C#. Спецификация языка. Версия 3.0. 2007. Microsoft

C#
3.03.0
(Microsoft Corp.), 1999-2007. .

, , sharp@microsoft.com

Microsoft, Windows, Visual Basic, Visual C# Visual C++
.
.

1. ...........................................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Hello world...........................................................................................................................1
1.2 ................................................................................................................................2
1.3 ....................................................................................................................................4
1.4 ..................................................................................................................................................8
1.5 .................................................................................................................................................10
1.6 .....................................................................................................................................14
1.6.1 ..................................................................................................................................................14
1.6.2 .......................................................................................................................................15
1.6.3 .................................................................................................................................15
1.6.4 ..................................................................................................................................16
1.6.5 ....................................................................................................................................................16
1.6.6 ...............................................................................................................................................17
1.6.6.1 ...................................................................................................................................17
1.6.6.2 .......................................................................................19
1.6.6.3 ...............................................................................19
1.6.6.4 , .......................................................20
1.6.6.5 .......................................................................................................................22
1.6.7 -.....................................................................................................................23
1.6.7.1 ..............................................................................................................................25
1.6.7.2 .......................................................................................................................................26
1.6.7.3 ................................................................................................................................26
1.6.7.4 .......................................................................................................................................27
1.6.7.5 ....................................................................................................................................27
1.6.7.6 ................................................................................................................................28
1.7 .................................................................................................................................................28
1.8 ....................................................................................................................................................29
1.9 ..............................................................................................................................................31
1.10 ..............................................................................................................................32
1.11 ..................................................................................................................................................33
1.12 .................................................................................................................................................34
2. ...............................................................................................................................37
2.1 ................................................................................................................................................37
2.2 ...............................................................................................................................................37
2.2.1 ...................................................................................................................37
2.2.2 ....................................................................................................................38
2.2.3 ..............................................................................................................38
2.3 ..................................................................................................................................38
2.3.1 .....................................................................................................................39
2.3.2 ......................................................................................................................................40
2.3.3 ................................................................................................................................................41
2.4 .....................................................................................................................................................41
2.4.1 .................................................................41
2.4.2 ................................................................................................................................42
2.4.3 ..................................................................................................................44
2.4.4 ............................................................................................................................................44
2.4.4.1 ..................................................................................................................44
2.4.4.2 ...........................................................................................................45
2.4.4.3 ..........................................................................................................46
2.4.4.4 ................................................................................................................46
1.1.1.1
.............................................................................................................47
2.4.4.5 null.................................................................................................................................49
2.4.5 ........................................................................................................49
2.5 ..................................................................................................................50
2.5.1 .......................................................................................................51
2.5.2 ...........................................................................................................51
2.5.3 ......................................................................................................................52
2.5.4 ....................................................................................................53
2.5.5 ....................................................................................................................55
2.5.6 ..........................................................................................................................56
2.5.7 ................................................................................................................................56
2.5.8 pragma.............................................................................................................................57
2.5.8.1 pragma warning..........................................................................................................57
3. ...................................................................................................................................59
3.1 ..................................................................................................................................59
3.2 ..........................................................................................................................60
3.3 ...............................................................................................................................................60
3.4 .........................................................................................................................................................62
3.4.1 .................................................................................................................63
3.4.2 ...............................................................................................................................63
3.4.3 ..........................................................................................................................63
3.4.4 ......................................................................................................................................63
3.4.5 .............................................................................................................................64
3.4.6 ...................................................................................................................................64
3.4.7 ...................................................................................................................................64
3.5 ....................................................................................................................................64
3.5.1 .................................................................................................................64
3.5.2 .........................................................................................................................65
3.5.3 ................................................................................68
3.5.4 ................................................................................................................69
3.6 ...........................................................................................................................69
3.7 ......................................................................................................................................................71
3.7.1 ...................................................................................................................................73
3.7.1.1 .............................................................................................................74
3.7.1.2 ......................................................................................................74
3.8 ............................................................................................................76
3.8.1 ....................................................................................................................................78
3.9 .....................................................................................................79
3.10 ..............................................................................................................................81
4. ...............................................................................................................................................................83
4.1 ..........................................................................................................................................83
4.1.1 System.ValueType........................................................................................................................84
4.1.2 ............................................................................................................84
4.1.3 .................................................................................................................................85
4.1.4 .....................................................................................................................................85
4.1.5 ........................................................................................................................................86
4.1.6 ...............................................................................................................88
4.1.7 decimal.........................................................................................................................................89
4.1.8 bool..............................................................................................................................................89
4.1.9 .........................................................................................................................90
4.1.10 ............................................................................................................................90
4.2 .......................................................................................................................................91
iv
4.2.1 ......................................................................................................................................91
4.2.2 ........................................................................................................................................92
4.2.3 ...................................................................................................................................92
4.2.4 ...............................................................................................................................92
4.2.5 ...................................................................................................................................92
4.2.6 ..................................................................................................................................92
4.3 ..............................................................................................................................93
4.3.1 .................................................................................................................93
4.3.2 ..............................................................................................................94
4.4 ............................................................................................................................95
4.4.1 .................................................................................................................................96
4.4.2 ..............................................................................................................96
4.4.3 ........................................................................................................97
4.4.4 .................................................................................................................97
4.5 ........................................................................................................................................98
4.6 ..........................................................................................................................99
5. .................................................................................................................................................101
5.1 ...........................................................................................................................101
5.1.1 ................................................................................................................101
5.1.2 ..................................................................................................................101
5.1.2.1 ...........................................................................................102
5.1.2.2 .....................................................................................102
5.1.3 ............................................................................................................................102
5.1.4 ..................................................................................................................102
5.1.5 ......................................................................................................................102
5.1.6 ......................................................................................................................103
5.1.7 ...................................................................................................................103
5.2 .........................................................................................................................104
5.3 ..................................................................................................................104
5.3.1 .............................................................................................105
5.3.2 ............................................................................................106
5.3.3 .....................................................106
5.3.3.1 ................................................................................................106
5.3.3.2 , ...............................................107
5.3.3.3 ..............................................................................................................107
5.3.3.4 ..............................................................................................................107
5.3.3.5 If..........................................................................................................................107
5.3.3.6 switch...................................................................................................................108
5.3.3.7 while....................................................................................................................108
5.3.3.8 do.........................................................................................................................108
5.3.3.9 for........................................................................................................................109
5.3.3.10 break, continue goto............................................................................................109
5.3.3.11 throw......................................................................................................................109
5.3.3.12 return.....................................................................................................................109
5.3.3.13 try-catch.............................................................................................................110
5.3.3.14 try-finally...........................................................................................................110
5.3.3.15 try-catch-finally.................................................................................................110
5.3.3.16 foreach...............................................................................................................111
5.3.3.17 using...................................................................................................................111
5.3.3.18 lock....................................................................................................................111
5.3.3.19 yield...................................................................................................................112
5.3.3.20 ..............................................................................112
5.3.3.21 ...........................................112
5.3.3.22 ..............................................................112
5.3.3.23 ........................................................................................113
5.3.3.24 &&........................................................................................................................113
5.3.3.25 ||.............................................................................................................................114
5.3.3.26 !.........................................................................................................................115
5.3.3.27 ?? ??..................................................................................................................115
5.3.3.28 ?:.......................................................................................................................116
5.3.3.29 ...............................................................................................................116
5.4 .........................................................................................................................117
5.5 .....................................................................................................117
6. ..........................................................................................................................................119
6.1 .......................................................................................................................119
6.1.1 ....................................................................................................119
6.1.2 .....................................................................................120
6.1.3 ...........................................................................120
6.1.4 ................................................................................120
6.1.5 null.........................................................................................................121
6.1.6 ..................................................................................121
6.1.7 ...............................................................................................................121
6.1.8 .............................................................................122
6.1.9 , .............................................................122
6.1.10 ................................................................................122
6.1.11 ...............................123
6.2 ...........................................................................................................................123
6.2.1 ........................................................................................123
6.2.2 ...............................................................................125
6.2.3 ....................................................................................125
6.2.4 ......................................................................................126
6.2.5 ............................................................................................................126
6.2.6 , .................................................................127
6.2.7 ......................................................................................128
6.3 ................................................................................................................128
6.3.1 ..........................................................................................128
6.3.2 ..............................................................................................128
6.4 ........................................................................................................128
6.4.1 ............................................................................128
6.4.2 .................................................................................129
6.4.3 ............................................................................129
6.4.4 ..................................................................................130
6.4.5 ......................................................................................131
6.5 ..................................................................................................132
6.5.1 ............................................133
6.5.2 ............................134
6.5.3 ..........................................................................................................................134
6.6 ..........................................................................................................137
7. ..................................................................................................................................................141
7.1 .................................................................................................................................141
7.1.1 ........................................................................................................................142
7.2 ...............................................................................................................................................142
7.2.1 .....................................................................................143
7.2.2 ....................................................................................................................144
vi
7.2.3 ................................................................................145
7.2.4 ..............................................................................145
7.2.5 -.......................................................................................146
7.2.6 ......................................................................................................................146
7.2.6.1 ............................................................................146
7.2.6.2 ..........................................................................146
7.2.7 ............................................................................................................147
7.3 ..........................................................................................................................................148
7.3.1 ....................................................................................................................................149
7.4 -......................................................................................................................................150
7.4.1 ..........................................................................................................................153
7.4.2 .......................................................................................................................................155
7.4.2.1 ...............................................................................................................................156
7.4.2.2 ................................................................................................................................156
7.4.2.3 .................................................................................................................................156
7.4.2.4 ..............................................................................................................................156
7.4.2.5 ...............................................................................................................................157
7.4.2.6 ....................................................................................................................157
7.4.2.7 ...............................................................................................157
7.4.2.8 ............................................................................................................................157
7.4.2.9 ...............................................................................................................157
7.4.2.10 ..........................................................................................................................158
7.4.2.11 ............................................................................158
7.4.2.12 ...................................................................159
7.4.2.13 ....................................159
7.4.3 ...................................................................................................................160
7.4.3.1 -......................................................................................................160
7.4.3.2 -.............................................................................................161
7.4.3.3 ....................................................................................162
7.4.3.4 ...............................................................................................162
7.4.3.5 ......................................................................................163
7.4.4 -......................................................................................................................163
7.4.4.1 ..........................................................................................165
7.5 .............................................................................................................................165
7.5.1 ..........................................................................................................................................166
7.5.2 .................................................................................................................................166
7.5.2.1 ..........................................................................................167
7.5.3 ..................................................................................................................168
7.5.4 ....................................................................................................................168
7.5.4.1 ............................................................................170
7.5.4.2 ............................................................................................171
7.5.5 ...........................................................................................................................171
7.5.5.1 ........................................................................................................................172
7.5.5.2 ...................................................................................................173
7.5.5.3 ......................................................................................................................175
7.5.6 ...............................................................................................................176
7.5.6.1 .......................................................................................................................176
7.5.6.2 ...............................................................................................................177
7.5.7 this........................................................................................................................................177
7.5.8 base.......................................................................................................................................178
7.5.9 .....................................................................179
7.5.10 new.................................................................................................................................180
7.5.10.1 ...............................................................................................180
vii
7.5.10.2 ......................................................................................................181
7.5.10.3 ...................................................................................................183
7.5.10.4 .................................................................................................184
7.5.10.5 ................................................................................................186
7.5.10.6 ...........................................................................188
7.5.11 typeof..............................................................................................................................189
7.5.12 checked unchecked....................................................................................................191
7.5.13 ............................................................................................193
7.5.14 ....................................................................................................194
7.6 ................................................................................................................................194
7.6.1 ..............................................................................................................194
7.6.2 ............................................................................................................194
7.6.3 ...................................................................................................195
7.6.4 ..................................................................................................195
7.6.5 .......................................................................195
7.6.6 ..........................................................................................................196
7.7 ..................................................................................................................197
7.7.1 ...................................................................................................................197
7.7.2 .............................................................................................................................198
7.7.3 .............................................................................................................................199
7.7.4 ..........................................................................................................................200
7.7.5 ........................................................................................................................202
7.8 ...................................................................................................................................204
7.9 ...............................................................................................205
7.9.1 ................................................................................................206
7.9.2 .......................................................................206
7.9.3 .......................................................................................207
7.9.4 ...................................................................................................207
7.9.5 ..............................................................................208
7.9.6 ..........................................................................208
7.9.7 .............................................................................................................209
7.9.8 ......................................................................................................210
7.9.9 null.............................................................................................210
7.9.10 is.....................................................................................................................................210
7.9.11 as.....................................................................................................................................211
7.10 .........................................................................................................................212
7.10.1 ......................................................................................212
7.10.2 ....................................................................................213
7.10.3 ...................................................................................................................213
7.10.4 .............................................................................................213
7.11 .........................................................................................................214
7.11.1 ..................................................................................................214
7.11.2 ...................................................................214
7.12 null.......................................................................................................................215
7.13 ...............................................................................................................................216
7.14 ........................................................................................................217
7.14.1 ......................................................................................................218
7.14.2 .............................................................................................................219
7.14.3 .................................................................................................................219
7.14.4 ....................................................................................................................220
7.14.4.1 ........................................................................................220
7.14.4.2 ....................................................................221
7.14.5 ............................................................................223
viii
7.15 ............................................................................................................................223
7.15.1 ...................................................................................224
7.15.2 .......................................................................................................225
7.15.2.1 select groupby ..................................................................225
7.15.2.2 ......................................................................................226
7.15.2.3 ......................................................................................226
7.15.2.4 from, let, where, join orderby.........................................................................227
7.15.2.5 select..................................................................................................................230
7.15.2.6 groupby.............................................................................................................230
7.15.2.7 .................................................................................................231
7.15.3 ..........................................................................................................232
7.16 .....................................................................................................................233
7.16.1 ...................................................................................................................234
7.16.2 ..................................................................................................................236
7.16.3 ..................................................................................................................237
7.17 ............................................................................................................................................237
7.18 ......................................................................................................................237
7.19 ........................................................................................................................239
8. .......................................................................................................................................240
8.1 ..........................................................................................................240
8.2 .......................................................................................................................................................242
8.2.1 ..........................................................................................................................242
8.3 .....................................................................................................................................243
8.4 ..........................................................................................................................243
8.5 ...........................................................................................................................244
8.5.1 ..............................................................................................244
8.5.2 ....................................................................................................246
8.6 -...........................................................................................................................246
8.7 ..................................................................................................................................246
8.7.1 if........................................................................................................................................247
8.7.2 switch................................................................................................................................247
8.8 ..............................................................................................................................251
8.8.1 while.................................................................................................................................251
8.8.2 do......................................................................................................................................252
8.8.3 for.....................................................................................................................................252
8.8.4 foreach..............................................................................................................................253
8.9 ...............................................................................................................................256
8.9.1 break.................................................................................................................................257
8.9.2 continue............................................................................................................................258
8.9.3 goto...................................................................................................................................258
8.9.4 return.................................................................................................................................259
8.9.5 throw.................................................................................................................................260
8.10 try..........................................................................................................................................261
8.11 checked unchecked..........................................................................................................264
8.12 lock........................................................................................................................................264
8.13 using......................................................................................................................................265
8.14 yield.......................................................................................................................................267
9. ....................................................................................................................................269
9.1 .............................................................................................................................269
9.2 .............................................................................................................269
9.3 ............................................................................................................................271
9.4 using.....................................................................................................................................271
ix
9.4.1 using alias......................................................................................................................272

