 2 e 1 ' 3

a1 '
a 2 ' = e 2' 1 e 2 ' 2 e 2 ' 3
3'
3'
3'
a3 '
e 1 e 2 e 3

][ ] [

e1 ' 1 e1 ' 2 e1 ' 3

a1
a 2 = e 2 ' 1 e 2' 2 e 2 ' 3
3'
3'
3'
a3
e 1 e 2 e 3

][

e1 1 ' e1 2 ' e1 3 '

e2 1 ' e2 2 ' e 2 3 '
3
3
3
e 1' e 2' e 3'

][ ]

a 1'
a2' .
a 3'

e 1' 1 e 1 ' 2 e 1' 3

e

2'

3'

1
1

2'

3'

2
2

2'

3'

3
3

][

e 1 1' e 1 2 ' e 1 3'

e

1'
1'

2'
2'

3'
3'

][ ]

1 0 0
= 0 1 0 = E , E,
0 0 1

, . ,
.
, , .

.
i'
i
i'
: e i e j ' = j ' . , , "
". :
i k = 1, i = k .
0, i k

, , , , , , .
, ,
.

. ,
.
, .
.

[[ ][ ][ ]] [[ ][ ][ ]]
e1 ' 1

e1 ' 2

e1 ' 3

e2 ' 1
e3 ' 1

e 2' 2
e3 ' 2

e2 ' 3
e3 ' 3

e1

e2

e3

= [ e ' ] ;

e 1 1'

e1 2 '

e 1 3'

e2 1 '
e 3 1'

e 2 2'
e3 2 '

e2 3 '
e 3 3'

e 1'

e2 '

e3'

= [ e ' ] .

( ) .
.

62

. . .

[] []
1

1'

a
a

'
2
2'
a=
a =[ a ] =
a =[ a ].
3
3'
a
a
.

[ a ' ][ a ' ] = [ a ' ][ a ' ] = E = ei i ' ei ' k = i k .

.

[ a' ] = [ e' ] [ a ] = ai' = ei ' i ai

[ a ] = [e

'

] [ a ' ] = ai = ei i ' ai '

[ e ' ] [ e ] : , , ,
'
. , [ e ' ] , [ e ] E .

'

ABC (. 40).
AD CE. ""
e 1 e 2 , AB AC . e 1' e 2 ' OB OD . , .
C

e2
e 2'

e1 '

A
F

e1

. 40
. e 2 ' e 1 e 2
FE. CE , AE e 1 ,
1:3, FE 1/3
11 1
11 1
1
= . e 2 2 ' =
= .
: e 2 ' =
32 6
32 6

63

. . .

e 1' e 1 FB, 2
2
1

e 1 , , e 1' = . e 1' e 2
3
3
2
e 1
e 2 3
e 2 . :
2
21
1
e 1 1' = ; e 2 1 ' =
= ;
3
32
3
1
1
e1 2 ' = ; e2 2 ' = .
6
6

2
1
1
1
e 1' = e 1 e 2 e 2 ' = e 1 e 2 ;
3
3
6
6

2
1 2
3
e 1' =
=
;
3 1
1

[] []
[ ] []
[ ][

1
1 1
6
e2' =
=
6 1
1
6
.
:
2 1
4 1
.
[ a ' ] = 31 61 = 16 2
1

3 6

. , BD
:
1
BD =
.

1
, :
1 4 1 1
1
1
1
BD =
= 3 = 1 =

e 2 e 1 .
6 2 1 1
6 3
2 1
2

[]
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ]

.
1
2 1
1
1

1
.
[ a ' ] = [ a ' ] = 31 61 = 2 1 1 1 1 61 26 = 12 1
4

3 6
36 63 3 3

[ ]

[ ] [
64

. . .

, , BD , :
1 1
BD = 4 1
= 1 .
2 1 2 1
1

][ ] [ ]

,
.

, ,

.
a
e 2'

e1 '

e2
e1

. 41

e 1 e 2 .
e 1' e 2 ' , (. 41):
4 e = 4
e 1' =
, 2'
.

3
3
:
.
[ a ' ] = 43 4
3
, , :
x
x
e 1' e 2'

[ a ' ] [ ] [ a ' ] = e y e y .
1'
2'
, :
1'
1'
e x e y

'
[ a ' ] = [ a ] = e2 ' e 2 ' .
x
y

[] [ ]
[ ]

][ ] [ ] [ ]

'
4 4 1 = 8 = 8 1
a=
.
[e '][ a ] =
3 3
1
0
0

65

[ ]

1
. ,
1

. . .

a b , e 1 , e 2 e 3 :

[] []
1

a
b
2
2
a=
a ; b=
b .
3
3
a
b

? ab = ?
, :
ab = a 1 b1 a 2 b 2 a 3 b 3 .
. .
.

[
[

[]
[]

][ ]
][ ]

e x 1 e x 2 ex 3 a1
ax

a=
a y = [ e ] [ a ] = e y 1 e y 2 e y 3 a2
3
z
z
z
az
e 1 e 2 e 3 a

e x 1 e x 2 e x 3 b1
bx

b=
b y = [ e ] [ b ] = e y 1 e y 2 e y 3 b2 .
3
z
z
z
bz
e1 e 2 e 3 b

[]
x

ab = a x b x a y b y a z b z = [ a x a y a z ]

= [ e ] [ a ]

[e ][ b ] = [ a ] [e ] [e ][ b ] =

[
][

= [ a1 a2 a3 ]

][ ][ ]
][ ]

e x 1 e y 1 e z 1 e x 1 e x 2 e x 3 b1
e x 2 e y 2 e z 2 e y 1 e y 2 e y 3 b2 .
3
x
y
z
z
z
z
e 3 e 3 e 3 e 1 e 2 e 3 b

b
y
b =
z
b

ex 1 e y 1 e z 1 e x 1 e x 2 e x 3
g 11 g 12 g 13
x
y
z
y
y
y
e 2 e 2 e 2 e 1 e 2 e 3 = g 21 g 22 g 23 = [ g ] .
x
y
z
z
z
z
g 31 g 32 g 33
e 3 e 3 e 3 e1 e 2 e 3

[ g ] .
, g ik = e ie k ,

66

. . .

][

g 11 g 12 g 13
e 1e 1 e 1e 2 e 1e 3
g 21 g 22 g 23 = e 2e 1 e 2e 2 e 2e 3 .
g 31 g 32 g 33
e 3e 1 e 3e 2 e 3e 3

:
ab = [ a 1 a 2 a 3 ]

][ ]
1

g 11 g 12 g 13 b
T

2
g 21 g 22 g 23 b = [ a ] [ g ] [ b ] , :
3
g 31 g 32 g 33 b

ab = g ik a i b k .

.
. .
,
e 1 = i , e 2 = j e 3 = k , , g ik = ik
ab = g ik a i b k = a i b i = a 1 b1 a 2 b 2 a 3 b 3 = a x b x a y b y a z b z .

g ik ,
. , , . .
, ,
, .
.
g i ' k ' = e i 'e k ' = e i i' e ie k k ' e k = e i i ' e k k ' e ie k = e i i ' e k k ' g ik , ,
T

g i ' k ' = e i i ' e k k ' g ik =

[ g ' ' ] = [ e ' ] [ g ] [ e ' ] . , , . , . :

i'
i'
i
'
'

a = e ia =
[ a ] = [ e ] [a ]
g i ' k ' = e i i ' e k k ' g ik =
[ g ' ' ] = [ e ' ] [ g ] [ e ' ]
.

1. .
. :
67

. . .

][

g 11 g 12 g 13
e 1e 1 e 1e 2 e 1e 3
g 21 g 22 g 23 = e 2e 1 e 2e 2 e 2e 3 , e ie k = e ke i , , g ik = g ki .
g 31 g 32 g 33
e 3e 1 e 3e 2 e 3e 3

2.
.
2
e i = e ie k = gii e i = eiei = gii .
e e
g ik
cos e i e k = i i =
.
e ie k g iig kk
.
. , ,
, . ,
, , , .
. ,
, , . ,
. , , , . ,

. ,
.
. .
3. .
g 11 = e 1e 1 = ii = 1 ;
g 12 = g 21 = e 1e 2 = ij = 0 ;
g 22 = e 2e 2 = jj = 1 ; g 13 = g 31 = e 1e 3 = ik = 0 ;
g 33 = e 3e 3 = kk = 1 ; g 23 = g 32 = e 2e 3 = jk = 0 .
4.
T

g i ' k ' = e i i ' e k k ' g ik =

[ g ' ' ] = [ e ' ] [ g ] [ e ' ] .
5.
.
.
e2

e1

. 42
S e , S e = e 1h .