9.4.2 using namespace............................................................................................................274
9.5 ......................................................................................................................276
9.6 ...................................................................................................................................276
9.7 .................................................................................277
9.7.1 .............................................................................................................278
10. Classes.........................................................................................................................................................281
10.1 ..............................................................................................................................281
10.1.1 .................................................................................................................281
10.1.1.1 ................................................................................................................282
10.1.1.2 ..............................................................................................................282
10.1.1.3 .................................................................................................................283
10.1.2 partial.......................................................................................................................284
10.1.3 .............................................................................................................................284
10.1.4 ...........................................................................................................284
10.1.4.1 ........................................................................................................................284
10.1.4.2 ........................................................................................................286
10.1.5 ......................................................................................................286
10.1.6 .....................................................................................................................................290
10.2 .................................................................................................................................290
10.2.1 ........................................................................................................................................291
10.2.2 ...............................................................................................................................291
10.2.3 ....................................................................................................292
10.2.4 .................................................................................................................................292
10.2.5 ......................................................................................................................292
10.2.6 ..............................................................................................................................................293
10.2.7 ......................................................................................................................293
10.2.8 ................................................................................................................................296
10.3 .........................................................................................................................................296
10.3.1 ...............................................................................................................................298
10.3.2 .....................................................................................................298
10.3.3 .................................................................................................................................299
10.3.4 new...........................................................................................................................300
10.3.5 .................................................................................................................300
10.3.6 .............................................................................................................................300
10.3.7 ......................................................................................300
10.3.8 ............................................................................................................................301
10.3.8.1 ..........................................................................................................................302
10.3.8.2 .......................................................................................................302
10.3.8.3 ....................................................................................................................................302
10.3.8.4 this...............................................................................................................................303
10.3.8.5 -...............................................303
10.3.8.6 ..........................................................................304
10.3.9 ................................................................................................305
10.3.9.1 , ....................................................................305
10.3.9.2 , ...................................................................306
10.3.9.3 , ..........................................................306
10.3.9.4 , ..........................................................306
10.4 .............................................................................................................................................307
10.5 .......................................................................................................................................................308
10.5.1 .........................................................................................309
10.5.2 .................................................................................................................310
x
10.5.2.1 .............................310
10.5.2.2 ...........................311
10.5.3 volatile.....................................................................................................311
10.5.4 ......................................................................................................................313
10.5.5 .......................................................................................................313
10.5.5.1 .........................................................................................314
10.5.5.2 ...........................................................................................315
10.6 ..................................................................................................................................................315
10.6.1 ..........................................................................................................................317
10.6.1.1 .........................................................................................................318
10.6.1.2 ..............................................................................................................319
10.6.1.3 ..............................................................................................................320
10.6.1.4 ...............................................................................................................320
10.6.2 ..................................................................................323
10.6.3 .....................................................................................................................323
10.6.4 ..........................................................................................................325
10.6.5 ....................................................................................................................327
10.6.6 ......................................................................................................................328
10.6.7 ............................................................................................................................329
10.6.8 ......................................................................................................................330
10.6.9 ......................................................................................................................330
10.6.10 ...................................................................................................................................331
10.6.11 ........................................................................................................................331
10.7 ................................................................................................................................................331
10.7.1 ..............................................................................333
10.7.2 .............................................................................................................................333
10.7.3 .........................................................................................338
10.7.4 ...................................................................................................................................339
10.7.5 , , ...................340
10.8 .................................................................................................................................................342
10.8.1 , ............................................................................................................344
10.8.2 .........................................................................................................345
10.8.3 .............................................................................346
10.8.4 , , ...................347
10.9 .........................................................................................................................................347
10.9.1 ................................................................................................................351
10.10 ...........................................................................................................................................351
10.10.1 ......................................................................................................................352
10.10.2 ....................................................................................................................353
10.10.3 .........................................................................................................353
10.11 ................................................................................................................356
10.11.1 .................................................................................................357
10.11.2 ...............................................................................358
10.11.3 ...........................................................................................................358
10.11.4 ......................................................................................................360
10.11.5 ..............................................................................................................360
10.11.6 ...........................................................361
10.12 ................................................................................................................361
10.13 ........................................................................................................................................363
10.14 ...........................................................................................................................................365
10.14.1 ........................................................................................................365
10.14.2 .........................................................................................................365
10.14.3 yield........................................................................................................................................365
xi
10.14.4 ...............................................................................................................365
10.14.4.1 MoveNext....................................................................................................................366
10.14.4.2 Current....................................................................................................................367
10.14.4.3 Dispose........................................................................................................................367
10.14.5 ...............................................................................................................368
10.14.5.1 GetEnumerator............................................................................................................368
10.14.6 ......................................................................................................................368
11. .................................................................................................................................................375
11.1 ............................................................................................................................375
11.1.1 .............................................................................................................375
11.1.2 partial.......................................................................................................................376
11.1.3 .................................................................................................................376
11.1.4 ...............................................................................................................................376
11.2 ..................................................................................................................................376
11.3 ...............................................................................................376
11.3.1 .......................................................................................................................377
11.3.2 ..................................................................................................................................378
11.3.3 .................................................................................................................................378
11.3.4 ................................................................................................................378
11.3.5 ...................................................................................................................379
11.3.6 this......................................................................................................381
11.3.7 ..................................................................................................................381
11.3.8 .................................................................................................................................381
11.3.9 ...................................................................................................................................382
11.3.10 ..........................................................................................................382
11.4 ................................................................................................................................382
11.4.1 ..............................................................................382
11.4.2 ........................................................................................................384
12. .....................................................................................................................................................387
12.1 ........................................................................................................................................387
12.1.1 System.Array............................................................................................................................388
12.1.2 IList................................................................................388
12.2 ..................................................................................................................................389
12.3 ................................................................................................................389
12.4 ......................................................................................................................................389
12.5 ...........................................................................................................................389
12.6 .....................................................................................................................390
13. ..............................................................................................................................................393
13.1 .....................................................................................................................393
13.1.1 ...........................................................................................................393
13.1.2 partial.......................................................................................................................393
13.1.3 ......................................................................................................................394
13.1.4 ............................................................................................................................394
13.2 ................................................................................................................................395
13.2.1 .......................................................................................................................396
13.2.2 .....................................................................................................................396
13.2.3 .....................................................................................................................396
13.2.4 ..............................................................................................................396
13.2.5 ........................................................................................................397
13.3 ......................................................................................................399
13.4 ......................................................................................................................399
xii
13.4.1 .........................................................................................400
13.4.2 ................................................................................402
13.4.3 .............................................................................................403
13.4.4 .........................................................................................................404
13.4.5 .......................................................................................407
13.4.6 ...............................................................................................408
13.4.7 ..............................................................................................409
14. ..............................................................................................................................411
14.1 ...................................................................................................................411
14.2 ..............................................................................................................412
14.3 .............................................................................................................................412
14.4 System.Enum..................................................................................................................................414
14.5 ....................................................................................................414
15. ....................................................................................................................................................415
15.1 ..........................................................................................................................415
15.2 ....................................................................................................................417
15.3 .............................................................................................................417
15.4 ......................................................................................................................................418
16. ..............................................................................................................................................421
16.1 ..........................................................................................................................421
16.2 System.Exception........................................................................................................................421
16.3 ........................................................................................................................421
16.4 ..................................................................................................................422
17. ...................................................................................................................................................425
17.1 .................................................................................................................................425
17.1.1 ..............................................................................................................425
17.1.2 ....................................................................................426
17.1.3 ............................................................................................................427
17.2 .......................................................................................................................427
17.3 .........................................................................................................................433
17.3.1 ....................................................................................................................433
17.3.2 .............................................................433
17.4 ..............................................................................................................433
17.4.1 AttributeUsage..................................................................................................................434
17.4.2 Conditional.......................................................................................................................434
17.4.2.1 .....................................................................................................................435
17.4.2.2 ...................................................................................................437
17.4.3 Obsolete............................................................................................................................437
17.5 .............................................................................................................438
17.5.1 COM Win32.........................................................................438
17.5.1.1 .NET IndexerName........................................439
18. .....................................................................................................................................441
18.1 ......................................................................................................................441
18.2 .....................................................................................................................................443
18.3 ..................................................................................446
18.4 .................................................................................................................446
18.5 ......................................................................................................................447
18.5.1 .............................................................................................448
18.5.2 ........................................................................................................448
18.5.3 ..................................................................................................449
xiii
18.5.4 .............................................................................................................................450
18.5.5 ...........................................................................................451
18.5.6 .....................................................................................451
18.5.7 ....................................................................................................................452
18.5.8 sizeof...............................................................................................................................452
18.6 fixed.......................................................................................................................................453
18.7 ........................................................................................................457
18.7.1 ...........................................................................457
18.7.2 .........................................................................458
18.7.3 .......................................................................................459
18.8 ...................................................................................................................................459
18.9 ........................................................................................................460
A. ................................................................................................................463
A.1 .................................................................................................................................................463
A.2 ..............................................................................................................................464
A.2.1 <c>.............................................................................................................................................465
A.2.2 <code>........................................................................................................................................465
A.2.3 <example>..................................................................................................................................466
A.2.4 <exception>................................................................................................................................466
A.2.5 <include>...................................................................................................................................467
A.2.6 <list>..........................................................................................................................................467
A.2.7 <para>........................................................................................................................................468
A.2.8 <param>.....................................................................................................................................469
A.2.9 <paramref>.................................................................................................................................469
A.2.10 <permission>............................................................................................................................469
A.2.11 <summary>...............................................................................................................................470
A.2.12 <returns>..................................................................................................................................470
A.2.13 <see>........................................................................................................................................471
A.2.14 <seealso>..................................................................................................................................471
A.2.15 <summary>..............................................................................................................................471
A.2.16 <value>....................................................................................................................................472
A.2.17 <typeparam>............................................................................................................................472
A.2.18 <typeparamref>........................................................................................................................472
A.3 ...........................................................................................................473
A.3.1 .....................................................................................................473
A.3.2 ..................................................................................................474
A.4 ....................................................................................................................................................477
A.4.1 C#.............................................................................................................................477
A.4.2 XML....................................................................................................................480
B. .................................................................................................................................................483
B.1 ...................................................................................................................................................483
B.1.1 ...............................................................................................................483
B.1.2 ...................................................................................................................................483
B.1.3 ..............................................................................................................................................484
B.1.4 ...........................................................................................................................................484
B.1.5 ..............................................................484
B.1.6 .............................................................................................................................484
B.1.7 ...............................................................................................................................486
B.1.8 ..........................................................................................................................................486
B.1.9 ......................................................................................................488
B.1.10 ......................................................................................488
B.2 ...............................................................................................................................................491
xiv
B.2.1 .........................................................................................................................491
B.2.2 .................................................................................................................................................491
B.2.3 .....................................................................................................................................492
B.2.4 .......................................................................................................................................492
B.2.5 ........................................................................................................................................499
B.2.6 ..........................................................................................................................502
B.2.7 ..............................................................................................................................................503
B.2.8 ........................................................................................................................................510
B.2.9 ...........................................................................................................................................511
B.2.10 ...................................................................................................................................511
B.2.11 .................................................................................................................................512
B.2.12 ........................................................................................................................................513
B.2.13 ........................................................................................................................................513
B.3 ........................................................................514
C. ........................................................................................................................................................519
xv
1.
C# ( - -) , ,
- . C#
C , C, C++ Java.
C# ECMA ECMA-334, ISO/IEC
ISO/IEC 23270. Microsoft C# .NET Framework
.
C# - ,
_ .

.
, , ,
,
. C# ,
,
.
C# ,
. : ,
; ,
;
, ,

.
C# . C#, (,
int double), object. ,
, ,
. , C#
,
.
C#,
C# .
,
.
C# : virtual
override,
.
C#.

. , .
,
, .
1.1 Hello world

Hello, World .
C#:
using System;
class Hello
{
static void Main() {
Console.WriteLine("!");
}
}
C# cs. Hello, World

hello.cs, Microsoft C#,
:
csc hello.cs
hello.exe.
:
!
Hello, World using,

System. C#.
. ,
System (, Console),
(, IO Collections). using
, .
using
Console.WriteLine System.Console.WriteLine.
Hello, Hello, World, Main.
Main static. C#
this,
, . Main
.
WriteLine Console,
System.
.NET Framework, Microsoft
C#. , C# .
C# .NET Framework.
1.2
C# : , , ,
. C# .
, .
. , ,
. C# .
exe dll
.
:
using System;
namespace Acme.Collections
{
public class Stack
{
Entry top;
2
2
public void Push(object data) {
top = new Entry(top, data);
}
public object Pop() {
if (top == null) throw new InvalidOperationException();
object result = top.data;
top = top.next;
return result;
}
class Entry
{
public Entry next;
public object data;
public Entry(Entry next, object data) {
this.next = next;
this.data = data;
}
}
Stack, Acme.Collections.
Acme.Collections.Stack. : top,
Push Pop, Entry. Entry : next
data, . acme.cs,
csc /t:library acme.cs
( Main) acme.dll.
(Intermediate Language,
IL), . IL
JIT- .NET CLR.
,
, , C# #include.
C# , ,
. ,
Acme.Collections.Stack, acme.dll:
using System;
using Acme.Collections;
class Test
{
Stack s = new Stack();
s.Push(1);
s.Push(10);
s.Push(100);
Console.WriteLine(s.Pop());
}
}
test.cs, acme.dll
/r:
csc /r:acme.dll test.cs
test.exe,
:
100
10
1
C# .
C# .
.
. C#
, , ,
. C#
.
.
1.3
C# : .
,
().
. , ,
.
. (
ref out).
C# , ,
. C# , ,
.
C#.
: sbyte, short, int, long

: byte, ushort, uint, ulong
: char
IEEE : float, double
: decimal
: bool
enum E {...}
struct S {...}
,
null
: object
: string
class C {...}
interface I {...}
- , int[] int[,]
, delegate int D(...)
8-, 16-, 32- 64-

.
(float double) 32- ( )
64- ( ) IEEE 754.
decimal 128- ,
.
bool C# true false.
C# . char
UTF-16, string UTF-16.
C#.
sbyte
128...127
16
short
32 768...32 767
32
int
2 147 483 648...2 147 483 647
64
long
9 223 372 036 854 775 808...9 223 372 036 854 775 807
byte
0...255
16
ushort
0...65 535
32
uint
0...4 294 967 295
64
ulong
0...18 446 744 073 709 551 615
32
float
1,5 1045 3,4 1038 7
64
double
5,0 10324 1,7 10308 15
128
decimal
1,0 1028 7,9 1028 28
C# .
. C#
: , , , .
, - () - (,
). ,
,
.
, , , - -.
, ,
. .
object.
-.
, , - .
.
.

. ,
.
, . ,
, -
.
, , ,
.
,
. ,
.
.
C# - . ,
, . ,
. , int[]
6
int; int[,] int, int[][] ,

int.
.
T T?,
null. , int? 32- ,
null.
C# ,
. C# object,
.
object.
.
int object int.
using System;
class Test
{
int i = 123;
object o = i;
int j = (int)o;
}
}
//
//
object (
), ,
. object , ,
, .
.
C#
. ,
, object.
C# , , ,
. .
, , ,
.
null
object
,
,
, ,
,
,
1.4
. ,
. : +, -, *, / new. :
, , .
, ,
. , x + y * z x + (y *
z), * +.
.
,
.
C#
.
.
x.m
x(...)
x[...]
x++
x--
new T(...)
new T(...){...}
new {...}
new T[...]
typeof(T)
System.Type T
checked(x)
checked
unchecked(x)
unchecked
default(T)
delegate {...}
( )
+x
-x
!x
~x
++x
--x
(T)x
x T
x*y
x/y
x%y
x+y
, ,
xy
x << y
x >> y
x<y
x>y
x <= y
x >= y
x is T
true, x T;
false
x as T
x, T,
null, x , T
x == y
x != y
AND
x&y
AND, AND
XOR
x^y
XOR,
XOR
OR
AND
x|y
OR, OR
x && y
y , x
true
OR
x || y
y , x
false
null
X ?? y
x null, y;
x
x?y:z
x true, y;
x false, z
x=y
x = y
;
:
*= /= %= += -= <<= >>= &= ^= |

=
(T x) => y
(-)
1.5
. C#
, .
,
. , { }.
.
.
: , new,
10
= ,
++ --.

- . if switch.
.
while, do, for foreach.
.
break, continue, goto, throw, return yield.
try...catch ,
. try...finally ,
( , ).
checked unchecked
.
lock ,
.
using ,
.
C# .

int a;
int b = 2, c = 3;
a = 1;
Console.WriteLine(a + b + c);
}

const float pi = 3.1415927f;
const int r = 25;
Console.WriteLine(pi * r * r);
}

int i;
i = 123;
//
Console.WriteLine(i); //
i++;
//
Console.WriteLine(i); //
}
if
static void Main(string[] args) {

if (args.Length == 0) {
Console.WriteLine(" ");
}
else {
}
}
11
12
switch

int n = args.Length;
switch (n) {
case 0:
break;
case 1:
break;
default:
Console.WriteLine(": {0}", n);
break;
}
}
}
while

int i = 0;
while (i < args.Length) {
Console.WriteLine(args[i]);
i++;
}
}
do

string s;
do {
s = Console.ReadLine();
if (s != null) Console.WriteLine(s);
} while (s != null);
}
for

for (int i = 0; i < args.Length; i++) {
}
}
foreach

foreach (string s in args) {
Console.WriteLine(s);
}
}
break

while (true) {
string s = Console.ReadLine();
if (s == null) break;
}
}
continue

for (int i = 0; i < args.Length; i++) {
if (args[i].StartsWith("/")) continue;
}
}
goto

int i = 0;
goto check;
loop:
Console.WriteLine(args[i++]);
check:
if (i < args.Length) goto loop;
}
return
static int Add(int a, int b) {

return a + b;
}
Console.WriteLine(Add(1, 2));
return;
}
yield
static IEnumerable<int> Range(int from, int to) {

for (int i = from; i < to; i++) {
yield return i;
}
yield break;
}
foreach (int x in Range(-10,10)) {
Console.WriteLine(x);
}
}
throw
try
static double Divide(double x, double y) {

if (y == 0) throw new DivideByZeroException();
return x / y;
}
try {
if (args.Length != 2) {
throw new Exception(" ");
}
double x = double.Parse(args[0]);
double y = double.Parse(args[1]);
Console.WriteLine(Divide(x, y));
}
catch (Exception e) {
Console.WriteLine(e.Message);
}
finally {
}
}
checked
unchecked

int i = int.MaxValue;
checked {
Console.WriteLine(i + 1);
}
unchecked {
Console.WriteLine(i + 1);
}
//
//
13
lock
class Account
{
decimal balance;
public void Withdraw(decimal amount) {
lock (this) {
if (amount > balance) {
}
balance -= amount;
}
}
}
using

using (TextWriter w = File.CreateText("test.txt")) {
w.WriteLine(" 1");
w.WriteLine(" 2");
w.WriteLine(" 3");
}
}
1.6
C# . ,
() ( -).
( ).
,
, .
. ,
, , ( ),
, . ,
, { }.
Point:
public class Point
{
public int x, y;
public Point(int x, int y) {

this.x = x;
this.y = y;
}
new,
, .
Point,
:
Point p1 = new Point(0, 0);
, , , . C#
( ) .
14
1.6.1
.
. ( ).
, .
, ,
1.6.2
,
, .
. .
public
protected
internal
protected internal
private
1.6.3
.
.
. Pair
TFirst TSecond:
public class Pair<TFirst,TSecond>

{
public TFirst First;
15
public TSecond Second;

}
, ,
. , .

:
Pair<int,string> pair = new Pair<int,string> { First = 1, Second = "" };
int i = pair.First;
// TFirst is int
string s = pair.Second; // TSecond is string
, Pair<int,string>,
.
1.6.4
,
. , ,
object. Point3D Point,
Point object:
public class Point
{
public int x, y;
this.x = x;
this.y = y;
}
}
public class Point3D: Point
{
public int z;
public Point3D(int x, int y, int z): base(x, y) {

this.z = z;
}
. ,
( ).
, .
Point3D x y Point. ,
Point3D : x, y z.
.
,
. , Point
Point, Point3D:
Point a = new Point(10, 20);
Point b = new Point3D(10, 20, 30);
1.6.5
, .
16
, static, .
.
.
, static, .
.
Color r,
g b. Black, White, Red, Green Blue:
public class Color
{
public static readonly
Color
Color
Color
Color
Color
Black = new Color(0, 0, 0);

White = new Color(255, 255, 255);
Red = new Color(255, 0, 0);
Green = new Color(0, 255, 0);
Blue = new Color(0, 0, 255);
private byte r, g, b;
public Color(byte r, byte g, byte b) {

this.r = r;
this.g = g;
this.b = b;
}

readonly. readonly
.
1.6.6
, ,
. .
.
(, ) ,
, , ,
, . ,
void.
, , ,
. ,
.
, .
, , , .
.
.
, .
: , ,
.
.
, ,
. , .
17
, . ,
, .
, .
ref.
ref.
using System;
class Test
{
static void Swap(ref int x, ref int y) {
int temp = x;
x = y;
y = temp;
}

int i = 1, j = 2;
Swap(ref i, ref j);
Console.WriteLine("{0} {1}", i, j);
}
// : "2 1"
.
, ,
. out.
out.
using System;
class Test
{
static void Divide(int x, int y, out int result, out int remainder) {
result = x / y;
remainder = x % y;
}
int res, rem;
Divide(10, 3, out res, out rem);
Console.WriteLine("{0} {1}", res, rem);
}
// : "3 1"
.
params.
.
. Write WriteLine System.Console
. .
public class Console
{
public static void Write(string fmt, params object[] args) {...}
public static void WriteLine(string fmt, params object[] args) {...}
}
...
, .
,
18
.
.
Console.WriteLine("x={0} y={1} z={2}", x, y, z);
:
string s = "x={0} y={1} z={2}";
object[] args = new object[3];
args[0] = x;
args[1] = y;
args[2] = z;
Console.WriteLine(s, args);

, .
, .
. ,
.
i j .
using System;
class Squares
{
int i = 0;
int j;
while (i < 10) {
j = i * i;
Console.WriteLine("{0} x {0} = {1}", i, j);
i = i + 1;
}
}
}
C#
. , i (. ) ,
, i
.
return .
, void, return . ,
void , return ,
.

, static, .

.
, static, .

, . ,
, this.
this .
Entity , .
19
class Entity
{
static int nextSerialNo;
int serialNo;
public Entity() {
serialNo = nextSerialNo++;
}
public int GetSerialNo() {
return serialNo;
}
public static int GetNextSerialNo() {
return nextSerialNo;
}
public static void SetNextSerialNo(int value) {

nextSerialNo = value;
}
Entity (, , ,
). Entity ( )
.
, serialNo,
nextSerialNo.
GetNextSerialNo SetNextSerialNo
nextSerialNo, serialNo
.
Entity.
using System;
class Test
{
Entity.SetNextSerialNo(1000);
Entity e1 = new Entity();
Entity e2 = new Entity();
Console.WriteLine(e1.GetSerialNo());
Console.WriteLine(e2.GetSerialNo());
Console.WriteLine(Entity.GetNextSerialNo());
// : "1000"
// : "1001"
// : "1002"
, SetNextSerialNo GetNextSerialNo
, GetSerialNo .
,
virtual,
. virtual , .
,
, .
.
20
.
override,
. .
,
.
.
abstract ,
abstract.
.
Expression,
, : Constant, VariableReference Operation,
, .
( , 4.6.
.)
using System;
using System.Collections;
public abstract class Expression
{
public abstract double Evaluate(Hashtable vars);
}
public class Constant: Expression
{
double value;
public Constant(double value) {
this.value = value;
}
public override double Evaluate(Hashtable vars) {
return value;
}
}
public class VariableReference: Expression
{
string name;
public VariableReference(string name) {
this.name = name;
}
object value = vars[name];
if (value == null) {
throw new Exception(" : " + name);
}
return Convert.ToDouble(value);
}
}
public class Operation: Expression

{
Expression left;
char op;
Expression right;
21
public Operation(Expression left, char op, Expression right) {

this.left = left;
this.op = op;
this.right = right;
}

double x = left.Evaluate(vars);
double y = right.Evaluate(vars);
switch (op) {
case '+': return x + y;
case '-': return x - y;
case '*': return x * y;
case '/': return x / y;
}
}

. , x + 3
.
Expression e = new Operation(
new VariableReference("x"),
'+',
new Constant(3));
Evaluate Expression
double. Hashtable,
( ) ( ). Evaluate
. ,

.
Constant Evaluate .
VariableReference -
. Operation
( Evaluate),
.
Expression x * (y + 2)
x y.
using System;
class Test
{
Expression e = new Operation(
new VariableReference("x"),
'*',
new Operation(
new VariableReference("y"),
'+',
new Constant(2)
)
);
22
2
Hashtable vars = new Hashtable();
vars["x"] = 3;
vars["y"] = 5;
Console.WriteLine(e.Evaluate(vars));
// : "21"
vars["x"] = 1.5;
vars["y"] = 9;
Console.WriteLine(e.Evaluate(vars));
// : "16.5"

.
.
, , ,
, .
. Main ,
.
class Test
{
static void F() {
Console.WriteLine("F()");
}
static void F(object x) {
Console.WriteLine("F(object)");
}
static void F(int x) {
Console.WriteLine("F(int)");
}
static void F(double x) {
Console.WriteLine("F(double)");
}
static void F<T>(T x) {
Console.WriteLine("F<T>(T)");
}
static void F(double x, double y) {
Console.WriteLine("F(double, double)");
}

F();
F(1);
F(1.0);
F("abc");
F((double)1);
F((object)1);
F<int>(1);
F(1, 1);
// F()
// F(int)
// F(double)
// F(object)
// F(double)
// F(object)
// F<T>(T)
// F(double, double)
,
.
23
1.6.7 -
, , -.
, -.
-, C#: , ,
, , .
List<T>,
. .
public class List<T>
{
const int defaultCapacity = 4;
T[] items;
int count;
public List(): this(defaultCapacity) {}
public List(int capacity) {

items = new T[capacity];
}
public int Count {
get { return count; }
}
public int Capacity {

get {
return items.Length;
}
set {
if (value < count) value = count;
if (value != items.Length) {
T[] newItems = new T[value];
Array.Copy(items, 0, newItems, 0, count);
items = newItems;
}
}
}
24
2
public T this[int index] {
get {
return items[index];
}
set {
items[index] = value;
OnChanged();
}
}
public void Add(T item) {

if (count == Capacity) Capacity = count * 2;
items[count] = item;
count++;
OnChanged();
}
protected virtual void OnChanged() {

if (Changed != null) Changed(this, EventArgs.Empty);
}
public override bool Equals(object other) {
return Equals(this, other as List<T>);
}
static bool Equals(List<T> a, List<T> b) {
if (a == null) return b == null;
if (b == null || a.count != b.count) return false;
for (int i = 0; i < a.count; i++) {
if (!object.Equals(a.items[i], b.items[i])) {
return false;
}
}
return true;
}
public event EventHandler Changed;
public static bool operator ==(List<T> a, List<T> b) {

return Equals(a, b);
}
public static bool operator !=(List<T> a, List<T> b) {

return !Equals(a, b);
}
}
C# .
, ,
. , ,
.
,
. , static,
. .
. , List<T>
: , int.
25
new.
List<string> List.
List<string> list1 = new List<string>();
List<string> list2 = new List<string>(10);
, .
, .
, .
. ,
,
. , , .
, ,
.
,
, get set, { }. ,
get set, .
, get, .
, set, .
get ,
. ,
, get
.
set value,
.
++ -- set ,
.
List<T> : Count Capacity (
). .
List<string> names = new List<string>();
names.Capacity = 100;
// set
int i = names.Count;
// get
int j = names.Capacity;
// get
, C#
. , static, .
.
.
virtual, abstract override, .
, ( ).
, this,
, [ ].
. , ,
. .
List , int.
List int.
:
26
2
names.Add("");
names.Add("");
names.Add("");
for (int i = 0; i < names.Count; i++) {
string s = names[i];
names[i] = s.ToUpper();
}
. ,
, .
, .
,
event.
,
, , . ,
, .
, null.
List<T> Changed,
. Changed OnChanged,
, null (. . ).
, .
.
.
+=, -=.
Changed List<string> .
using System;
class Test
{
static int changeCount;
static void ListChanged(object sender, EventArgs e) {
changeCount++;
}
names.Changed += new EventHandler(ListChanged);
names.Add("");
names.Add("");
names.Add("");
Console.WriteLine(changeCount);
// : "3"
}
}
, ,
add remove,
set .
,
. : ,
27
.
public static.
List<T> : == !=,
, List. ,
List<T>
Equals. ==
List<int>.
using System;
class Test
{
List<int> a = new List<int>();
a.Add(1);
a.Add(2);
List<int> b = new List<int>();
b.Add(1);
b.Add(2);
Console.WriteLine(a == b);
// : "True"
b.Add(3);
Console.WriteLine(a == b);
// : "False"
}
}
Console.WriteLine True,
. List<T>
==, Console.WriteLine False, a b
List<int>.
, ,
.
. .

. , .
.
.

using.
1.7
, , -
-. , ,
. ,
.
.
object.
,
. ,
-.