68

. . .

g 12
h = e 1sin . sin = 1 cos = 1
. ,
g 11 g 22
2

g 12
S e = e 1h = e 1e 2sin = g 11 g 22 1
= g 11 g 22 g 12 g 12 .
g 11 g 22
g
g 12
= S 2e .
, g 12 = g 21 , : 11
g 21 g 22
6. .

e3
h
e2
b
1 2
a

y
x
e1

. 43
e 1 , e 2 e 3 (. 43). e 3 h : , e 1 e 2 .
V e V e = S e 1 , e 2 h , S e 1 , e 2 .
S e 1 , e 2 = e 1e 2sin 12 = g 11 g 22 sin 12 .
, h. h x y . a
b.
a = e 3cos 13 = g 33 cos 13 , b = e 3cos 23 = g 33 cos 23 .
2
a 2 x 2 h 2 = e 3 h, x.
x, . 44, .
D
A

b
1 2
a

C
e2

y
x O e
1
B E

. 44

69

. . .

O h, . x y , , ,
ABC ADE . DOC BOE
DAB = 12 .
BC ABC
y
BC = a tg 12 , , BC = x
.
cos 12
cos 12 , :
x cos 12 y = a tg 12 cos 12 = a sin 12 .
ADE, : x y cos 12 = b sin 12 .
a b , :
x y cos 12 = g 33 cos 23 sin 12
,
x cos 12 y = g 33 cos 13 sin 12
, x; y .
cos 23 cos 13 cos 12
x = g 33
.
sin 12
2
x a 2 x 2 h 2 = e 3 , :
cos 23 cos 13 cos 12 2
2
2
g 33 cos 13 g 33
h = g 33 .
2
sin 12
h 2 , :
g 33
h2 =
sin 2 12 cos 2 23 cos2 13 2 cos 12 cos 23 cos 13 .
2
sin 12

V e2 = g 11 g 22 sin 2 12 h 2 =
= g 11 g 22 g 33 sin 2 12 cos2 23 cos 2 13 2cos 12 cos 23 cos13 =
= g 11 g 22 g 33 1 cos2 12 cos 2 23 cos2 13 2 cos 12 cos 23 cos 13 =

= g 11 g 22 g 33

g 2 12
g 2 23
g 2 13
g g g
1

2 12 23 13 =
g 11 g 22 g 22 g 33 g 11 g 33
g 11 g 22 g 33

2
= g 11 g 22 g 33 2 g 12 g 23 g 13 g 212 g 33 g 223 g 11 g 13
g 22 .

, .
, .

g 11 g 12 g 13
g 11 g 12 g 13
g 21 g 22 g 23 = g 12 g 22 g 23 =
g 31 g 32 g 33
g 13 g 23 g 33
= g 11 g 22 g 33 g 13 g 12 g 23 g 12 g 23 g 13 g 13 g 22 g 13 g 12 g12 g 33 g 11 g 23 g 23 =
2
= g 11 g 22 g 33 2 g 12 g 23 g 13 g 212 g 33 g 223 g 11 g 13
g 22 .
70

. . .

, , :
g 11 g 12 g 13
2
g 21 g 22 g 23 = g V e .
g 31 g 32 g 33
, : det [ g ] = [ g ] = g = g = g .
.
, . , , . ,
, .
. :
g 11 g 12 g 13
[ g ] = g 21 g 22 g 23 .
g 31 g 32 g 33

, .
T
[ g ] = [ e ] [ g ] [ e ] , , , ,
, [ g ] . T
, : [ e ] [ g ] [ e ] = E .
T

[ e ]
T

[ g ] = [ e ]

E [ e ] = [ e ]

[ e ] , :

[ e ] .
1
, [ e ] = [ e ] ,
T
1
[ g ] = [ e ] [ e ] .
, , :

][

e x 1 e y 1 e z 1 ex 1 e x 2 e x 3
[ g ] = e x 2 e y 2 e z 2 e y 1 e y 2 e y 3 .
x
y
z
z
z
z
e 3 e 3 e 3 e 1 e 2 e 3

[ e ]
. , , e 1 , e 2 e 3 .
,
, :
det [ g ] = [ g ] = g = g = g = sV e s V e = V 2e , s , , .

71

. . .

.

g 11 g 12 g 13
e 1e 1 e 1e 2 e 1e 3
g 21 g 22 g 23 = e 2e 1 e 2e 2 e 2e 3 .
g 31 g 32 g 33
e 3e 1 e 3e 2 e 3e 3

][

.
e 1 , e 2 e 3 , :

e 1e 1
e 2e 1
e 3e 1

e 1e 2
e 2e 2
e 3e 2

][

][

e 1x e 1y e1z e 1x
e 1e 3
e 2e 3 = e 2x e 2y e z2 e 1y
x
y
z
z
e 3e 3
e3 e3 e3 e1

e x2

e 3x

e 2y

e 3y .

e2

e3

, .
7. .
, .
,
. (,
,
2
), g = V e 0 .
, , .

e 1 , e 2 e 3 . , a b
ab = a 1 e 1 a 2 e 2 a 3 e 3 b1 e 1 b 2 e 2 b3 e 3 =
= a 1 b 1 e 1e 1 a 1 b 2 e 1e 2 a 1 b 3 e 1e 3
a 2 b1 e 2e 1 a 2 b 2 e 2e 2 a 2 b 3 e 2e 3
a 3 b 1 e 3e 1 a 3 b 2 e 3e 2 a 3 b 3 e 3e 3 =
= a 1 b 1 g 11 a 1 b 2 g 12 a 1 b 3 g 13
a 2 b1 g 21 a 2 b 2 g 22 a 2 b 3 g 23
a 3 b 1 g 31 a 3 b 2 g 32 a 3 b3 g 33 = a i b k g i k ,
g i k . ,
. , a b . , e 1 , e 2 ,
e 3 e 1 , e 2 , e 3 ( , ) ,
e ie k = i k = k i = ik ( ),
ab = a 1 e 1 a2 e 2 a 3 e 3 b1 e 1 b2 e 2 b3 e 3 = a 1 b1 a 2 b2 a 3 b3 = ai b i , b i b e k .
72

. . .

, , .
k
k
e ie = i , :
1.
.
2. , .
. , .
. , .
,
k

k
i

e 1e 1 e 1e 2 e 1e 3

e ie = i = =
e 2e

e 2e

e 3e

e 3e

][ ]

1 0 0
e 2e = 0 1 0 .
3
0 0 1
e 3e
3

e i e i ,

[
]

e 1e 1 e 1e 2 e 1e 3
e 2e 1 e 2e 2
1
2
e 3e e 3e

][

][

][ ]

e x 1 e y 1 ez 1 e x 1 e x 2 e x 3
1 0 0
3
x
y
z
y1
y2
y3
e 2e = e 2 e 2 e 2 e
e
e = 0 1 0 .
z1
z2
3
x
y
z
0 0 1
e
ez3
e 3e
e 3 e 3 e3 e

e 1 e 1 e 1
ex 2 ey 2 ez 2
ex 3 e y 3 e z 3

e 1 e 1 e 1
e x1 e x 2 e x 3
y1
y2
y3
e
e
e = ex2 e y2 ez 2
ez1 ez2 ez3
ex3 e y3 ez 3

][

][
1

e 1 e 2 e 3
= e y1 ey 2 ey 3
e z 1 ez 2 ez 3

T
T

, [ e ] = [ e ] .

.
.

73

. . .
y

e2

e2

e1

e1

. 45
e 1 e 2 (. 45) :
1
1
e1 =
e2 =
.

0
1

1
T
1 0
; [e ] =
.
[ e ] = 10 11 ; [ e ] = 10 1
1
1 1
,
1
2
0
e1 =
e =
.

1
1

[] []
[ ]
[
[ ] []

, .

i
ki
: e = e e k . e n :
e ie n = e k i e ke n = e k i n k = e n i .
g i k = e ie k .
i
ik
: e ie k = g i k = g k i . , e = g e k .
en :
e i = g k i ek


e ie n = g k i e ke n i n = g k i g k n . , ,
g k ' i ' , ,
1
1
1

1
=
=
[ g ] = [ g ] . , det [ g ] = g =
g g g
. [ g ] [ g ] .
.
e 1 e 2 , e 1 = e 2 = 1 ,
= 60 (. 46).