. ,
28
100 . Point, 101

100 .
class Point
{
public int x, y;
this.x = x;
this.y = y;
}
}
class Test
{
Point[] points = new Point[100];
for (int i = 0; i < 100; i++) points[i] = new Point(i, i);
}
}
Point .
struct Point
{
public int x, y;
this.x = x;
this.y = y;
}
}
. Point
.
new,
.
( ),
.
. ,
, .
.
. , ,
Point .
Point b = a;
a.x = 20;
Console.WriteLine(b.x);
Point , 20, a b .
Point , 10, a b
, a.x.
, . -,
, , -
,
. -,
( ref out),
.
29
1.8
, ,
.
,
.
,
.
new. new
,
. 0 Length - 1. new
(
null ).
int,
.
using System;
class Test
{
int[] a = new int[10];
for (int i = 0; i < a.Length; i++) {
a[i] = i * i;
}
for (int i = 0; i < a.Length; i++) {
Console.WriteLine("a[{0}] = {1}", i, a[i]);
}
}
}
. C#
.
, .
-, - .
int[] a1 = new int[10];
int[,] a2 = new int[10, 5];
int[,,] a3 = new int[10, 5, 2];
a1 10 , a2 50 (10 5) , a3 100 (10 5 2)

.
( ). ,
(jagged array, ), ,
.
int:
int[][] a = new int[3][];
a[0] = new int[10];
a[1] = new int[5];
a[2] = new int[20];
, int[],
null.
.
30
new
, , { }.
int[], .
int[] a = new int[] {1, 2, 3};
,
{ }. ,
.
int[] a = {1, 2, 3};
:
int[] t = new int[3];
t[0] = 1;
t[1] = 2;
t[2] = 3;
int[] a = t;
1.9
, .
, , .
. ,
, .
.
IComboBox ITextBox IListBox.
interface IControl
{
void Paint();
}
interface ITextBox: IControl
{
void SetText(string text);
}
interface IListBox: IControl
{
void SetItems(string[] items);
}
interface IComboBox: ITextBox, IListBox {}
.
EditBox IControl IDataBound.
interface IDataBound
{
void Bind(Binder b);
}
public class EditBox: IControl, IDataBound
{
public void Paint() {...}
public void Bind(Binder b) {...}
}
,
. :
31
EditBox editBox = new EditBox();

IControl control = editBox;
IDataBound dataBound = editBox;
, ,
. ,
IControl IDataBound .
EditBox, .
object obj = new EditBox();
IControl control = (IControl)obj;
IDataBound dataBound = (IDataBound)obj;
EditBox Paint IControl Bind

IDataBound public. C#
, public.
.
, EditBox
IControl.Paint IDataBound.Bind .
public class EditBox: IControl, IDataBound
{
void IControl.Paint() {...}
}
void IDataBound.Bind(Binder b) {...}
.
, IControl.Paint, EditBox,
EditBox
IControl.
EditBox editBox = new EditBox();
editBox.Paint();
IControl control = editBox;
control.Paint();
// :
//
1.10
,
. Color,
: Red, Green Blue.
using System;
enum Color
{
Red,
Green,
Blue
}
32
2
class Test
{
static void PrintColor(Color color) {
switch (color) {
case Color.Red:
Console.WriteLine("");
break;
case Color.Green:
break;
case Color.Blue:
break;
default:
break;
}
}
Color c = Color.Red;
PrintColor(c);
PrintColor(Color.Blue);
}
}
, .
, int.
.
, .
,
.
Alignment,
sbyte.
enum Alignment: sbyte
{
Left = -1,
Center = 0,
Right = 1
}
,
, .
.
, ,
, .
( )
. :
int i = (int)Color.Blue;
Color c = (Color)2;
// int i = 2;
// Color c = Color.Blue;

, .
,
. , 0
33
. ,
.
Color c = 0;
1.11

. ,
.
, . ,
, -
.
Function.
using System;
delegate double Function(double x);
class Multiplier
{
double factor;
public Multiplier(double factor) {
this.factor = factor;
}
public double Multiply(double x) {
return x * factor;
}
}
class Test
{
static double Square(double x) {
return x * x;
}
static double[] Apply(double[] a, Function f) {
double[] result = new double[a.Length];
for (int i = 0; i < a.Length; i++) result[i] = f(a[i]);
return result;
}
double[] a = {0.0, 0.5, 1.0};
double[] squares = Apply(a, Square);
double[] sines = Apply(a, Math.Sin);
Multiplier m = new Multiplier(2.0);

double[] doubles = Apply(a, m.Multiply);
Function ,
double. Apply Function
double[] double[], . Main Apply
double[].
(, Square Math.Sin
), (, m.Multiply ). ,
34
, .
this.
,
, .
. ,
Multiplier:
double[] doubles = Apply(a, (double x) => x * 2.0);
, ,
. ,
, .
1.12
, C# ,
. , public,
protected, internal private. C#
.

.
HelpAttribute
.
using System;
public class HelpAttribute: Attribute
{
string url;
string topic;
public HelpAttribute(string url) {
this.url = url;
}
public string Url {
get { return url; }
}
public string Topic {
get { return topic; }
set { topic = value; }
}
}
System.Attribute,
.NET Framework. ,
.
Attribute, . ,
HelpAttribute .
[Help("http://msdn.microsoft.com/.../MyClass.htm")]
public class Widget
{
[Help("http://msdn.microsoft.com/.../MyClass.htm", Topic = "Display")]
public void Display(string text) {}
}
HelpAttribute Widget, HelpAttribute

Display . ,
35
.

(, Topic ).

.
using System;
using System.Reflection;
class Test
{
static void ShowHelp(MemberInfo member) {
HelpAttribute a = Attribute.GetCustomAttribute(member,
typeof(HelpAttribute)) as HelpAttribute;
if (a == null) {
Console.WriteLine(" {0}", member);
}
else {
Console.WriteLine(" {0}:", member);
Console.WriteLine(" Url={0}, Topic={1}", a.Url, a.Topic);
}
}

ShowHelp(typeof(Widget));
ShowHelp(typeof(Widget).GetMethod("Display"));
}

, ,
. ,
.
36
2.
2.1
C# ,
(9.1). .
,
.
UTF-8.
:
:
.
: .
: .
2.2
C#,
. (2.2.2) ,
, , , .
(2.2.3) , ,
, C#.
2.2.1
.

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.
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. , :
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while ( _ ) _
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F f D d M m
:
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f
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d
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2.2.2
C# 2.3, 2.4 2.5.
. ,
(2.4), (2.3.3), (2.3.2)
(2.5).
C#
(2.3).
2.2.3
C# , .
,
. ,
C#.
C# _
(9.1).
2.3
C#.
C# .
:
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38
_:
__
_ __
__:
_ _
_
_:
_
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_:
C# :
(2.3.1), (2.3.3), (2.3.2), (2.4)
(2.5).
C# (2.2.3).
C# ,
. ,
;
,
C#.

, .
, // ,
, /.
2.3.1
C#.
_:
(U+000D)
(U+000A)
(U+000D) (U+000A)
(U+0085)
(U+2028)
(U+2029)
, ,
,
C# :
CTRL-Z ( U+001A),
;
(U+000D) ,
( U+000D),
(U+000A), (U+2028)
(U+2029).
39
2.3.2
: .
// .
/* */.
.
:
_
__
_:
// _
_:
_
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(U+000D)
(U+000A)
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(U+2029)
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/* ___ /
___:
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___:
/
_____
:
*
*
_____:
, / *
. /* */
//, // /*
.
.
/* Hello, world
hello, world
*/
class Hello
{
System.Console.WriteLine("hello, world");
}
}
40
.

// Hello, world
// hello, world
//
class Hello //
{
static void Main() { // "Main"
System.Console.WriteLine("hello, world");
}
}
.
2.3.3
Zs ( ),
, .
:
Zs
(U+0009)
(U+000B)
(U+000C)
2.4
: , , ,
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2.4.1
.
(2.4.2),
(2.4.4.4) (2.4.4.5).
(,
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__:
\u 16__ 16__ 16__ 16__
\U 16__ 16__ 16__ 16__ 16__ 16__ 16__ 16__
(escape- )
, , \u
\U. C# 16-
, U+10000 U+10FFFF
.
0x10FFFF .
41
. , \u005Cu005C
\u005C, \. \u005C \.

class Class1
{
static void Test(bool \u0066) {
char c = '\u0066';
if (\u0066)
System.Console.WriteLine(c.ToString());
}
}
\u0066, escape- f.
:
class Class1
{
static void Test(bool f) {
char c = 'f';
if (f)
System.Console.WriteLine(c.ToString());
}
}
2.4.2
,
15 , :
( C), escape , @
, .
:
_
@ ___
_:
___, _
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__:
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42
_:
Lu, Ll, Lt, Lm, Lo Nl
__, Lu, Ll, Lt, Lm,
Lo Nl
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Mn Mc
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Nd
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class @class
{
public static void @static(bool @bool) {
if (@bool)
System.Console.WriteLine("true");
else
System.Console.WriteLine("false");
}
}
class Class1
{
static void M() {
cl\u0061ss.st\u0061tic(true);
}
}
class static,
bool. , ,
43
, cl\u0061ss ,
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,
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2.4.3

.
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abstract
byte
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delegate
event
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struct
try
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as
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bool
break
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catch
char
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continue
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default
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double
else
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false
finally
float
for
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goto
implicit
in
int
interface
is
lock
long
namespace
null
object
operator
out
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private
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ref
return
sbyte
sealed
sizeof
stackalloc static
string
switch
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typeof
uint
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44

: true false.
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true
false
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, int, uint, long ulong.
: .
_:
__
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0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
__:
U u L l UL Ul uL ul LU Lu lU lu
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0x 16__ __
0X 16__ __
16__:
16__
16__ 16__
16__:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F a b c d e f
, ,
: int, uint, long ulong;
U u, ,
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L l, ,
: long ulong;
UL, Ul, uL, ul, LU, Lu, lU lu, ulong.
ulong,
.
L l long, l
1.
int long
:
45
__ 2147483648 (231)
__ ,
(7.6.2), int
2147483648 (231). __
uint;
__ 9223372036854775808 (263)
__ __ L l
, (7.6.2),
long 9223372036854775808 (263).
__ ulong.

float, double decimal.
_:
_ . _ _
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. _ _ __
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_ __
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e _
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:
+ -
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F f D d M m
__ , double.
:
F f float. , 1f, 1.5f, 1e10f

123.456F float;
D d double. , 1d, 1.5d,

1e10d 123.456D double;
M m decimal. , 1m, 1.5m,

1e10m 123.456M decimal. decimal,

(4.1.7). ,
, , (
0). , 2.900m
0, 2900 3.
,
.
float double
IEEE.
,
. , 1.3F , 1.F .
46

, 'a'.
_:
' '
:
_
__
_escape-
escape-_
_:
, ' (U+0027), \ (U+005C) __
__:
\' \" \\ \0 \a \b \f \n \r \t \v
_escape-:
\x 16__ 16__ 16__ 16__
, (\) , : ', ", \, 0,
a, b, f, n, r, t, u, U, x, v. .
escape- ,
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, , U+FFFF,
.
(2.4)
U+0000 U+FFFF.
,
.
Escape
\'
0x0027
\"
0x0022
\\
0x005C
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Null
0x0000
\a
0x0007
\b
0x0008
\f
0x000C
\n
0x000A
\r
0x000D
\t
0x0009
\v
0x000B
_ char.
47
1.1.1.1
C# :
.
, ,
"hello", ( \t
), escape- escape-
.
@ ,
.
@"hello".
, __.
, , escape-
escape- .
.
_:
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__
__:
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___
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____:
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____:
, "
__:
""
, (\)
___, : ', ", \, 0, a, b,
f, n, r, t, u, U, x, v. .

string a = "hello, world";
string b = @"hello, world";
48
// hello, world
// hello, world
2
string c = "hello \t world";
string d = @"hello \t world";
// hello
world
// hello \t world
string e = "Joe said \"Hello\" to me";

// Joe said "Hello" to me
string f = @"Joe said ""Hello"" to me"; // Joe said "Hello" to me
string g = "\\\\server\\share\\file.txt";
string h = @"\\server\share\file.txt";
// \\server\share\file.txt
// \\server\share\file.txt
string i = "one\r\ntwo\r\nthree";
string j = @"one
two
three";
. j
, . , ,
, .
escape-
, "\x123"
123. , 12
3, "\x00123" "\x12" + "3".
_ string.
.
, (7.9.7),
, . ,
class Test
{
object a = "hello";
object b = "hello";
System.Console.WriteLine(a == b);
}
}
True, .
null
_null:
null
_null .
2.4.5
.
, . , a + b
+ a b.
.
___:
{
+
=
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&=
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<
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49
shift_c:
>| >
_shift_:
>|>=
shift_c _shift_ , ,
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. ,
__ (10.1.3).
2.5
,
.

C C++. C# ;
.
_:
_
__
_
_
_
_pragma
:
#define #undef, , ,
(2.5.3);
#if, #elif, #else #endif, (2.5.4);
#line, ,
(2.5.7);
#error #warning, , , (2.5.5);
#region #endregion, (2.5.6);
#pragma, (2.5.8).

# . #
# .
, #define, #undef, #if, #elif, #else, #endif #line,
. ( /* */)
, .

C#. ,
C#. ,
:
#define A
#undef B
50
2
class C
{
#if A
void F() {}
#else
void G() {}
#endif
#if B
void H() {}
#else
void I() {}
#endif
}
, :
class C
{
void F() {}
void I() {}
}
, , ,
.
2.5.1
, #if, #elif, #else #endif,
(2.5.2) .
_:
___, true false
: .
,
(
). #define ,
, . ,
#undef ,
. , #define #undef
.

true, false.
,
. ,
, false.

C#.
#define #undef .
2.5.2
#if #elif.
!, ==, !=, && ||, .
_:
__
51
__:
__
__ || __
__:
__
__ && __
__:
__
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__ != __
__:
__
! __
__:
true
false
_
( _ )

true, false.
.
, (7.18), ,
, ,
.
2.5.3

.
_:
# define _ __
# undef _ __
__:
_ _
#define ,
, . #undef
, ,
.
#define #undef (2.3.3)
, . ,
#define #undef .

#define Enterprise
#if Professional || Enterprise
#define Advanced
#endif
52
2
namespace Megacorp.Data
{
#if Advanced
class PivotTable {...}
#endif
}
, #define (
namespace) .
, #define
:
#define A
namespace N
{
#define B
#if B
class Class1 {}
#endif
}
#define , -
#undef .
A , .
#define A
#define A
#undef .
A,
; #undef , .
#define A
#undef A
#undef A
2.5.4

.
__:
__if __elif __else _endif
__if:
# if _ __
_
__elif:
__elif
__elif __elif
__elif:
# elif _ __
_
__else:
# else __ _
_endif:
# endif __
53
_:
_
_
_:
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__:
_ _
_
_:
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_, #
, ,
, , #if, #elif,
#else #endif. .
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, ;
, .
_, , _:
,
; ,
, .
_, _,
_ ( #if...#endif #region...#endregion)
_.
, :
#define Debug
#undef Trace
54
//
//
2
class PurchaseTransaction
{
void Commit() {
#if Debug
CheckConsistency();
#if Trace
WriteToLog(this.ToString());
#endif
#endif
CommitHelper();
}
}
,
. , ,
#else:
#define Debug
//
class PurchaseTransaction
{
void Commit() {
#if Debug
CheckConsistency();
#else
/*
#endif
}
}
,
.
,
. , :
class Hello
{
System.Console.WriteLine(@"hello,
#if Debug
world
#else
Nebraska
#endif
");
}
}
:
hello,
#if Debug
world
#else
Nebraska
#endif

_.
55
#if X
/*
#else
/* */ class Q { }
#endif
( class Q { }), , X
. X , - #if
#endif. X , (#if, #else #endif) .
2.5.5
,
, .
_:
# error _
# warning _
_:
_
_ _

#warning Code review needed before check-in
#if Debug && Retail
#error A build can't be both debug and retail
#endif
class Test {...}
(Code review needed before check-in)

(A build cant be both debug and retail),
Debug Retail. , _ ;
, ;
cant.
2.5.6
.
_:
__ _ __
__:
# region _
__:
# endregion _
;
, . , #region
#endregion, , .
#region #endregion _.

#region
...
#endregion
:
56
2
#if true
...
#endif
2.5.7
,
, .
,
C# .
_:
# line _ __
_:
_ _
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default
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" __ "
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__
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. .
, _ , escape ; \
_.
2.5.8 pragma
#pragma
. , #pragma,
.
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# pragma __pragma
__
__pragma:
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57
C# #pragma .
#pragma.
C#, C#
#pragma; ,
.
pragma warning
#pragma warning
.
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warning _
warning _ _
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disable
restore
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. #pragma warning, ,
, .
#pragma warning disable
.
#pragma warning restore
, . ,
, #pragma warning restore (
) .
#pragma warning
, ,
C# .
using System;
class Program
{
[Obsolete]
static void Foo() {}
#pragma warning disable 612
Foo();
#pragma warning restore 612
}
}
58
3.
3.1 .
.
.
, .

. ,
, . ,
, , ,
.
, ,
.

.
, ,
. Main
:
static void Main() {...}
static void Main(string[] args) {...}
static int Main() {...}
static int Main(string[] args) {...}
, int.
(3.2).
. ,
string[].
string[], ,
. string[] null, ,
.
C# ,
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Main,
.
Main ,
string[].
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Main,
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.
3.2 .
.
int,
.
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void,
(}), , return
0.
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GC.SuppressFinalize).
3.3 .
C# . C#
(9),
. (9.6)
(10), (10.14), (13), (14) (15).
, , . ,
(10.4), (10.5), (10.6),
(10.7), (10.8), (10.9), (10.10), (10.11),
(10.12), (10.13) (10.3.8).
, .
(3.6), ,
, . ,
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.
, .
___
__
, .
___
__
.
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__,
__, __ _.
,

. ,
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60
,
(3.6). ,
,
.
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.
_.
.
___.
, for, foreach using

,
.
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, , get
set , ,
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, .
.

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switch_ .
_,
_goto.
.
.
, , . ,
, ,
, , , , , , ,
. .

( ).
(3.7).
(14.3) ,
_.
,
.
:
{
class Customer
{
...
}
}
61
{
class Order
{
...
}
}
,
Megacorp.Data.Customer
Megacorp.Data.Order. ,
,
.
, .
F G , i
. H I ,
i .
class A
{
void F() {
int i = 0;
if (true) {
int i = 1;
}
} void G() {
if (true) {
int i = 0;
}
int i = 1;
}
void H() {
if (true) {
int i = 0;
}
if (true) {
int i = 1;
}
}
void I() {
for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++)
H();
for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++)
H();
}
3.4 .
.
, , .,
.
, .
, , ,
, .
,
62
, ,
. ,
(3.5.1), ,
(3.7.1.2).
3.4.1 .
, ,
. ,
.
, ,
. ,
.
. ,
, .
3.4.2 .
, , ,
System.ValueType object.

.
sbyte System.SByte.
byte System.Byte.
short System.Int16.
ushort System.UInt16.
int System.Int32.
uint System.UInt32.
long System.Int64.
ulong System.UInt64.
char System.Char.
float System.Single.
double System.Double.
decimal System.Decimal.
bool System.Boolean.
3.4.3 .
, , ,
System.Enum
3.4.4 .
, , ,
( object, ). , ,
63
, , , , , , ,
, .
.
, , , , ,
, , , ,
.
object string ,
.
object System.Object.
string System.String.
3.4.5 .
,
. object, , -
(13.2). object
(7.3).
3.4.6 .
, System.Array.
3.4.7 .
, System.Delegate.
3.5 .
.
(3.5.1)
, .
, . ,
, . ,
, , (3.5.2) .
3.5.1 .
.
, public .
public .
, protected .
protected -
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internal .
( ),
protected internal .
protected internal ,
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64
, private .
private -.
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public.
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public internal, internal.
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public, internal private,

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).
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T (4.4.3), P,
.
T public, T P
, P.
T internal, T P.
,
, .
65
T<A1, ...,AN>
T A1, ...,AN.
M, T P,
(, M ).
M public, M
T.
M protected internal, D
P , T, P.
M T D.
M protected, D T
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T D.
M internal, M
T P.
M private, M T.
,
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, , M,
(3.5.3).
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(3.5.3).
, M internal, ,
, M.
, M private, ,
, M.
, .

public class A
{
public static int X;
internal static int Y;
private static int Z;
}
66
2
internal class B
{
public class C
{
}
private class D
{
}
}
A A.X .
A.Y, B, B.X, B.Y, B.C, B.C.X B.C.Y

.
A.Z A.
B.Z B.D B, B.C B.D.
B.C.Z B.C.
B.D.X B.D.Y B, B.C

B.D.
B.D.Z B.D.
,
. , , X
, A.X , -.
3.4 , ,
, .
.
, .
class A
{
int x;
static void F(B b) {
b.x = 1;
// Ok
}
}
class B: A
{
static void F(B b) {
b.x = 1;
// , x
}
}
67
B x A. ,
_ A. b.x A.F,
B.F.
3.5.3 .
protected , ,
protected internal , ,
, , .

.
,
.
B , M, D
B. _ D M .
_ _ M.
_ E.M , E T T
, T D , D.
_ base.M.

_ (10.11.1).

public class A
{
protected int x;
static void F(A a, B b) {
a.x = 1;
// Ok
b.x = 1;
// Ok
}
}
public class B: A
{
static void F(A a, B b) {
a.x = 1;
// , B
b.x = 1;
// Ok
}
}
A x A B,
A A . B
x A, A B.

class C<T>
{
protected T x;
}
68
2
class D<T>: C<T>
{
static void F() {
D<T> dt = new D<T>();
D<int> di = new D<int>();
D<string> ds = new D<string>();
dt.x = default(T);
di.x = 123;
ds.x = "test";
}
}
x , ,
.
3.5.4 .
C# ,
. , T M,
T M. , T
M, T , M.
.
, .
,
.
,
.
, .
, .
,
.
, .
, .
, .
,
.
,
.

class A {...}
public class B: A {...}
B , A , B.
,
class A {...}
69
public class B
{
A F() {...}
internal A G() {...}
public A H() {...}
}
H B , A
, .
3.6 .
, , .
, (,
) , .
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, params,
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(, )
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params,
.
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.

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, out ref , ,
, ref out.
, , ,
out ref, .
(, ) ref out
. (
C# Common Language Infrastructure
(CLI), , ref out.)
70
.
interface ITest
{
void F();
void F(int x);
void F(ref int x);
void F(out int x);
// F(int)
// F(ref int)
// F(out int)
void F(int x, int y);
// F(int, int)
int F(string s);
// F(string)
int F(int x);

void F(string[] a);
}
// F()
void F(params string[] a);
// F(int)
// F(string[])
// F(string[])
, ref out (10.6.1) .

F(int) F(ref int) . F(ref int) F(out int)
, ref
out. , params
,
params. ,
F(int) F(params string[]), ,
.
3.7 .
, ,
. ,
( ,
3.3,
, ).
, ,
.
, ___ (9.5),
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__ N, __
__ N, N
.
, __ ,
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. , __ ,
, .
, _ (9.4),
_____
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_
71
, _ __,
.
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, __ _ (10.1),
_, ___ _
_.
, __ _
(11.1), _, ___
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(13.1), _, ___
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__, __
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. , _
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, __ (11.2), _,
.
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, _ (10.6), _
_.
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_.
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.
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_for, _for, _for for.
72
, __ (8.5.2),
, .
, _, .
, _foreach, _using,
_lock _, .
, ,
, . :
class A
{
void F() {
i = 1;
}
int i = 0;
}
F i .
,
__ ,
. :
class A
{
int i = 0;
void F() {
i = 1;
int i;
i = 2;
}
void G() {
int j = (j = 1);
}
// ,
//
void H() {
int a = 1, b = ++a;
}
//
F i ,
. ,
, . G
j j ,
__. H
__ ,
__ __.
,
.
,
, , ,
, ,
.
,
.
73
using System;
class A {}
class Test
{
string A = "hello, world";
string s = A;
Type t = typeof(A);
//
Console.WriteLine(t);
//
// "hello, world"
// "A"
A A
A.
3.7.1 .
, .
, , ,
. ,
. , , .
,
.
.
.

,
.

class A
{
int i = 0;
void F() {
int i = 1;
}
void G() {
i = 1;
}
}
F i i, G
i .
,
.
class Outer
{
static void F(int i) {}
static void F(string s) {}
74
2
class Inner
{
void G() {
F(1);
F("Hello");
}
}
// Outer.Inner.F
// .
static void F(long l) {}
F(1) F, Inner, F
. F("Hello")
.
.
, ,
. .
, , , , ,
.
, , ,
, ( ,
).
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( ).
, (10.10),
, .
.
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.
class Base
{
public void F() {}
}
class Derived: Base
{
public void F() {}
}
// ,
F Derived .
, . ,
, Base F,
. ,
, ,
.
, ,
new:
class Base
{
public void F() {}
}
75
class Derived: Base

{
new public void F() {}
}
new , F Derived ,
.

.
class Base
{
public static void F() {}
}
class Derived: Base
{
new private static void F() {}
}
class MoreDerived: Derived
{
static void G() { F(); }
}
// Base.F Derived
// Base.F
F Derived F, Base, ,
F Derived , MoreDerived.
F() MoreDerived.G , Base.F.
3.8 .
C# __ .
__:
____
_:
____
__ :
_opt__
____ . _op_ _
__
__ ____,
. ____
__ ,
. (4.4.1)
__ ( ).
_ ____, .
____ _ ,
.
____ ,
9.7.
____ .
I<A1, ..., AK>
76
N.I
N.I<A1, ..., AK>
I , N ____ <A1, ..., AK>

__. __ , K
.
____ .
____ I I<A1, ..., AK>.

o
K , ____
(10.6),
(10.1.3) I, ____ .
, ____
, T (10.3.1),
,
( ):
K , T I,
____ .
, T
I K, ____
, .
, .
, , (, , , ,
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),
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( ), ,
.
K , I N.
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N,
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I ,
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.
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I N.
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K ,
____, N,
__
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.
77
, ____ ,
.
, , ____,
N.
o
K
__ __,
I ,
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I K, ____
, .
, ,
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I K,
____ ,
.
____ ,
.
, ____ N.I N.I<A1, ..., AK>.
N ____. N
, . N.I N.I<A1, ...,
AK> .
K N
I, ____
.
, N
I K, ____ ,
.
, N (, )
I K,
____ ,
. ,
.
N.I ____,
.
____ (10.1.1.3)
.
____ T ____ T.I
____ T _typeof (7.5.11) typeof(T).
3.8.1 .
,
.
N .
78
N , N.
S.N, S ,
N .
, N ,
N, .
, .

.
class A {}
namespace X
{
class B
{
class C {}
}
namespace Y
{
class D {}
}
// A
// X
// X.B
// X.B.C
// X.Y
// X.Y.D
}
namespace X.Y
{
class E {}
}
// X.Y
// X.Y.E
3.9 .
C# ,
, .
. .
, ,
.

, ,
. C#
,
. ,
, ,
, ( )
.
, ,
(10.13) ( ) .
.

, ,
.
, , ,
, .
79

, , ,
.
, , C# ,
. , C#
, ,
,
.

System.GC. ,
( ) . .

, ,
.
using System;
class A
{
~A() {
Console.WriteLine("Destruct instance of A");
}
}
class B
{
object Ref;
public B(object o) {
Ref = o;
}
~B() {
Console.WriteLine("Destruct instance of B");
}
class Test
{
B b = new B(new A());
b = null;
GC.Collect();
GC.WaitForPendingFinalizers();
}
}
A B.
, b null,
. :
Destruct instance of A ( A)
Destruct instance of B ( A)
Destruct instance of B
Destruct instance of A
80
,
.

. ,
using System;
class A
{
~A() {
Console.WriteLine("Destruct instance of A");
}
public void F() {

Console.WriteLine("A.F");
Test.RefA = this;
}
class B
{
public A Ref;
~B() {
Console.WriteLine("Destruct instance of B");
Ref.F();
}
class Test
{
public static A RefA;
public static B RefB;
RefB = new B();
RefA = new A();
RefB.Ref = RefA;
RefB = null;
RefA = null;
// A B
GC.Collect();
// B , A
if (RefA != null)
Console.WriteLine("RefA is not null");
}
, A
B, :
Destruct instance of A
Destruct instance of B
A.F
RefA is not null (RefA null)
, , , A , A
, A ( F) .
, ,
81
. B
, A, ,
Test.RefA. WaitForPendingFinalizers B , A
- Test.RefA.
,
, ,
.

System.IDisposable. ,
using (8.13).
3.10
C# ,
.
volatile, volatile,
. ,
, volatile (10.5.3), lock
(8.12) .
C#, .
.
, ,
.
(10.5.4 10.5.5).
volatile
(10.5.3). , ,
, ,
(
volatile).
(, )
.
82
4.
C# : .
,
. ,
.
:
_
_
_
.
. 18.2.
,
,
(). .
, , .
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.
C# ,
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object.
(4.3).
4.1
: . C#
, .
.
_:
_
_
_:
_
_
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_:
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bool
_:
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decimal
_:
sbyte
byte
short
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long
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float
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4.1.1 System.ValueType
System.ValueType, , ,
object. . ,
(10.1.1.2).
, System.ValueType _.
_, _.
4.1.2

, .
, .
84
_ ,
:
o
sbyte, byte, short, ushort, int, uint, long ulong

0.
char '\x0000'.
float 0.0f.
double 0.0d.
decimal 0.0m.
bool false.
_ E 0 E.
_
, , null.
_ , HasValue
false, Value .
.
,
new.
. i j
.
class A
{
void F() {
int i = 0;
int j = new int();
}
}

,
. ,
(11.3.8).
4.1.3
, , ,
, , , , ,
. . 11.1.
4.1.4
C# , .
.
System (. ).
85
sbyte
System.SByte
byte
System.Byte
short
System.Int16
ushort
System.UInt16
int
System.Int32
uint
System.UInt32
long
System.Int64
ulong
System.UInt64
char
System.Char
float
System.Single
double
System.Double
bool
System.Boolean
decimal
System.Decimal
,
. , int , System.Int32, ,
System.Object. :
int i = int.MaxValue;
string s = i.ToString();
string t = 123.ToString();
// System.Int32.MaxValue constant
// System.Int32.ToString() instance method
// System.Int32.ToString() instance method
,
:
(2.4.4).
, 123 int, 'a' char. C#
.