74

. . .

2
4
2
e = e1 e2
3
3

4
e
3 2
e2

2
e1
3

4
e
3 1

e1

2
e2
3

e =

4
2
e1 e 2
3
3

. 46
.
1
1
e e e e
[ g ] = e 1e1 e 1e 2 = 1 2 ;
2 1
2 2
1
2

[ ]
[ ] [ ][ ]
[ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ] [
]

[ g ] = [ g ]1 = 1

1
2

1
2

4
3

1
2

1
2

4
2

3
3
=
.
2 4

3 3

i
ki
, e = g e k ,

ik

e = g ek =

11

12

e
g
g
2 =
21
e
g
g 22

4
2

e1
3
3
=
2 4
e2

3 3

4
2
e1 e2
e1
3
3
=
.
2
4
e2
e1
e
3
3 2

:
4
2
2
4
e 1 = e1 e 2 e 2 = e 1 e2 .
3
3
3
3

e i = g k i e k . , . , ,

[ ] [

e
e
e1 '
e i' = e i' e i =
= 1 1 ' 2 1'

e2 '
e 2 ' e 2'
i

][ ]

e1
,
e2

75

. . .

.
, , , .

:
1'
1'
e 1 e 2 a1
a1 '
i'
i
i
a = e i' a =
2 ' = 2'
2 ,
a
e 1 e2 ' 2 a

[ ] [

][ ]

. ,
, :

1'

1'

][

e 1 e 2
e
e
= 1 1' 2 1 '
2'
2'
e 1 e 2
e 2' e 2'

.
, , , . ,
. ,
.

, , e i , a i . .
.
. ,
[ g ' ' ] [ g ' ' ] ' '
i' k'
i'
, , [ g ] [ g ' ' ] = E g g k ' n' = n' .
g i ' k ' g k ' n' = i ' n ' = g i ' k ' e k k ' g k n e n n ' ;
T

[ g ' ' ] [ g ' ' ] = E = [ g ' ' ] [ e ' ] [ g ] [ e ' ] .

.
i ' n ' en ' m = g i ' k ' e k k ' g k n en n ' e n ' m ;
n'

e m n'. n'. '

[ e ] .
T

E [ e ' ] = [ g ' ' ] [ e ' ] [ g ] [ e ' ][ e ' ] .

[ e ' ] [ e ] , [ e
e i ' m = g i ' k ' e k k ' g k n n m = g i ' k ' e k k ' g km .

'

76

'

][ e' ] = E

n
n'
n
e n' e m = m .

. . .
n
g k n m n g k n
m.
T
T
[ e' ] = [ g ' ' ] [ e ' ] [ g ] E = [ g ' ' ] [ e ' ] [ g ] .

g mp .
e i ' m g mp = g i ' k ' e k k ' g km g mp = g i' k ' e k k ' p k = g i ' k ' e p k ' ;
T

[ e' ] [ g ] = [ g ' ' ] [ e ' ] [ g ] [ g ] = [ g ' ' ] [ e ' ]

E = [ g ' ' ] [ e ' ] .

q'
e p .
e i ' m g mp e q ' p = g i' k ' e p k ' e q ' p = g i ' k ' q ' k ' = g i ' q ' ;
T

[ e ' ] [ g ] [ e ' ]

= [ g ' ' ] [ e ' ] [ e ' ] = [ g ' ' ] E = [ g ' ' ] .

. ,
.
, . , . .
T

[ g ' ' ] [ g ' ' ] = E = [ g ' ' ] [ e ' ] [ g ] [ e ' ] ;

1
T
1
T
[ g ' ' ] = [ e ' ] [ g ] [ e ' ] = [ e ' ] [ g ]1 [ e ' ]
1

[ e ' ] = [ e ' ] , [ e ' ]

T

[ g ' ' ] = [ e' ] [ g ] [ e ' ]

= [ e ' ] ,

, .

.
T

[ g ' ' ] = [ e ' ] [ g ] [ e ' ] ; [ g ] = [ e ' ] [ g ' ' ] [ e ' ] ;

T
T
[ g ' ' ] = [ e' ] [ g ] [ e ' ] . [ g ] = [ e ' ] [ g ' ' ] [ e ' ] .
.
e i' = g i ' k ' e k ' = e i ' i g i k e k ' k e m k ' e m =
= e i ' i g i k m k e m = e i ' i g i m e m = e i' i e i , e i' = e i ' i e i .

,
? ,
. ,
, .

77

. . .
i
k
a = a e i . , e i = g i k e . ,
a = a i e i = a i g i k e k = a k e k . , a k = g k i a i . i
ik
, a = g ak . .

e i = gi k ek
e i = gi k ek

[ e ] = [ g ] [ e ]
[ e ] = [ g ] [ e ]

ak = gk iai
ai = g i k ak

[ a ] = [ g ] [ a ]
[ a ] = [ g ] [ a ]

, , . " ".
,
.
.
i
a = a i e ,
. :
a = a i ' e i' = a i' e i ' i e i = a i e i . , a i = e i ' i a i' .
.
e i' = e i i' e i
e i' = e i ' i e i
e i = e i ' i e i'
e i = e i i ' e i'

a i' = e i i' a i

[ e ' ] = [ e ' ] [ e ]
T
[ e' ] = [ e ' ] [ e ]
T
[ e ] = [ e ' ] [ e ' ]
T
[ e ] = [ e ' ] [ e' ]

a i' = e i ' i a i
a i = e i ' i a i'
a i = e i i ' a i'

[ a' ] = [ e ' ] [ a ]
T
[ a' ] = [ e' ] [ a ]
T
[ a ] = [ e' ] [ a ' ]
T
[ a ] = [ e ' ] [ a' ]

. , . , .
, g i k = i k , g i k = i k . i
ki
ki
, e = g e k = e k = e i . ,
.

78

. . .

.
-

, . .
a , b c
e 1 , e 2 e 3 . i, j k. , , , :
:
i = ex ; j = ey ; k = ez ;
: e ;
, : a x , a y , a z
: a .
, :

a = ai ei = ai e i e = a i e x i e x ai e y i e y ai e z i e z
b = b i e i = b i e i e = b i e x i e x bi e y i e y b i e z i e z
i

c = c e i = c e i e = c e i e x c e i e y c e i e z

a , b c , , :
a i e x i bi e x i ci e x i
V a b c = a i e y i b i e y i c i e y i
a i e z i bi e z i c i e z i

, :

][ ]

ai ex i bi e x i ci e x i
e x 1 e x 2 e x 3 a 1 b1 c 1
a i e y i bi e y i c i e y i = e y 1 e y 2 e y 3 a 2 b 2 c 2
3
3
3
i z
i z
i z
z
z
z
ae i bei ce i
e 1 e 2 e3 a b c

e x 1 e x 2 ex 3 a1
V a b c = e y 1 e y 2 e y 3 a 2
3
ez 1 ez 2 ez 3 a

b c
2
2
b c .
3
3
b c

,
, a , b c .
, a , b
c .
79

. . .

, , a , b c . , ,
.
a , b c ( ), V a b c 0 . :
1.
.
ex 1 ex 2 ex3
a 1 b1 c 1
y
y
y
e 1 e 2 e 3 0 , , a 2 b2 c 2 0 .
a 3 b3 c 3
ez1 ez 2 ez 3

2. .
ex 1 ex 2 ex 3
a 1 b1 c 1
y
y
y
e 1 e 2 e 3 0 , , a 2 b2 c 2 0 .
a 3 b3 c 3
ez1 ez 2 ez 3

a , b c , V a b c 0 . :
1.
.
ex 1 ex 2 ex3
a 1 b1 c 1
y
y
y
e 1 e 2 e 3 0 , , a 2 b2 c 2 0 .
a 3 b3 c 3
ez1 ez 2 ez 3

2. .
ex 1 ex 2 ex 3
a 1 b1 c 1
y
y
y
e 1 e 2 e 3 0 , , a 2 b2 c 2 0 .
a 3 b3 c 3
ez1 ez 2 ez 3

,
a 1 b1 c 1
a 2 b2 c 2 0 , a , b c a 3 b3 c 3

a 1 b1 c 1
a 2 b2 c 2 0 , , a , b c a 3 b3 c 3
.

80

. . .

,
. . ,
.
.

. , . . , a , b c ,
a , b c ,
. , .
,
.

e x 1 e x 2 e x 3 a 1 b1 c 1
V a b c = e y 1 e y 2 e y 3 a 2 b 2 c 2
3
3
3
ez1 ez 2 ez 3 a b c

,
.
, . :
e

V a b c = e a ,b , c = e a ,b , c .
e

a ,b , c , a , b c
.
.

e , e 1 , e 2 e 3 , , . ,
: V e = g . , e = g .

:
a1 b1 c1
V a b c = g a 2 b 2 c 2 .
a3 b3 c3

,
. , . " , ".

.
e i' .
81

. . .

V e' a b c = g ''

= g ''

1'
1'
1'
e 1 ' i a i e 1 ' i b i e 1' i c i
a b c
2'
2'
2'
2'
i
2'
i
2'
i
a b c = g '' e i a e i b e i c =
3'
3'
3'
a b c
e 3 ' i a i e 3 ' i b i e 3' i c i

e1 ' 1 e1 ' 2 e1 ' 3 a1 b1 c1

2'
2'
2'
2
2
2
e 1 e 2 e 3 a b c .
3
3
3
e3 ' 1 e3 ' 2 e3 ' 3 a b c

, ,
T
2
[ g'' ] = [ e ' ] [ g ] [ e ' ] , , , g '' = e ' g . g 0
g '' 0 , g '' = e ' g . , g = e ' g '' .
1
, g = , g
:

g g'' = e '

,
.

V e' a b c = e ' g

g '' g = e ' .
g '' = e ' g , ,

e 1' 1 e 1 ' 2 e 1' 3 a 1 b1 c 1

2'
2'
2'
2
2
2
e 1 e 2 e 3a b c =
3
3
3
e 3 ' 1 e 3 ' 2 e 3' 3 a b c

e '
e ' '

= e 'e g a , b , c = V e a b c .
e '
e '

'
, e 'e = 1 , V e' a b c = g a , b , c .

e ' e i' e i , ,
, .
e '
V e' a b c = V e a bc = V e a bc .
e '

,
, . , ,
. , .
, ,
, :
e '
S e' a b = S e a b = S e a b
e '

82

. . .

..
,
a1 b1 c1
V e a b c = g a , b , c = g a 2 b 2 c 2
a3 b3 c3
, : , . , , , , . , ,
. ,
, , .
.

a 1 b1 c 1
1 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 1 1
2 3 1
3 1 2
2
2
2
=
a
b
c

a
b
c

a
b
c
a b c
0 1 0
1 0 0
0 0 1
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
a 3 b3 c 3
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
a3 b2 c1 0 1 0 a2 b1 c3 1 0 0 a1 b3 c 2 0 0 1 .
1 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0

. , , ,
. ,
, .
, ,
,
, , , , , .
, .

a1 b1 c 1 a 1 0 b1 c 1 a 1 b 1 c 1
0 b1 c 1
a 2 b2 c 2 = 0 a 2 b2 c 2 = 0 b 2 c 2 a 2 b 2 c 2 = .
a3 b3 c 3 0 a 3 b3 c 3
0 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3
.

a1 b1 c1
0 b 1 c 1 a 1 b1 0 c 1
0 b1 0 c 1
= 0 b2 c2 a2 b2 c 2 = 0 0 b2 c 2 a2 0 b2 c 2 =
0 b3 c3 a3 b3 c 3
0 0 b3 c 3 a3 0 b3 c 3

83

. . .

a1 b1 c1 a1 0 c1
0 b 1 c1
0 0 c1
= 0 0 c 2 0 b 2 c 2 a 2 0 c 2 a 2 b 2 c 2 = ...
0 0 c3
0 b 3 c 3 a 3 0 c 3 a 3 b3 c 3

,
.
. ,
, . ,
. ,
. , , , .

1 0 0
E=0 1 0 ,
0 0 1
, i-, j- k- , [ E i j k ] . ,
0 1 0
E
=
[ 21 3 ] 1 0 0 .
0 0 1
[ E i j k ] E ijk . ,
0 1 0
E 213 = [ E 213 ] = 1 0 0 = 1 .
0 0 1
, , :
E 123 = E 231 = E 312 = 1
E 321 = E 213 = E 132 = 1

[ ]

.
27,
, . :

[ E ] =

][

][

E 111 E 121 E 131 E 112 E 122 E 132 E 113 E 123 E 133

E 211 E 221 E 231 E 212 E 222 E 232 E 213 E 223 E 233 =
E 311 E 321 E 331 E 312 E 322 E 332 E 313 E 323 E 333

[ ][ ][ ]]

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 .
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

, , . .
. , , 84

. . .

( ).
, - , , :
a1 b1 c 1
a 2 b2 c 2 =
a3 b3 c 3
= E 111 a 1 b 1 c1 E 112 a 1 b 1 c 2 E 113 a 1 b1 c 3 E 121 a 1 b 2 c1 E 122 a 1 b 2 c 2 E 123 a 1 b 2 c 3
E 131 a 1 b 3 c 1 E 132 a 1 b 3 c 2 E 133 a 1 b3 c 3 E 211 a 2 b1 c 1 E 212 a 2 b 1 c 2 E 213 a 2 b1 c 3
E 221 a 2 b 2 c 1 E 222 a 2 b 2 c 2 E 223 a 2 b 2 c 3 E 231 a 2 b 3 c 1 E 232 a 2 b3 c 2 E 233 a 2 b 3 c 3
E 311 a 3 b 1 c 1 E312 a 3 b 1 c 2 E 313 a 3 b 1 c3 E 321 a 3 b 2 c 1 E 322 a 3 b 2 c 2 E 323 a 3 b 2 c 3
E 331 a 3 b 3 c 1 E 332 a 3 b3 c 2 E 333 a 3 b 3 c 3 ,

:
a 1 b1 c 1 i=3 j=3 k=3
i j k
a 2 b2 c 2 = E ijk a b c .
i=1 j=1 k=1
a 3 b3 c 3

:
a 1 1 a 1 2 a 1 3 i=3 j=3 k=3
i
j
k
2
2
2
a 1 a 2 a 3 = E ijk a 1 a 2 a 3 .
i=1 j=1 k=1
a3 1 a 3 2 a3 3

a1 1 a1 2 a1 3
a 1 b1 c 1
i
j
k
2
2
2
i j k
a 2 b2 c 2 = E ijk a b c ; a 1 a 2 a 3 = E ijk a 1 a 2 a 3 .
a 3 b3 c 3
a3 1 a 3 2 a3 3

. ,
, .
:
V e a b c = g a , b , c = g

a1 b1 c1
i j k
a 2 b 2 c 2 = g E ijk a b c .
a3 b3 c3

..
, , .
, :

85

. . .

E ijk = 1 , i = 1, j = 2 k = 3 ,
: 123

231 , 231

312 ;

E ijk = 1 , i = 3, j = 2 k = 1 ,
: 321

213 , 213

132 .

E ijk = 0 , .
, E ijk , E ijk = [ E ijk ] .
1 0 0
E 123 = 0 1 0 = 1 0 0 1
.
. , . , , . ,
E ijk : E 123 = 1 , E 132 = 1 , E 312 = 1 , E 321 = 1 , E 231 = 1 , E 213 = 1 .
, , .
, . , , , , .

..
27 .
. ,
, . , .
.
, , , .
, :
0 1 0
E 312 = 0 0 1 , , E ijk ?
1 0 0
.

86

. . .

i
. k , i-
k- . :

11 1 2 13

E = 21 2 2 2 3 .

3
1

3
2

3
3

, [ E 213 ] [ E ijk ] :

] [

1 2 1 1 1 3
1 i 1 j 1 k
[ E 213 ] = 2 2 2 1 2 3 , [ Eijk ] = 2 i 2 j 2 k .
3
3
3
3
3
3
i j k
2 1 3
E ijk :
1 i 1 j 1 k
E ijk = 2 i 2 j 2 k .
3 i 3 j 3 k

,
. , ,
, , ,
. . , .
1. [ E ijk ] .

[ a ] [ Eijk ] =

][

a 1 1 a 1 2 a 1 3 1 i 1 j 1 k

a2 1 a2 2 a 2 3 2 i 2 j 2 k =
3
3
3
3
3
3
a 1 a 2 a 3 i j k

][

a1 m m i a1 m m j a 1 m m k
a1 i a1 j a1 k
= a2 m m i a2 m m j a 2 m m k = a2 i a2 j a 2 k .
3
m
3
m
3
m
3
3
3
a m i a m j a m k
a i a j a k
i
k
i
1
i
2
i
3
, a k m = a 1 m a 2 m a 3 m .
, , k = m. ,
a i k k m = a i m .
k
m k
k
: a k m = a m , b m = b .
, .