.
, ,
. _
(7.18). , , ,
.
const (10.4).
, static readonly.
, ,
.

(6.4.3).
4.1.5
C# : sbyte, byte, short, ushort, int, uint, long, ulong char.
:
86
sbyte 8- 128 127.
byte 8- 0 255.
short 16- 32768 32767.
ushort 16- 0 65535.
int 32- 2147483648

2147483647.
uint 32- 0 4294967295.
long 64- 9223372036854775808

9223372036854775807.
ulong 64- 0
18446744073709551615.
char 16- 0 65535.

char . ,
char ushort ,
.
, 32- 64 :
+ ~ T, T
int, uint, long ulong,
. , T.
T.
T, T int
long, .
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T. ulong.
+, , *, /, %, &, ^, |, ==, !=, >, <, >= <=

T, T int, uint, long ulong,
.
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int, uint, long ulong,
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char , :
char. ,
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char, sbyte, byte ushort char
.
char _
char. , (char)10 '\x000A' .
87

checked unchecked (7.5.12). checked

System.OverflowException. unchecked , ,
, .
4.1.6
C# : float double. float double
32- ( ) 64- ( )
IEEE 754 :
.
.
(7.7.2).
. , ,
. , 1.0 / 0.0
, 1.0 / 0.0 .
NaN. NaN
, .
s x m x 2e, s 1 1, m e
, float 0 < m < 224 149 e 104,
double 0 < m < 253 1075 e 970.
.
float 1,5 x 1045 3,4 x 1038 ()

7 .
double 5,0 x 10324 1,7 x 10308 ()
1516 .
,
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:
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double. ,
double. double ( bool ).
,
float. float ( bool ).
, ,
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:
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88
,
NaN.
NaN,
NaN.
,
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extended long double,
double.
.

( ).
, C#
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x * y / z, ,
double, ,
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4.1.7 decimal
decimal 128- ,
. decimal 1,0 x 1028
7,9 x 1028 () 2829 .
decimal (1) s x c x10-e, s
0 1, c 0 c < 296, e
0 e 28. decimal ,
. decimal 96- ,
. decimal 1.0m
28 . decimal
1.0m 28 29 . float double,
decimal , 0,1. float
double ,
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5 10-29, .
decimal ,
decimal, System.OverflowException.
decimal ,
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89
.
decimal.
decimal ,
.
4.1.8 bool
bool . bool : true
false.
bool . , bool
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bool .
C C++ ,
false.

true. C#
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null.
4.1.9
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byte, sbyte, short, ushort, int, uint, long ulong.
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T?, T .
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struct). System.Nullable<T> T (10.1.5).
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T? , :
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Value T.
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.
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System.InvalidOperationException. Value
.
90
, T?
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new T?(x)
T?, Value x.

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null T? (6.1.5) T T? (6.1.4).
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91
. 10.
C# (. ).

System.Object
. . 4.2.2.
System.String
C#. . 4.2.3.
System.ValueType
. . 4.1.1.
System.Enum
. .14.
System.Array
. . 12.
System.Delegate
. . 15.
System.Exception
. . 16.
4.2.2
object . C#
object.
object
System.Object.
4.2.3
string ,
object. string , .
string (2.4.4.5).
string
System.String.
4.2.4
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4.2.5
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C C++ .
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92
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4.3
C#.
_ _
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4.3.1
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(6.1.9).
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null ( HasValue false) _,
.
.
__,
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:
sealed class Box<T>: System.ValueType
{
T value;
public Box(T t) {
value = t;
}
}
v T new Box<T>(v)
object. ,
93
int i = 123;
object box = i;

int i = 123;
object box = i;
Box<T> ,
. T
T. is T.
,
int i = 123;
object box = i;
if (box is int) {
Console.Write("Box contains an int");
}
Box contains an int.

.
_ object,
object .
,
struct Point
{
public int x, y;
this.x = x;
this.y = y;
}
}

Point p = new Point(10, 10);
object box = p;
p.x = 20;
Console.Write(((Point)box).x);
10,
( p box) p.
Point class, 20, p box
.
4.3.2
_ _.
:
object _.
System.ValueType _.
_ __,
_.
_ _,
_.
94
System.Enum _.
System.Enum _,
_.
,
,
(6.2.6).
__ ,
__.
.
_ null,
_.
, _.
, ,
box _ T
((Box<T>)box).value. ,
object box = 123;
int i = (int)box;

object box = new Box<int>(123);
int i = ((Box<int>)box).value;
__

__. null,
System.NullReferenceException. ,
System.InvalidCastException.
_
null
__, _.
, System.InvalidCastException.
4.4
,
.
( < >)
. , ,
. ,
.
_typeof (7.5.11).
(7.5.2)
(7.5.4).
____ ,
. , ,
, .
, :
95
namespace Widgets
{
class Queue {...}
class Queue<TElement> {...}
}
namespace MyApplication
{
using Widgets;
class X
{
Queue q1;
// Widgets.Queue
Queue<int> q2;
// Widgets.Queue
}
}
_ , .
, ,
(10.3.8.6):
class Outer<T>
{
public class Inner {...}
}
public Inner i;
// i Outer<T>.Inner

_ (18.2).
4.4.1
.
__:
< _ >
_:
_
_ , _
_:
(18) _ .
,
(10.1.5).
4.4.2
. ,
. :
, .
,
.
,
.
96
.
, ,
,
.
.
.
.
,

. , ,
, . ,

.
4.4.3

.
.
, .
,
, .
typeof (7.5.11).
4.4.4

,
(10.1.5).
where A, ,
:
, ,
C, .
, .
, A C
:
o
(6.1.1).
(6.1.6)
(6.1.7), A .
, A C.
( class), A
:
o
A , , . ,
System.ValueType System.Enum
.
A , (10.1.5).
( struct), A
:
97
A .
, System.ValueType System.Enum
.
A ,
(10.1.5).
new(), A
abstract .
, :
o
A ,
(4.1.2).
A ,
(10.1.5).
A ,
(10.1.5).
A , abstract,
public, .
A abstract (10.11.4).
,
.
,
. T D.
T , B<T>.
, E , List<T> IEnumerable
T.
class B<T> where T: IEnumerable {...}
class D<T>: class B<T> where T: IEnumerable {...}
class E<T>: B<List<T>> {...}
4.5
, ,
.
_:

, , ,
. :
(10.2.4)
(13.1.3).

( ). . 7.3.

( ). .
6.1.9 6.2.6.
98
null , ,
, (6.1.9).
default (7.5.13). ,
, , , ,
null == != (7.9.6).
new (7.5.10.1) ,
_ (10.1.5).
(7.5.4) (3.8)
.

_ (18.2).
, ,
. ,
. , ,
,
(4.4.2). , ,
, .
4.6

.
System.Linq.Expressions.Expression<D>, D .
Expression<D>.
D,
Expression<D>.
, .

.
,
.
Expression<D> ,
D.
,
. Func<int,int>,
Expression<Func<int,int>>:
Func<int,int> del = x => x + 1;
Expression<Func<int,int>> exp = x => x + 1;
//
//
del , x + 1,
exp , x => x + 1.
Expression<D>,

.
99
. ,
,
. - ,
.
Expression<D> Compile, D:
Func<int,int> del2 = exp.Compile();
, .
, , del del2 ,
:
int i1 = del(1);
int i2 = del2(1);
i1 i2 2.
100
5.
. , ,
. C#
, C# ,
. +
+ - -.
,
(5.3).
,
.
.
.
,
, .
5.1
C# : , ,
, , ,
. .

class A
{
public static int x;
int y;
void F(int[] v, int a, ref int b, out int c) {

int x = 1;
c = a + b++;
}
x , y , v[0]
, a , b , c , i
.
5.1.1
, static, .
(10.12)
.
,
(5.2).
101
5.1.2
, static, .

, (
).
,
(5.2).

.

, ,
. ,
.

, . ,
,
. ,
.
5.1.3

.

(5.2).

.
5.1.4
, ref out, .
- (,
, ) ,
, , .
, , -
. , (7.14),
, ,
, .

.
5.1.5
, ref, .
.
, -
102
. ,
.
.
, 5.1.6.
(5.3),
- .
-
.
struct this
, struct (7.5.7).
5.1.6
, out, .
.
, -
. ,
.
.
, 5.1.5.
-
.
- ,
, .
-
.
-
(5.3) -
.
struct this ,
struct (7.5.7).
5.1.7
__,
, _for, _switch _using,
_foreach __catch _try.
,
. ,
for, switch, using, foreach __catch,
, , for, switch, using, foreach
__catch . (
, , for, switch, using, foreach
__catch.)
(7.14.4.1), ,
, , ,
, .
103
, for, switch, using, foreach __catch

, ,
__ ( ).
, __,
.
,
__, .
__ __.

, __.
,
__, ,
__, .
(8.5.1),
__ .
, _foreach
__catch, .
. ,
,
. ,
, .
, ,
(3.9).
5.2

.
___, ,
___ (4.1.2).
_ null.
, ,
.
, .
5.3
-
, (5.3.3) ,

. ,
:
104
(5.3.1) .
(5.3.2)
, , ,
:
o
(7.16.1), .
(7.5.5) (7.5.10.1),
.
(8.5.1),
.
, , 5.3.1, 5.3.2 5.3.3.

_struct
, .
_struct :
,
_struct .
_struct ,
.
, .
.
:
o
_struct
.
,
. , -
.
- ,
- ( return
-). , -
, -,
,
.
this _struct
, .
5.3.1
:
.
struct .
105
, catch foreach.
5.3.2
:
struct .
, this
struct.
, catch foreach.
5.3.3
, ,
, .
-,
. v
v -:
(8.1)
v :
. ,
v .
.
bool ( )
:
o
true.
, v ,
true, ,
false.
false.
, v ,
false, ,
true.
v .

106
v -.
v .
v
v
, . ,
v ,
.
,
(8.1).
v
checked, unchecked, if, while, do, for, foreach, lock, using switch
v ,
. v
,
. v
. ,
(8.1).
,
v ,
( , )
v , checked
unchecked.

stmt, expr:
v expr,
stmt;
v expr,
stmt;
stmt.
stmt , v
stmt, .
stmt ,
v
( ).
If
if :
if ( expr ) then-stmt else else-stmt
v expr,
stmt;
v expr,
then-stmt,
else-stmt, stmt, else ;
107
v
true expr,
then-stmt
else-stmt, stmt, else ;
v
false expr, else-stmt
then-stmt.
stmt ,
then-stmt;
v
then-stmt else-stmt stmt, else
.
switch
switch stmt expr:
v expr
v stmt;
v
switch
v expr.
while
while stmt :
while ( expr ) while-body
v expr,
stmt;
v expr,
while-body
stmt;
v
true expr,
while-body,
stmt;
v
false expr,
stmt,
while-body.
do
do stmt :
do do-body while ( expr ) ;
108
v
stmt do-body, stmt.
v expr,
do-body.
v expr,
stmt.
v
false expr,
stmt.
for
for
for ( for-initializer ; for-condition ; for-iterator ) embedded-statement
:
{
for-initializer ;
while ( for-condition ) {
embedded-statement ;
for-iterator ;
}
}
_for for ,
, _for
true.
break, continue goto
v ,
break, continue goto,
v .
throw
stmt
throw expr ;
v expr
v stmt.
return
stmt
return expr ;
v expr
v stmt.
v ,
:
expr
finally try-finally try-catch-finally,

return.
109
stmt
return ;
v ,
:
o
stmt
finally try-finally try-catch-finally,

return.
try-catch
stmt
try try-block
catch(...) catch-block-1
...
catch(...) catch-block-n
v try-block
v stmt.
v catch-block-i (
i) v stmt.
v stmt
, v try-block catch-block-i
( i 1 n).
try-finally
stmt
try try-block finally finally-block
v try-block
v stmt.
v finally-block
v stmt.
v stmt
:
o
v try-block
v finally-block
(, goto), try-block
, v
, v finally-block. (
v
, .)
try-catch-finally
try-catch-finally,
110
2
try try-block
...
, try-finally try-catch:
try {
try try-block
...
}
finally finally-block
, try (8.10)
.
class A
{
static void F() {
int i, j;
try {
goto LABEL;
// i, j
i = 1;
// i
}
catch {
// i, j
i = 3;
// i
}
finally {
// i, j
j = 5;
// j
}
// i j
LABEL:;
// j
}
foreach
foreach stmt
foreach ( type identifier in expr ) embedded-statement
v expr
v stmt.
111
v
_ stmt v
expr.
using
using stmt
using ( _ ) _
v resource-acquisition
v stmt.
v
_ v
_.
lock
lock stmt
lock ( expr ) _
v expr
v stmt.
v
_ v expr.
yield
yield return stmt
yield return expr ;
v expr
v stmt.
v stmt
v expr.
yield break .

: (7.5.1),
(7.5.2), (7.5.4), (7.5.8),
typeof (7.5.11) (7.5.13).
v
v .