87

. . .
1 k
k
, b 1 b .
, , k
1 k
1 . b 1 :

[ ][]

1
b1 1 1
b
b1 k 1 =
b1 2 1 = 0 .
1 3
0
b 1

, ,
[ a ] [ Eijk ] . i- , j- , k-.
, , :

[ a ] = [ a123 123 ] = [ a123

123 ] =

a1 1 a1 2 a1 3
a2 1 a 2 2 a 2 3
a

3
1

3
2

3
3

[
[
[

]
]

a2 1 a2 2 a 2 3
213
[ a123
] = a1 1 a1 2 a1 3 .
3
3
3
a 1 a 2 a 3

[ a123
132 ] =

a1 1 a1 3 a1 2

a 2 1 a 2 3 a 2 2 .
3
3
3
a 1 a 3 a 2

ai m ai n ai p
[ a imnpj k ] = a j m a j n a j p
k
k
k
a m a n a p

.
123
123
: [ a123 ] [ E ijk ] = [ a ijk ] .
T

ijk
, [ E ijk ] [ a 123
123 ] = [ a 123 ] .

i
j k

2. E ijk a m a n a p = a E mnp = a E mnp ,

aa .

88

. . .

,
i
j
k
i
j k
. , E ijk a 1 a 2 a 3 a . E ijk a m an a p , m, n, k.
m, n p , E mnp .
i
j k
, E ijk a m an a p a :
E ijk aim anj a kp = a . , .
, ,
123
a 123 = a .
a 123
123 = aE .
:
123
123
[ a123
123 ] [ E mnp ] = a E [ E mnp ] , [ a 123 ] [ E mnp ] = a mnp , E [ E mnp ] = E mnp .
i
j k

, E ijk a m a n a p = a E mnp = a E mnp .

3. .
.
, . , . ,
.
[ a

[b

[ c ] [ c ] = [ a ][ b
i
j
k
c = E ijk c m c n c p . :
i
p
j
p
k
p
c = E ijk a p b 1 a p b 2 a p b 3 .
i
j
k
, E ijk a p a p a p = a E p p

c = E ijk a

p1

p1

j
p2

] = ci j = ai k b k j .

p2

k
p3

p3

=aEp

p2 p3

.
b 1 b 2 b 3 , E p
3

p1

p2

p3

p3

p2 p 3

p1

p2

p3

=b.

: c = ab.
,
, , [19, . 88].
4. .
E ijk E mnp . . , ,
,
. ,
.
89

. . .

1 i 1 j 1 k 1 m 1 n 1 p
E ijk E mnp = 2 i 2 j 2 k 2 m 2 n 2 p =
3 i 3 j 3 k 3 m 3 n 3 p

i 1 i 2 i 3 1 m 1 n 1 p
= j 1 j 2 j 3 2 m 2 n 2 p .
k 1 k 2 k 3 3 m 3 n 3 p

i
j
, j = i [ a ] = [ a ] .
.

i 1 i 2 i 3 1 m 1 n 1 p
i m i n i p
j 1 j 2 j 3 2 m 2 n 2 p = j m j n j p
k
k
k
3
3
3
k

1 2 3 m n p
m n p

, :

i m i n i p
i m i n i p
j m j n j p = j m j n j p .
k

k
k
k
m n p
m n p

36 , .
E ijk E mnp ijk
mnp , . ,
. , , :
i m i n i p
j
j
j
ijk
n p .
mnp = m
k m k n k p

ijk
ijk
: E E mnp = mnp .
,
( ).
, , ,
, ,
, . , . 46* 31
23 .

90

. . .

1 0 0
E= 0 1 0
0 0 1

31
23 =

00 10

. 46*
, , ..
, :

i m i n i p
[ ijkmnp ] = j m j n j p , , ijkmnp = [ ijkmnp ]
k
k
k
m n p

,
.
5. .
E ijk E mnp k p.
i m i n i k
E ijk E mnk = E ij1 E mn1 E ij2 E mn2 E ij3 E mn3 = j m j n j k
k m k n k k

i m i n i k
j
i
i
jn
i n
i n
i m
j m
k m
j
j
j
k k
k j
=
m n k = k k
k
k
j

m
n
m
n
m
n
k m k n k k

i
jm
jn
i m
i n
i n
k m
= i k
j k
k j
=
i
k
j
k
j
k m k n
k m k n
m n

i
jm jn
i m i n
i n
k m

=
k
i
i
j
j
j
j
m n
m n
m n

jm jn
i m i n
i m i n
= 2 i
3 j
= j
i
j
j
m n
m n m n

k
1
2
3
, k = 1 2 3 = 3 .

, ,

i m i n
E E mnk = j
= i m j n i n j m , , E ijk E mnk = ijmn .
j
m n
ijk

91

. . .

6. .
ink
, E E mnk ,
ijk
i
j
i
j
: E E mnk = m n n m .
, j n.
E ink E mnk = i m n n i n n m = 3 i m i m = 2 i m , , E ink E mnk = 2 i m .

7. .

E mnk E mnk = 2 m m = 6 .
.
ijk
m
n
p
E E mnp a i a j a k = 6 a .
m
n
p
ijk
m
n
p
ijk
E mnp a i a j a k = a E ijk , E E mnp a i a j a k = E E ijk a = 6 a .

, . ,
. - , , .

i
A i a [ a ] .
,

][

][ ]

a 1 1 a 1 2 a 1 3 A1 1 A1 2 A1 3
1 0 0
2
2
2
2
2
2
a 1 a 2 a 3 A 1 A 2 A 3 = 0 1 0 .
3
3
3
3
3
3
0 0 1
a 1 a 2 a 3 A1 A2 A3

i
: a A m = m .

E np a i a nj a kp = a E ijk = E ijk , E mjk .
E mjk E np a i a nj a kp = E mjk E ijk = 2 i m

.
j
k
i
a i np
mjk a n a p = 2 m

2.
1
j
k
i
i

i
a i np
mjk a n a p = m . a A m = m , 2
1 np j k

, A m = mjk a n a p . ,
2

92

. . .
m
i
, A i a m
[ a ]
1
j
k
Am i = mnp
ijk a n a p .
2

.
.. -

- ijk , , ijk = g E ijk , E ijk . ijk -.

, , , .
, .
: .
- g .
,
-.
, ... e e'.
, , . ,
:
ijk = g E ijk i'j'k' = g '' E i'j'k' . ,
,
g '' = e ' g .
i'j'k' = g '' E i'j'k' ,
i'j'k' = g '' E i'j'k' = e

'

e '
E i'j'k' = g e ' E i'j'k' .
e '

m
n
p
e ' E i'j'k' = E mnp e i' e j' e k' , ,

e '
i'j'k' = g E mnp e m i' e n j' e p k' , , , ,
e '
e '
e '
i
j
k
i
j
k
: i'j'k' = g E ijk e i' e j' e k' = ijk e i' e j' e k' .
e '
e '

93

. . .

-
:
e '
i'j'k' = ijk e i i' e j j' e k k' .
e '
:
e '
ijk = ' i'j'k' e i' i e j' j e k' k .
e

e'
e'

, , s. -

, s = 1, ( )
, s = -1, ,
ijk = s i'j'k' e i' i e j' j e k' k i'j'k' = s ijk e i i' e j j' e k k' .

, , , , . , ,
, .
-
,
.
. - a , b :
ijk a i b j c k .
i' j' k'
: i'j'k' a b c . , ,
. , .
i'j'k' a i' b j' c k' = ijk e i i' e j j' e k k' e i' m a m e j' n bn e k' p c p =
= ijk e i i' e i' m e j j' e j' n e k k' e k' p a m b n c p = ijk i m j n k p a m b n c p = ijk a i b j c k .
i' j' k'
i j k
, i'j'k' a b c = ijk a b c , ,

,
i' j' k'
i j k
g '' E i'j'k' a b c = g E ijk a b c , .
, , , a , b . , -, ,
, , . : ,
, , , .
( ), , . ""
1900. ,
. "tendo" "", "".

94

. . .