: (7.5.3),
(7.5.6), (7.5.8),
(7.5.9, 7.6.5), (7.6.6), +, -, ~,
*, +, -, *, /, %, <<, >>, <, <=, >, >=, ==, !=, is, as, &, |, ^ (7.7, 7.8, 7.9,
7.10), (7.16.2), checked unchecked (7.5.12),
(7.5.13).
112
,
. , %
, .
,
. expr, expr1, expr2, ..., exprn,
:
v expr1
expr.
v expri (i )
expri-1.
v expr
exprn.

expr
_ ( arg1 , arg2 , , argn )

new type ( arg1 , arg2 , , argn )
v
_ v expr;
v arg1
v _;
v arg1
v expr;
argi v argi
ref out;
argi i
v argi v argi-1;
v out (, out v)
, v expr .
v expr v
argn;
(7.5.10.4), (7.5.10.2),
(7.5.10.3) (7.5.10.6)
, .

expr w = expr-rhs:
v expr-rhs
v expr.
w , v, v
expr .
113
v expr
v expr-rhs.
&&
expr expr-first && expr-second:
v expr-first
v expr;
v expr-second ,
v expr-first
true.
;
v expr
:
o
v expr-first , v
expr ;
, v expr-second
, v expr-first
false,
v expr ;
, v expr-second
true,
v expr
true;
, v expr-first
false, expr-second
false,
expr
false;
v expr .
:
class A
{
static void F(int x, int y) {
int i;
if (x >= 0 && (i = y) >= 0) {
// i
}
else {
// i
}
// i
}
}
i
if. if F i
, (i = y)
. , i
114
, x >= 0
false, i .
||
expr expr-first || expr-second:
v expr-first
v expr;
v expr-second ,
v expr-first
false.
;
v expr
:
o
v expr-first , v
expr ;
, v expr-second
, v expr-first
true,
v expr ;
, v expr-second
false,
v expr
false;
, v expr-first
true, expr-second
true,
v expr
true;
v expr .
class A
{
static void G(int x, int y) {
int i;
if (x >= 0 || (i = y) >= 0) {
// i
}
else {
// i
}
// i
}
}
i
if. if G i
, (i = y)
. , i
115
, x >= 0
true, i .
!
expr ! expr-operand:
v expr-operand
v expr.
v expr
:
o
v expr-operand ,
expr ;
v expr-operand ,
expr ;
v expr-operand
false, expr
true;
v expr-operand
true, expr
false.
??
expr expr-first ?? expr-second:
v expr-first
expr;
v expr-second
expr-first.
v expr
:
o
expr-first (7.18), null,

v expr
expr-second;
v expr
expr-first.
expr expr-cond ? expr-true : expr-false:
v expr-cond
expr;
v expr-true ,
expr-cond
true;
116
v expr-false ,
expr-cond
false;
v expr
:
o
expr-cond (7.18), true,

v expr
expr-true;
, expr-cond (7.18),
false, v expr
expr-false;
, v
expr-true, expr-false, expr
;
v expr .

- __ expr ,
:
v body
expr. ,
.
v expr
expr.
:
delegate bool Filter(int i);
void F() {
int max;
// , max
Filter f = (int n) => n < max;
max = 5;
DoWork(f);
}
, max
. :
delegate void D();
void F() {
int n;
D d = () => { n = 1; };
d();
// , n
Console.WriteLine(n);
117
,
n
n .
5.4
__ , .
__ ,
, .
__:
C C++ __ lvalue.
5.5
: bool, char, byte, sbyte,
short, ushort, uint, int, float .
.
, long, ulong, double decimal, ,
.
, , ,
, .
118
6.
.
,
.
, . ,
int long , int
long. long int
.
int a = 123;
long b = a;
// int long
int c = (int) b; // long int
.
(6.4).
6.1
:
null.
,
(7.4.4), (7.6.6) (7.16).

.
.
6.1.1
.
, ,
.
6.1.2
:
sbyte short, int, long, float, double decimal.
byte short, ushort, int, uint, long, ulong, float, double decimal.
short int, long, float, double decimal.
ushort int, uint, long, ulong, float, double decimal.
int long, float, double decimal.
uint long, ulong, float, double decimal.
long float, double decimal.
ulong float, double decimal.
char ushort, int, uint, long, ulong, float, double decimal.
float double.
int, uint, long ulong float, long ulong double

, .
.
char ,
char.
6.1.3
__
_decimal 0 _ _,
_.
_ (4.1.9).
6.1.4

.
,
S T,
:
S? T?.
S T?.
, S T,
:
S? T?:
o
null ( HasValue false),

null T?.
S? S,
S T (4.1.9) T T?.
120
S T?,
S T T T?.
6.1.5 null
null .
null (4.1.9) .
6.1.6
:
_ object.
_ S _ T ( S T).
_ S _ T ( S T).
_ S _ T ( S T).
_ S, SE, _ T,
TE, :
o
S T . , S T
.
SE TE _.
SE TE.
_ System.Array.
S[] System.Collections.Generic.IList<T>
, S
T.
_ System.Delegate.
null _.
, , .
, , . 6.1.9.
_
.

. ,
, , .
,
. , List ( , )
List<A>, B A. ,
List List<object>.
6.1.7
_ .
__ object,
System.ValueType, _,
__. , _
System.Enum.
_ ,
__ .
121
__
.
System.ValueType, (11.3.2).
_ :

null .
T,
.
. 4.3.1.
6.1.8
:
_ (7.18) int sbyte, byte, short, ushort, uint

ulong, _ .
_ long ulong,
_ .
6.1.9 ,
T:
T C, T C , T
, C. T ,
.
.
T I, T, T
I. T ,
.
.
T U, T U. T , U
, .
, T U , T U ,
. T , U
,
.
null T, T .
T (10.1.5),
(6.1.6). , T
, , ,
(6.1.7).
6.1.10

, ,
.
6.4.4.
122
6.1.11
,
.
. 6.5 6.6 .
6.2
:
(7.6.6).
. ,
.
, , ,
, .
6.2.1
_
_, (6.1.2):
sbyte byte, ushort, uint, ulong char.
byte sbyte char.
short sbyte, byte, ushort, uint, ulong char.
ushort sbyte, byte, short char.
int sbyte, byte, short, ushort, uint, ulong char.
uint sbyte, byte, short, ushort, int char.
long sbyte, byte, short, ushort, int, uint, ulong char.
ulong sbyte, byte, short, ushort, int, uint, long char.
char sbyte, byte short.
float sbyte, byte, short, ushort, int, uint, long, ulong, char decimal.
double sbyte, byte, short, ushort, int, uint, long, ulong, char, float decimal.
decimal sbyte, byte, short, ushort, int, uint, long, ulong, char, float double.
123
,
_
(7.6.6).
.
:

(7.5.12), :
o
checked ,
.
System.OverflowException.
unchecked :
,
.
.
,
.
,
. .
,
.
decimal
. .
,
float double
(7.5.12), :
o
124
checked :
,

. ,
.
unchecked :
,
.

. ,
.
double float double

float. double float,
. double
float,
. double ,
.
float double decimal

decimal 28-
(4.1.7).
, .
, decimal,
decimal float double decimal

double float.
, .
6.2.2
:
sbyte, byte, short, ushort, int, uint, long, ulong, char, float, double decimal
_.
_ sbyte, byte, short, ushort, int, uint, long, ulong, char, float,
double decimal.
_ _.

_ _
.
, _ E int, E byte
(6.2.1) int byte, byte
E (6.1.2) byte int.
6.2.3
,
, .
S
T (6.1.1, 6.1.2, 6.1.3, 6.2.1 6.2.2)
:
S? T?.
S T?.
S? T.
, S T,
:
S? T?:
o

null T?.
S? S,
S T T T?.
125
S T?,
S T T T?.
S? T,
S? S S T.
, null
.
6.2.4
:
object _.
_ S _ T, S T.
_ S _ T, S
T.
_ S _ T, T
S.
_ S _ T, S
T.
_ S, SE, _ T,
TE, :
o
S T . , S T
.
SE TE _.
SE TE.
System.Array _.
S[] System.Collections.Generic.IList<T>
, S T.
System.Collections.Generic.IList<S>
T[], S T.
System.Delegate _.
, , .
, , . 6.2.6.
.

null, ,
, ,
(6.1.6).
System.InvalidCastException.

. ,
, , .
126
6.2.5
_.
object System.ValueType
__, _
__, _. ,
System.Enum _.
_ ,
__,
_.
,
_. .
_ null _.
System.ValueType,
(11.3.2).
. 4.3.2.
6.2.6 ,
T:
T C T, C T.
T ,
.
.
T. T ,
.
.
T _ I, T I.
T ,
.
.
U T, T U. T , U
, .
, T U , T U ,
. T , U
,
.
T ,
(6.2.4). , T ,
, ,
(6.2.5).

, , .

. , :
127
class X<T>
{
public static long F(T t) {
return (long)t;
}
}
//
t int, ,
X<int>.F(7) 7L. ,
,
.
:
class X<T>
{
public static long F(T t) {
return (long)(object)t;
long
}
}
// , T
, X<int>.F(7)
, int
long.
6.2.7

, ,
.
6.4.5.
6.3
,
.
6.3.1
:
(6.1.1).
(6.1.2).
(6.1.4).
(6.1.6).
(6.1.7).
(6.1.8).
, (6.1.9).
.
6.3.2
,
,
128
. , A
B, A B B A.
6.4
C#
.
(10.10.3) .
6.4.1
C# . ,
.
, S T ( S T
) S0 T0 ( S0 T0
S T ).
S T ,
:
S0 T0 .
S0, T0 , .
S0, T0 _.
, S T T S, .
, , .
10.10.3.
6.4.2
S
T ,
S? T?.
S? S, S T,
T T? ( , S?
null T? null.
( ),
.
,
.
6.4.3

, .
,
. :
,
. ,
( ,
, , ,
). , _,
.
129
,
.
, (6.3)
,
.
,
. ,
, ,
.
.

.

, :
, ,
.
, ,
.

. ,
S T S X
X T.

. :
(6.3.1) A B,
A B _, , A B, B
A.
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133
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154

object[] a = new object[10];
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Customer Name string.
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162
T1 void, T2 Y, C2
.
.

C1, S T1, C2,
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C1.
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C2.
T1 short T2 ushort, uint ulong, C1.
T2 short T1 ushort, uint ulong, C2.
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short ushort.

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interface I1<T> {...}
interface I2<T> {...}
163
class G1
{
int F1(U u);
int F1(int i);
void F2(I1 a);

void F2(I2 a);
class G2<U,V>
{
void F3(U u, V v);
void F3(V v, U u);
void F4(U u, I1<V> v);
void F4(I1<V> v, U u);
// G<int>.F1
//
//
// ,
// G2<int,int>.F3
// ,
// G2<I1<int>,int>.F4
void F5(U u1, I1<V> v2);//

void F5(V v1, U u2);
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class Test
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if (b) {
int x;
x = 1;
}
}
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if (b) {
x = 1.0;
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int x;
x = 1;
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168

this.x = x;
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// Color Color
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Color = Color.Black;
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// Complement() Color
}
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}
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A Color, Color, ,
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}
public static void F(this object obj, string s) { }
class A { }
class B
{
public void F(int i) { }
}
class C
{
public void F(object obj) { }
}
class X
{
static void Test(A a, B b, C c) {
a.F(1);
// E.F(object, int)
a.F("hello");
// E.F(object, string)
b.F(1);
b.F("hello");
// B.F(int)
// E.F(object, string)
c.F(1);
c.F("hello");
// C.F(object)
// C.F(object)
B , C
.
public static class C

{
public static void F(this int i) { Console.WriteLine("C.F({0})", i); }
public static void G(this int i) { Console.WriteLine("C.G({0})", i); }
public static void H(this int i) { Console.WriteLine("C.H({0})", i); }
}
175
namespace N1
{
public static class D
{
public static void F(this int i) { Console.WriteLine("D.F({0})", i); }
public static void G(this int i) { Console.WriteLine("D.G({0})", i); }
}
}
namespace N2
{
using N1;
public static class E
{
public static void F(this int i) { Console.WriteLine("E.F({0})", i); }
}
class Test
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{
1.F();
2.G();
3.H();
}
}
:
E.F(1)
D.G(2)
C.H(3)
D.G C.G, E.F D.F C.F.

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177

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178
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base .
base [ ]
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179
7.5.9
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(7.2.3). ++ -- : sbyte, byte, short, ushort,
int, uint, long, ulong, char, float, double, decimal .
++ , 1 , --
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, System.OverflowException.
x++ x- .
x , :
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x .
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), x,
get set.
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x .
set x ,
value.
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x .
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180
7.5.10 new
new .
new:
new ,
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:

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4.1.1.
T (10.1.5),
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181
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T _ abstract, .

7.4.3.
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_ _, A _,
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System.OutOfMemoryException
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7.5.10.3.
.
public class Point
{
int x, y;
public int X { get { return x; } set { x = value; } }
public int Y { get { return y; } set { y = value; } }
}
Point :
Point a = new Point { X = 0, Y = 1 };

Point __a = new Point();
__a.X = 0;
__a.Y = 1;
Point a = __a;
__a .
, :
public class Rectangle
{
Point p1, p2;
public Point P1 { get { return p1; } set { p1 = value; } }

public Point P2 { get { return p2; } set { p2 = value; } }
Rectangle :
183
Rectangle r = new Rectangle {

P1 = new Point { X = 0, Y = 1 },
P2 = new Point { X = 2, Y = 3 }
};

Rectangle __r = new Rectangle();
Point __p1 = new Point();
__p1.X = 0;
__p1.Y = 1;
__r.P1 = __p1;
Point __p2 = new Point();
__p2.X = 2;
__p2.Y = 3;
__r.P2 = __p2;
Rectangle r = __r;
__r, __p1 __p2 ,

.
Rectangle Point
public class Rectangle
{
Point p1 = new Point();
public Point P1 { get { return p1; } }
public Point P2 { get { return p2; } }
}
Point
:
Rectangle r = new Rectangle {
P1 = { X = 0, Y = 1 },
P2 = { X = 2, Y = 3 }
};

Rectangle __r = new Rectangle();
__r.P1.X = 0;
__r.P1.Y = 1;
__r.P2.X = 2;
__r.P2.Y = 3;
Rectangle r = __r;

.
:
{ }
{ , }

,
184
:

{ }
,
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7.17.
, :
List<int> digits = new List<int> { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 };
, , ,
System.Collections.Ienumerable,
. Add
,
. ,
Add .
:
public class Contact
{
string name;
List<string> phoneNumbers = new List<string>();
public string Name { get { return name; } set { name = value; } }
}
public List<string> PhoneNumbers { get { return phoneNumbers; } }
List<Contact> :
var contacts = new List<Contact> {
new Contact {
Name = "Chris Smith",
PhoneNumbers = { "206-555-0101", "425-882-8080" }
},
new Contact {
Name = "Bob Harris",
PhoneNumbers = { "650-555-0199" }
}
};

var contacts = new List<Contact>();
Contact __c1 = new Contact();
__c1.Name = "Chris Smith";
__c1.PhoneNumbers.Add("206-555-0101");
contacts.Add(__c1);
Contact __c2 = new Contact();
__c2.Name = "Bob Harris";
contacts.Add(__c2);
__c1 __c2 , .
185

__ _.
:
new [ ]
new
new
,
. ,
new int[10, 20] int[,], new int[10][,]
int[][,]. int, uint,
long ulong , .

. ,
_
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(18.1) .
,
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, .

.

. ,
new int[,] {{0, 1}, {2, 3}, {4, 5}}

new int[3, 2] {{0, 1}, {2, 3}, {4, 5}}

. ,
, (7.4.2.13)
. ( _,
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12.6.
,
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.
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(6.1)
: int, uint, long, ulong. ,
.
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System.OverflowException .
186
.
, System.OutOfMemoryException

(5.2).
,

.
, , ,
.
,
(,
).

, . ,
int[][] a = new int[100][];
100 int[].
null. ,
int[][] a = new int[100][5];
//
.
, .:
int[][] a = new int[100][];
for (int i = 0; i < 100; i++) a[i] = new int[5];
,
, .
101 100 . ,
int[,] = new int[100, 5];
, , .
.
var a = new[] { 1, 10, 100, 1000 };
var b = new[] { 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5 };
var c = new[,] { { "hello", null }, { "world", "!" } };
var d = new[] { 1, "one", 2, "two" };
// int[]
// double[]
// string[,]
//
, int string
, .
, ,
object[]. ,
.