- 1901 . .
, , , . alma mater.
, ,
i
ik
k
: a = g ak a i = g ik a .
,
-:
ijk = mnp g im g jn g kp = g E mnp g im g jn g kp = g g E ijk =
g g ijk
=
E .
g
, ijk = g E ijk . ,
. , , ,
. ,
. i'j'k' = g '' E i'j'k' (
) - . g '' = e ' g , :
i'j'k' = g '' E i'j'k' = e ' g E i'j'k' = s g E ijk e i' i e j ' j e k ' k , ,
i'j'k'
ijk i '
j'
k'
: = s e i e j e k , . s, ,
.
- , , :
ijk
i
j
i
j
1. mnk = m n n m

ijk mnk = g E ijk g E mnk = E ijk E mnk = ijmn =

i m i n
= j
= i m j n i n j m ;
j
m n
ijk
i
2. mjk = 2 m

ijk mjk = i m j j i j j m = 3 i m i m = 2 i m
ijk
i
3. ijk = 2 i = 6

,
, . ,
: ijk mnk ,
:
ijk mnk = g E ijk g E mnk = g E ijk E mnk = g ijmn .
, . .
"" :
i'j'k' m'n'k' = ijk mnp ei' i e j' j e m m' e n n' e k' k e p k' = ijk mnp e i' i e j' j e m m' e n n' p k =
= ijk mnk e i' i e j' j e m m' e n n' ;
95

. . .

"" :
i'j'k' m'n'k' = ijk mnp ei i' e j j' e m m' e n n' e k k' e p k' .
, ""
. ""
.
, , -
, :
ijk = g E ijk = g

[ ] [ ] [ ]]
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0

0 0 1
0 0 0
1 0 0

0 1 0
1 0 0
0 0 0

..
. ,
, . . , , .
.
.
a1 b1 c1
V e a b c = g a , b , c = g a 2 b 2 c 2 =
a3 b3 c3

.
2
1
1
c2
c1
c1
1 b
2 b
3 b
= g a 3 3 a 3 3 a 2 2 =
b c
b c
b c

.
b2 c2 1 b1 c1 2 b1 c1 3
1
2
3
= a e 1 a e 2 a e 3 g 3 3 e 3 3 e 2 2 e .
b c
b c
b c

b c , :
bc = g

b 2 c 2 1 b1 c 1 2 b 1 c 1 3
e 3 3e 2 2e .
b3 c3
b c
b c

, :
e 1 b1 c1
bc = g e 2 b 2 c 2 .
e 2 b3 c 3

96

. . .

,
() b c (, ) . , ,
:
g 1i e i b 1 c 1
g 1i e i b 1 c 1
g
bc = g g 2 j e j b 2 c 2 = g 2 j e j b 2 c 2 =
g g 3 k e b3 c3
g 3 k e k b3 c3
k

= g

1i
1
1
g 11 g 12 g 13 g e i b c
e 1 b1 c 1

2j
2
2
g 21 g 22 g 23 g e j b c = g e 2 b 2 c 2 .
g 31 g 32 g 33 g 3 k e k b 3 c 3
e 3 b3 c 3

, [ g ] [ g ] , ,
g ik g km = i m . :
b i = g ik b k . , ,
. :
e 1 b1 c1
bc = g e 2 b 2 c 2 = g E ijk b i c j e k =
e 2 b3 c 3
g
= E ijk b i c j e k = g E mnp g mi g nj g pk bi c j e k = g E mnp b m c n e p
g

, g E ijk mnp
, g E ijk = E g mi g nj g pk .
:
ab = g E ijk a i b j e k = g E ijk a i b j e k = ijk a i b j e k
ab = g E ijk a i b j e k =

1 ijk
E a i b j e k = ijk a i b j e k
g

, i' j' k'

, . i'j'k' a b e
a b , , c k' .
c k' = i'j'k' a i' b j' = g '' E i'j'k' a i' b j' = g '' g g E i'j'k' a i' b j' =
= e ' g E i'j'k' a i' b j' .
,
e 'E i'j'k' .

g g'' = e ' .
97

. . .

e '
e '
e 'E i'j'k' = e ' Ei'j'k' = E ijk ei i' e j j' e k k' .
e '
e '

e '
e ' g E i'j'k' a b = g E ijk e i i' ai' e j j' b j' ek k' =
e '
e '
e ' k
i j k
= g E ijk a b e k' = c k e k' , c k = g E ijk a i b j
e '
e '

i'

j'

.
e ' k
: c k' = c k e k' .
e '
, c

k'

k-

e ' k k'
= ' c e k .
e

, ,

.
, .

98

. . .

.
, "" . , .. .
. ,
. . , , . ,
.
x y ,
:
1
1
1
2
3
y = x , x , x
y 2 = 2 x 1 , x 2 , x 3 .
y 3 = 3 x 1 , x 2 , x 3

, . :

y 1 = a1 1 x1 a1 2 x 2 a1 3 x 3
i
y 2 = a 2 1 x 1 a 2 2 x 2 a 2 3 x 3 , a k .
3
3
1
3
2
3
3
y =a 1x a 2x a 3x

. , , .
y x :

1
dy =
dx
dx 2
1
2
x
x
2
2
1
2
dy =
dx
dx 2
1
2
x
x
3
3
1 2
3
dy =
dx
dx
1
2
x
x
1

3
dx
3
x
2
3
dx .
3
x
3
3
dx
3
x

.

, , , .
99

. . .

, , .
, , .
.
. . , y
x : y = f x . , :
" F x y : y = F x ". . , . , . ""
, . F , ,
, ,
, , , , . "" ,
.
:

[][

][ ]

a1 1 a1 2 a1 3 x1
y1
y 2 = a2 1 a2 2 a2 3 x2 .
3
3
3
3
y3
a1 a 2 a 3 x

, , , : ,
x y z. , .
, ,
, , ,
.

.
a ,

x y :

y = ax . , a ,
x y [ a ] .
: [ y ] = [ a ] [ x ] .

:
[ g ] [ y ] = [ a ] [ g ] [ x ] ;

[ g ] [ g ] [ y ] = [ g ] [ a ] [ g ] [ x ] .

100

. . .

[ g ] [ g ] = E , [ y ] = [ g ] [ a ] [ g ] [ x ] , , [ g ] [ a ] [ g ]
, .
,
[ a ] , ,

[ a ] = [ g ] [ a ] [ g ]

. ,
[ a ] = [ a ] [ g ] ;

[ a ] = [ g ] [ a ] .

,
,
. ,
, .. , .
. '
'
'
[ y ] = [ a ' ] [ x ] . :
[ e' ] [ y ] = [ a ' ' ][ e ' ] [ x ] .
1

[ e ' ] = [ e ' ] .

[ e ' ][ e' ] [ y ] = [ e ' ][ a' ' ][ e' ] [ x ] , :

[ y ] = [ e ' ][ a ' ' ][ e' ] [ x ] = [ a ] [ x ] .
:

[ a ] = [ e ' ][ a ' ' ][ e' ] .

, [ a

'
'

] = [ e' ][ a ][ e ' ] .

, . ,

[ a ] , [ a ] , [ a ] [ a ] . , [ a ] [ a ] [ g ] [ g ] .
,
, .

101

. . .

[ a ] . , :

][ ] [ ]

a1 1 a1 2 a 1 3 1
a1 1
a
ae 1 =
a 2 1 a 2 2 a2 3 0 = a2 1 =
e1 .
3
3
3
3
a 1 a 2 a 3 0
a 1
a

e 1 a e 1 .
a
: ae 2 = e 2
ae 3 = a e 3 . :

a 1

e1

[ e ] = a e2 1
a 3
e1

a 1

e 2
a 2
e 2
a 3
e 2

a 1

e 3
a 2
e 3 .
a 3
e 3

, [ a ] , :
1. "" .
2. .
3. .

a
( b ) ,
n. ,
(. 47).
z

e3
e1

c
y

e2

-c
x

b
ae 2

. 47

102

. . .

, ,
. ( e 2 ) c b .
c n (. 47), b
.
e 2 = b c , c = ne 2 n ,
b = e 2 c = e 2 ne 2 n .
b , c . :
a e 2 = b c = e 2 2 c = e 2 2 ne 2 n .
:
a e i = b c = e i 2c = e i 2 ne i n .
.

[ ] [ ] [ ]
1

1 2n n
2 n n
2n n
2 1
2 2
2 3
a e1 =
2 n n , a e 2 =
1 2 n n , a e3 =
2 n n .
3 1
3 2
3 3
2 n n
2 n n
1 2n n
.

1 2n n

[ a ] = 2 n2 n1
3 1
2 n n

][ ] [

2n n
2 n n
n n n n n n
1 0 0
2 2
2 3
2 1
2 2
2 3
1 2n n
2 n n = 0 1 0 2 n n n n n n
3 2
3 3
3 1
3 2
3 3
0 0 1
2 n n
1 2n n
n n n n n n

. , . . b . . , .
e3

n
c
b
e2
d

e1

-c
ab

. 48
b b = c d , d , c . 103

. . .

d , c ( ). , b a b = a c d = d c . a b = b 2c .
c = n b n = b k n k n , : c i = b k nk n i .
:
i
k
i
i
k
k
i
i
i
k
i
k
ab = b 2c =
b 2 b n k n = k b 2b nk n = k 2 n n k b = a k b .
i
i
i
: a k = k 2 n n k .
. ,
, , .
,
, :

n1 n 1 n 1 n 2 n 1 n 3
1 0 0
[ a ] = 0 1 0 2 n2 n1 n2 n2 n2 n3 .
3
3
3
0 0 1
n n1 n n2 n n3

[ ]

, , , .
n:
nx n x n x n y n x nz
1 0 0

[ a ] = 0 1 0 2 n y nx n y n y n y nz .
0 0 1
n z n x nz n y nz n z

[ ] [

, .

4
1
1
b=
n
=
3 ,

2 .
5

5
0

[]

[]

[ ] [
] [
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ]

1 0 0
11 12 10
3 4 0
2
1
[ a ] = 0 1 0 5 21 22 20 = 5 4 3 0
0 0 1
01 02 00
0
0 5

3 4 0 4
0
0
1
1
=

4 3 0 30 = 25 = 5 .
5
5
0
0 5 5
25
5

104

. . .

a b xy

x
n
b xy
y

. 49
. , n
xoy. b z
. , b xy , xoy.
, .
..
1. .
.
, , , .
I, :
Ie 1 = e 1 , Ie 2 = e 2 Ie 3 = e 3 . .
1 0 0

[ I ] = 0 1 0 = E .
0 0 1

.
[ I ' ' ] = [ e ' ][ I ][ e ' ] = [ e' ] E [ e ' ] = [ e ' ][ e ' ] = E .
, , , , .

.
[ g ] [ I ] = [ I ] = [ g ] E = [ g ] , , [ I ] = [ g ] .
,
[ I ] = [ g ] [ I ] = [ I ] = [ g ] = [ g ] = E .
, . .
, , ,
. ,
, , .
i
i
i
i
g k = k , g k k .

[ ]

105

. . .

,
i
k
i
i
k
, k g m = g m k g m i m .
'
[ e ] [22]
, ,
. , .
[ e' ] [ e ' ][ e ' ][ e ' ] = [ e ' ] .
, ,
.

. , [ a ]
, [ x ]
[ y ] .

[ y ] = [ a ] [ x ] .
[ y ] .
[ e ' ] [ y' ] = [ a ] [ x ] .
[ e

[ e ][ e ' ] [ y ] = [ e ][ a ] [ x ] .
'

, [ e ][ e ' ] = E ,
[ y' ] = [ e ' ][ a ] [ x ] = [ a ' ] [ x ] , [ a ' ] = [ e ' ][ a ]
'

'

'

'

].

,
x , ,
y , .
,
, .
2.
a , a1 ,
,
1
a . :
1
[ a1 ] = [ a ] . , ,
.
3.
, . x , ,
. x
, .
ae 1 = e 1 ; ae 2 = e 2 ; ae 3 = e 3 .
.
0 0

[a ] = 0 1 0 .
0 0 1

[ ]

106

. . .

, , :
1 0 0

[ a ] = 0 2 0 , i .
0 0 3

[ ]

4.
, , (. 50).
y.
z

y
x

. 50
, , .
xoy, , .
xoy y . 3
: ac = c c e 2 .
:
ae 1 = e 1 e 3 1 e 2 = e 1 0e 2 = e 1 ;
ae 2 = e 2 e 3 2 e 2 = e 2 0e 2 = e 2 ;
ae 3 = e 3 e 3 3 e 2 = e 3 e 2 .
:
y
1 0 0

[a ] = 0 1 .
xoy
0 0 1
y yoz.
ae 1 = e 1 e 1 1 e 2 = e 1 e 2 ;
ae 2 = e 2 e 1 2 e 2 = e 2 0e 2 = e 2 ;
ae 3 = e 3 e 1 3 e 2 = e 3 0e 2 = e 3 .

[ ]

[ ]

1 0 0
[a ] = 1 0 .
0 0 1
.
y

yoz

107

. . .

5.

,
. x
x xyz, y z . ,

, . 51 e 2 e 3 .
z

e3

e3

e2
y

x
x

e2

e1

. 51

[] [ ] [ ]

0
0
1

e1 =
cos x , e 3 =
sin x .
0 , e2 =
0
sin x
cos x

[
]
]

1
0
0
, , [ x ] = 0 cos x sin x
0 sin x cos x

,
cos y 0 sin y

[y ] = 0 1 0 ,
sin y 0 cos y

[
[

cos z sin z 0
[ z ] = sin z cos z 0 .
0
0
1
6.

, , x'y'z' . z' , :
cos z ' sin z ' 0
'
[ z ' ' ] = sin z ' cosz ' 0 .
0
0
1

108

. . .

'
'
, : [ z ' ] = [ e ' ][ z ' ' ][ e ] .
,
, ,
T

. [ z ' ] [ z ' ] .
T

[ z ' ] [ z ' ] = [ e ' ][ z ' ' ' ][ e ' ]

T

[ e ][

'

'
z'

'

][ e ' ] =

= [ e ' ] [ z ' ' ' ] [ e ' ] [ e ' ][ z ' ' ' ][ e ' ] .

[ e ' ] x'y'z'
, ,
e 1 'e 1 ' e 1 'e 2' e 1'e 3'
T

[ e ' ] [ e ' ] = e2 'e1 ' e2 'e 2' e 2 'e3 ' = E e 3 'e 1 ' e 3 'e 2' e 3'e 3'

.
T
T
[ e ' ] [ e ' ] = E . , [ z ' ' ' ] [ z ' ' ' ] = E ,
T

. , [ z ' ] [ z ' ] = E , , T

[ z ' ] , : [ z ' ] = [ z ' ] . ,

, . , , .
:
, ,
T
, [ z ' ] [ z ' ] = E . , ,
, .

[ l ] .
:
T
T
[ l ] = [ e ] [ l ] [ e ] .

T
T
T
T
[ l ] [ l ] = E = [ e ] [ l ] [ e ] [ e ][ l ][ e ] ;

[ e ] [ e ] = [ g ] , E = [ e ] [ l ] [ g ] [ l ][ e ] .

T

[ e ]

= [ e ]

[ e ] = [ e ] .
T
T
T
T
[ e ] [ e ] [ l ] [ g ] [ l ][ e ][ e ] = [ e ] [ e ]
T
1
[ l ] [ g ] [ l ] = [ g ] . [ l ]
1
T
[ l ] = [ g ] [ l ] [ g ] .

[ g ] ,

a , , aT , T
, [ a T ] = [ g ] [ a ] [ g ] .
,
T
[ aT ] = [ a ] .

109

. . .

,
.

.
, , , ,
. , , .

a , b c , . :

[ ]
1

a b c

2
2
2
a b c = [a b c ] .
3
3
3
a b c

x ,

a xoy. [ 1 x ] ,
. [ 1 x

] ,

: [ 1 x ] [ a b c ] .
z , a
x. , .
,

: [ z ] : [ z ][ 1 x ] [ a b c ] .
x , b
xoy y.

[ 2 x ][ z ][ 1 x ][ a b c ] , [ 2 x ] ,
.
a x, b
xoy y, c .
xoz x,
b y. :

1
xoz

1
xoz

[ ] [ 2 x ][ z ][ 1 x ] [ a b c ] , [ ]

. , , xoy y
, c
z. :
y

2
xoy

1
xoz

[ ] [ ] [ 2 x ][ z ][ 1 x ] [ a b c ] . , . ,
. ,
, , , .
:

110

. . .

y
x
a' 0 0

0 b' 0 = [ 2 ] [ 1 ] [ 2 x ][ z ][ 1 x ] [ a b c ] .
xoy
xoz
0 0 c'
a' 0 0
= 0 b' 0 = a'b'c' .
0 0 c'

a' 0 b' 0 . c' 0 , V a b c = a'b'c' = .

c' 0 , V a b c = a'b'c' = , a , b c .
y
x
a' 0 0

0 b' 0 = [ 2 ] [ 1 ] [ 2 x ][ z ][ 1 x ] [ a b c ] = a b c ,
xoy
xoz
0 0 c'
, , ! ,
a1 b1 c1
V a b c = a2 b 2 c 2 . a3 b3 c3
,
.

111

. . .

.
.

, .
. .
, .
, .
-.
, a b . ,
i
i n
m
: b j = C j m a n . , .
, , , , , , . , .
.
,
, . ,
, . ,
.
, , ,
.

.
, .
. - 1901 . , .
(29)
j1 j 2 j q

p + q n pq n
i i i , p q ,
:
1 2

112

. . .

j 1 j 2 j q
i 1 i 2 i p
j 1 j2 j q

=a

j1 j 2 j q

i 1 i 2 i p

i1
i 1

i2
i 2

ip
i p

j1

j1

j 2

j2

j q

jq

a
i i i . 1, 2, 3 ..., n .
1 2

.
.

. , , , , , .

.
,
. , .

i
i
, , a i b i ; a k b k .
.
:
i
i
i
ci = ai bi ; c k = a k b k .

. . , , m
a i k b n p ,
c i k m n p = a i k b m n p . -. i j k m n p ,
:
i j k m n p = imjnk p .
.
, ,
.
,


:

113

. . .

m= n

ik
p

a i mk m p = a i m k m p . ,

m= 1

ik
. c p
, . i
: ab = a b i .
ik
i jk
m
: c p = a m p j .
, a b
c , i
i
k
a b : c m = a k b m . ,
. , ,
,
i k
i
k
. : d j m = a j b m .
i
i
k
j
i
k
: c m = a j b m k = a k b m . ,
,
, , . , :
c = a i j b k m j k m i = a m k b k m , .

()
. , , , . , , b k i = a i k , b k i a i k . ik
b k i a T ,
ik

: a T = a k i =
[ a ] = [ a ] . . ,
i
i
: b k = a k .
, , .

i
im
n
i
i
T i
, b k = g b m g n k . , b k = a k = a k ( ),
Ti
im n
a k = g a m g n k :
T

[ aT ] = [ g ] [ a ] [ g ] .
, .
, , ,
. ,
, , . ,
, , , ,
, .

114

. . .

.
..
L
, , . dV dm. .
i j
dL = r v dm =
dL k = i j k r v dm ;

.
j
mn j
v = m r n ;
:
dL k = i j k r i mn j m r n dm = mn j i k j m r i r n dm ;
-.
m n j i k j = m i n k m k n i ;
m
n
m
n
i
dL k = m k i i k r r n dm ;
,
.
m
n
m
n
i
L k = m k i i k r r n dm ;
V

:
m
m
n
m
n
i
J k = k i i k r r n dm ;
V

:
Lk = J m k m ;
m
J k .
. .
, L .
Lk g k p = g n m J m k g k p n ;
L p = J n p n .

.

1
1
n
1
n
i
n
1
J 1 = 1 i i 1 r r n dm = r r n r r 1 dm ;
V

J 1 J xx .
1
2
2
J 1 = J xx = r y r z dm ;
V

:
2
2
2
J 2 = J yy = r x r z dm ;
V

115

. . .

= J zz = r x r y dm ;
2

1
1
n
1
n
i
1
J 2 = 2 i i 2 r r n dm = r r 2 dm ;
V

1
J 2 J xy .

J 1 2 = J xy = r x r y dm ;
V

:
J 2 3 = J yz = r y r z dm ;
V

3
1

= J zx = r z r x dm ;
V

:
Lx
J xx J xy J xz x
L y = J yx J yy J yz y .
Lz
J zx J zy J zz z

[][

][ ]

.
:
. .
1
dK = v i v i dm ; v i = j k i j r k ; v i = m ni m r n ;
2
1
1
dK = v i v i dm = j k i j r k m n i m r n dm =
2
2
1
= j m j m k n j n k m r k r n dm .
2
1
1
j m j m k n j n k m r k r n dm = J j m m j
2
2
V
:
K=

K=

J11 J12

1 j
1
J m m j =
[ 1 2 3 ] J 2 1 J 2 2
2
2
3
3
J 1 J 2

][ ]

J 1 3 1
J 2 3 2 .
3
3
J 3

116

. . .

..
. (. 52).
z

p3
p1

e3
p

e2

e1
p1

p2
y

p3

. 52
, , , , . , . p , , . , p 1 ,
e 1 , . 52
. , ,
- p 1 . , . 53.
z

n
p1

e3
p2
x

e1

e2

y
p

p3

. 53
, n. , p .
n, p . p , ,
n: p = f n . , . , p i ,
si . s . , , , :
- p 1 S1 p 2 S2 p 3 S 3 p S = 0 ;
117

. . .

si
s
n , :
s
s
s
p = p 1 1 p 2 2 p 3 3 = p 1 n1 p 2 n 2 p 3 n3 = p i n i .
s
s
s
:
p i = ik ek .
p = i k ni e k , p i = i k n k .
,
. i k , . : .
11 = x ; 22 = y ; 33 = z ;
1 2 = 2 1 = xy ; 2 3 = 3 2 = yz ; 3 1 = 13 = xz .
p n.
= pn = i k n i n k .
, , l , . n l
:
= pl = i k n i l k .
, , , . p n .
i i
ik
k
p e i = nk e k ;

s , ,

p e i e
m

m
i
i k

ik

= l k e

k
k

m
i

p = n k , i k = i k e i i e k k .
, i k ,
. , i k . i k
. , i
ik
, p = n k . ,
.
, e 1 e 2 . e 1 , .
e 1 = 1 k e k ; e 1 = e 1e 1 = g 11 .
e1
n = 1 .
e
1
1
i i
i
i
ni e =
e
n
=
;
.
i
g11
g 11
118

. . .

.
1
ik
ik i
p=
e
=
e .
11 k
11 k
g
g
p n, .
1
1 m m
1 m m
i k 1 k 11
1k
1k m m
p 11 e = 11 e k 11 e = 11 11 k =
= 11 .
11
g
g
g
g g
g g
.
e
, :

= . .
g
, .
e
k g k
k e ke
p
=
=
, .
g g g g g
e
e ( ) , :
k g k
=
g g
,
ik .

119

. . .

, .
. , . , : . , ,
. ,
, . .
..
1.
a bc = b ac c ab , "
". , .
, : ab c = b ac a bc . , " "
.
, , . , , , : d f g = 1 f 2 g .
, .
: 1 = dg , 2 = d f . , d f g = f dg g df
.
a bc = b ac c ab , , .
n
a bc = m k n a m i j k bi c j .
-.
mkn
mnk
m
n
m
n
m
n
m
n
i j k = i j k = i j j i = j i i j .
:
mkn
i j
m
n
m
n
i j
a m i j k b c = j i i j a m b c =
m j n i a m b i c j m i n j a m b i c j = b n a j c j c n a i bi .
.
2.
ab cd = ac ad .
bc bd

ab cd = i j k ai b j m n k c m d n ;
i j k m k n = k i j k m n = m i n j m j n i ;

ab cd = m i n j m j n i a i b j cm d n =
120

. . .

m i n j a i b j cm d n m j n i ai b j cm d n = ai ci b j d j ai d i b j c j =
ac bd ad bc = ac ad
bc bd
3.
ax ay az
a bc x yz = bx by bz
cx cy cz

a bc x yz = i j k ai b j c k m n p x m y n z p =
i
i
i
1
2
3
a a a
x1 y1 z1 a xi a yi a zi
1
i
i
i
= g b1 b 2 b 3
x2 y2 z 2 = b xi b yi b zi
1
2
3 g
c c c
x 3 y 3 z 3 c i x i ci y i c i z i
:
ax ay az
a bc x yz = bx by bz .
cx cy cz
.

.
4.
ab cd = ac ad .
bc bd
5.
a bc b ca c ab = 0 .
2
6. ab .
7. ,
a bc = ab c .
a c , ab 0 bc 0 .
8.
a b b c c a .
9. :
) ab cd = b a cd a b cd
) ab cd e f =
= b e f a cd a e f b cd .
10. ,
2
ab bc ca = a bc .
11.
ax ay az
a bc x yz = bx by bz .
cx cy cz

121

. . .

. ,

.
. "
" 1925- . .
"
. ,
, , ,
- .
(1903) , , ,
! ,
, . 1881.
,
.
, , ,
,
".
"... (1908) , . ...
,
, . (1912) , , ,
1916 . , - . , -,
" , ". 1921 .
.
:
.
...

122

. . .

,
, , ,
, , ,
".
,
. .
.
.

.
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132