(7.5.10.6) :
187
var contacts = new[] {

new {
Name = "Chris Smith",
PhoneNumbers = new[] { "206-555-0101", "425-882-8080" }
},
new {
Name = "Bob Harris",
PhoneNumbers = new[] { "650-555-0199" }
}
};

__ _.
:
new ( )
,
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.
_, , .
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.
D.
, System.OutOfMemoryException
,
, E.
188

.
.
(15.1) . .
, , , ,
, .
, ,
.
delegate double DoubleFunc(double x);
class A
{
DoubleFunc f = new DoubleFunc(Square);
static float Square(float x) {
return x * x;
}
static double Square(double x) {

return x * x;
}
A.f , Square,

DoubleFunc. Square , .

___ .
:
new

{ }
{ , }
:

,
:

=
.
, object.
,
, . ,

new { p1 = e1 , p2 = e2 , pn = en }
189
class __Anonymous1
{
private readonly T1 f1 ;
private readonly T2 f2 ;
private readonly Tn fn ;
public __Anonymous1(T1 a1, T2 a2,, Tn an) {
f1 = a1 ;
f2 = a2 ;
fn = an ;
}
public T1 p1 { get { return f1 ; } }
public override bool Equals(object o) { }

public override int GetHashCode() { }
Tx ex. ,
_, . _ null
, .
, .
,
.
,
,
.

var p1 = new { Name = "Lawnmower", Price = 495.00 };
var p2 = new { Name = "Shovel", Price = 26.95 };
p1 = p2;
, p1 p2 .
Equals GetHashcode ,
object, Equals GetHashcode ,
.
(7.5.2) (7.5.4).

. ,
:
=
= .
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190
7.5.11 typeof
typeof System.Type .
typeof
typeof ( )
typeof ( )
typeof ( void )
:

::
.
:
< >
:
,
,
_typeof typeof, .
System.Type .
System.Type. , T
typeof(T) == typeof(T).
_typeof typeof,
__ . __ _ (3.8)
, __ __,
_ __. _typeof
, __
_, __,
__, _.
__ .
_
__ __
object, _.
_ , .
__ ,
(4.4.3).
_typeof System.Type
.
_typeof typeof,
void . System.Type,
. , typeof(void), ,
.
, ,
, , void,
System.Type.
typeof . System.Type
, . typeof
(4.4.3).
System.Type System.Type
. ,
191
System.Type ,
.

using System;
class X<T>
{
public static void PrintTypes() {
Type[] t = {
typeof(int),
typeof(System.Int32),
typeof(string),
typeof(double[]),
typeof(void),
typeof(T),
typeof(X<T>),
typeof(X<X<T>>),
typeof(X<>)
};
for (int i = 0; i < t.Length; i++) {
Console.WriteLine(t[i]);
}
}
}
class Test
{
X<int>.PrintTypes();
}
}

System.Int32
System.Int32
System.String
System.Double[]
System.Void
System.Int32
X`1[System.Int32]
X`1[X`1[System.Int32]]
X`1[T]
, int System.Int32 .
, typeof(X<>) ,
typeof(X<T>) .
7.5.12 checked unchecked
checked unchecked
.
checked:
checked ( )
unchecked:
unchecked ( )
192
checked ,
unchecked . _checked _unchecked
__ (7.5.3) ,
.
checked
unchecked (8.11).
, checked
unchecked, .
++ -- (7.5.9 7.6.5), .
(7.6.2), .
+, -, *, / (7.7), .
(6.2.1) float
double .

, .
checked (7.18),
. ,
unchecked ,
.
(, ),
checked unchecked,
unchecked, (,
) checked.
(, )
checked.
unchecked, ,

.
checked unchecked,
.

class Test
{
static readonly int x = 1000000;
static readonly int y = 1000000;
static int F() {
return checked(x * y);
}
// OverflowException
static int G() {

return unchecked(x * y); // -727379968
}
193
static int H() {

return x * y;
}
//
,
. F System.OverflowException,
G 727379968 ( 32 , ).
H ,
, F, G.

class Test
{
const int x = 1000000;
const int y = 1000000;
static int F() {
return checked(x * y);
}
// ,
static int G() {

return unchecked(x * y); // -727379968
}
static int H() {
return x * y;
}
// ,
, F H,
, checked.
G ,
unchecked, .
checked unchecked ,
( ). , .
class Test
{
static int Multiply(int x, int y) {
return x * y;
}
static int F() {
return checked(Multiply(1000000, 1000000));
}
}
checked F x * y Multiply, x * y
.
unchecked
. :
class Test
{
public const int AllBits = unchecked((int)0xFFFFFFFF);
}
194
public const int HighBit = unchecked((int)0x80000000);
uint.
int, unchecked int
.
checked unchecked
.
. ,
unchecked.

checked. ,
, .
7.5.13
(5.2) .
,
, . (
, null .)
:
default ( )
___ ,
null, .
___ ,
_ (4.1.2).
___ (7.18),
, (10.1.5). ,
__ ,
: sbyte, byte, short, ushort, int, uint, long, ulong, char, float, double,
decimal, bool .
7.5.14
__
. 7.14.
7.6
+, -, !, ~, ++, -- .
:

+
-
!
~

7.6.1
+x ,
(7.2.3). ,
. c
:
195
int operator +(int x);

uint operator +(uint x);
long operator +(long x);
ulong operator +(ulong x);
float operator +(float x);
double operator +(double x);
decimal operator +(decimal x);
.
7.6.2
-x ,
(7.2.3). ,
. c
:
:
int operator (int x);
long operator (long x);
x . x
(231 int 263 long),
. checked,
System.OverflowException. unchecked,
.
uint, long
long. ,
int 2147483648 (231) (2.4.4.2).
ulong,
. , long
9223372036854775808 (263) (2.4.4.2).
:
float operator (float x);
double operator (double x);
x . x NaN,
NaN.
:
decimal operator (decimal x);
x .
System.Decimal.
7.6.3
!x ,
(7.2.3). ,
.
:
bool operator !(bool x);
. true,
false. false, true.
196
7.6.4
~x ,
(7.2.3). ,
.
:
int operator ~(int x);
uint operator ~(uint x);
long operator ~(long x);
ulong operator ~(ulong x);
x.
E :
E operator ~(E x);
~x, x E U,
(E) (~(U)x).
7.6.5
:
++
:
--
,
, .
, .

, get set.
.

(7.2.3). ++ -- : sbyte, byte, short, ushort, int, uint,
long, ulong, char, float, double, decimal . ++
, 1 , -- ,
1 . checked

, System.OverflowException.
++x --x
.
x , :
o
x .
x .
, , ,
x.
, , .
x , :
197
( x static) ( x
), x,
get set.
get x.
,
get.
set x ,
value.
, , .
++ -- (7.5.9). x++ x- x , ++x --x x .

x .
++ -- .
.
7.6.6
__ .
:
( )
__ (T)E, T , E _,
(6.2) E T. E T ,
. ,
. , E .
__ . ,
(x)y __ (y x)
_ __ ( x y).
__ .
(2.3.3),
__, .
, .
, ,
, ~, !, (, (2.4.1),
(2.4.4) (2.4.3) as is.
,
.
- . , x y
, x.y , x.y
.
, x y , (x)y, (x)(y)
(x)(-y) __, (x)-y , x .
x , (, int),
__ (
).
198
7.7
*, /, %, + .
:

*
/
%
:

+

7.7.1
x * y ,
(7.2.4).
, .
. x y.
:
int operator *(int x, int y);
uint operator *(uint x, uint y);
long operator *(long x, long y);
ulong operator *(ulong x, ulong y);
checked
, System.OverflowException. unchecked
, ,
, .

float operator *(float x, float y);
double operator *(double x, double y);
IEEE 754.
, ,
NaN z x * y.
, z . , z
.
+y
+0
NaN
+x
+z
+0
NaN
+z
+0
NaN
+0
+0
+0
NaN
NaN
NaN
+0
+0
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
.
199
decimal operator *(decimal x, decimal y);
decimal,
decimal, .
.

System.Decimal.
7.7.2
x / y ,
(7.2.4).
, .
. x y.
:
int operator /(int x, int y);
uint operator /(uint x, uint y);
long operator /(long x, long y);
ulong operator /(ulong x, ulong y);
,
System.DivideByZeroException.
,
, .
, , ,
.
int long,
1, . checked
System.ArithmeticException ( ). unchecked
System.ArithmeticException ( )
( )
.
:
float operator /(float x, float y);
double operator /(double x, double y);
IEEE 754.
, ,
NaN z x / y.
, z . , z
.
200
+y
+0
NaN
+x
+z
+0
NaN
+z
+0
NaN
+0
+0
NaN
NaN
+0
NaN
+0
NaN
NaN
+0
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
:
decimal operator /(decimal x, decimal y);
,
decimal, System.OverflowException.
decimal,
. ,
.
System.Decimal.
7.7.3
x % y ,
(7.2.4).
, .
. x y.
:
int operator %(int x, int y);
uint operator %(uint x, uint y);
long operator %(long x, long y);
ulong operator %(ulong x, ulong y);
x % y x (x / y) * y. y ,
int long, -1,
System.OverflowException. x / y , x % y
.
:
float operator %(float x, float y);
double operator %(double x, double y);
,
, NaN z x % y x n *
y, n , x / y.
, ,
IEEE 754 ( n , x / y).
201
+y
+0
NaN
+x
+z
+z
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
+0
+0
+0
NaN
NaN
+0
+0
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
:
decimal operator %(decimal x, decimal y);
,
, ( ) x.

System.Decimal.
7.7.4
x + y ,
(7.2.4).
, .
.
.
,
.
:
int operator +(int x, int y);
uint operator +(uint x, uint y);
long operator +(long x, long y);
ulong operator +(ulong x, ulong y);
checked ,
System.OverflowException. unchecked
, , ,
.
:
float operator +(float x, float y);
double operator +(double x, double y);
IEEE 754.

, , NaN x y
, z x + y. x y ,
, z . x + y
, z , x +
y.
202
+0
NaN
NaN
+0
+0
+0
NaN
+0
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
:
decimal operator +(decimal x, decimal y);
decimal,
.

System.Decimal.
.
, E , U
E:
E operator +(E x, U y);
E operator +(U x, E y);
(E)((U)x + (U)y).
:
string operator +(string x, string y);
string operator +(string x, object y);
string operator +(object x, string y);
+ , string.
null, .

ToString, bject. ToString null,
.
using System;
class Test
{
string s = null;
Console.WriteLine("s = >" + s + "<");
int i = 1;
Console.WriteLine("i = " + i);
float f = 1.2300E+15F;
Console.WriteLine("f = " + f);
decimal d = 2.900m;
Console.WriteLine("d = " + d);
}
}
// s = ><
// i = 1
// f = 1.23E+15
// d = 2.900
, ,
.
203
null.
System.OutOfMemoryException.
.
, D :
D operator +(D x, D y);
+ ,
D. ( , .)
null, (
null). , null,
. ,
, .
. 7.7.5 15.4. System.Delegate ,
+ .
7.7.5
x y, ,
(7.2.4).
, .
. y x.
:
int operator (int x, int y);
uint operator (uint x, uint y);
long operator (long x, long y);
ulong operator (ulong x, ulong y);
checked ,
System.OverflowException. unchecked
, , ,
.
:
float operator (float x, float y);
double operator (double x, double y);
IEEE 754.

, , NaN x y
, z x - y. x y , z
. x - y , z
, x - y.
204
+0
NaN
NaN
+0
+0
+0
NaN
+0
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
NaN
.
decimal operator (decimal x, decimal y);
decimal,
.

System.Decimal.
.
, E , U
E:
U operator (E x, E y);
(U)((U)x (U)y). ,
x y,
.
E operator (E x, U y);
(E)((U)x y). ,
, .
.
, D :
D operator (D x, D y);
- ,
D. , .
null, null. ,
null, .
(15.1) ,
, ,
,
. (
, (7.9.8).)
.
.
,
. , null.
:
delegate void D(int x);
class C
{
public static void M1(int i) { /* */ }
public static void M2(int i) { /* */ }
}
205
class Test
{
D cd1 = new D(C.M1);
D cd3 = cd1 + cd2 + cd2 + cd1;
cd3 -= cd1;
// M1 + M2 + M2 + M1
// => M1 + M2 + M2
cd3 = cd1 + cd2 + cd2 + cd1;

cd3 -= cd1 + cd2;
// M1 + M2 + M2 + M1
// => M2 + M1
cd3 = cd1 + cd2 + cd2 + cd1;

cd3 -= cd2 + cd2;
// M1 + M2 + M2 + M1
// => M1 + M1
cd3 = cd1 + cd2 + cd2 + cd1;

cd3 -= cd2 + cd1;
// M1 + M2 + M2 + M1
// => M1 + M2
cd3 = cd1 + cd2 + cd2 + cd1;

cd3 -= cd1 + cd1;
// M1 + M2 + M2 + M1
// => M1 + M2 + M2 + M1
7.8
<< >> .
:

<<

x << x >> , ,
(7.2.4).
,
.

, , int.
.
:
int operator <<(int x, int count);
uint operator <<(uint x, int count);
long operator <<(long x, int count);
ulong operator <<(ulong x, int count);
<< x ,
.
x ,
, .

int operator >>(int x, int count);
uint operator >>(uint x, int count);
long operator >>(long x, int count);
ulong operator >>(ulong x, int count);
>> x ,
.
206
x int long, x ,
, , x
, , x .
x uint ulong, x ,
, .
.
x int uint, .
, & 0x1F.
x long ulong, .
, & 0x3F.
, x.

checked unchecked.
>> ,
, ( )
. >> ,
, .

. , x int, unchecked((int)((uint)x
>> y)) x .
7.9
==, !=, <, >, <=, >=, is as .
:

<
>
<=
>=
is
as
:

==
!=
is 7.9.10, as 7.9.11.
==, !=, <, >, <= >= . x op y, op
, ,
(7.2.4). ,
.
.
bool, .
207
x == y
true, x y, false
x != y
true, x y, false
x<y
true, x y, false
x>y
true, x y, false
x <= y
true, x y, false
x >= y
true, x y, false
7.9.1
:
bool
bool
bool
bool
operator
operator
operator
operator
==(int x, int y);

==(uint x, uint y);
==(long x, long y);
==(ulong x, ulong y);
bool
bool
bool
bool
operator
operator
operator
operator
!=(int x, int y);

!=(uint x, uint y);
!=(long x, long y);
!=(ulong x, ulong y);
bool
bool
bool
bool
operator
operator
operator
operator
<(int x, int y);

<(uint x, uint y);
<(long x, long y);
<(ulong x, ulong y);
bool
bool
bool
bool
operator
operator
operator
operator
>(int x, int y);

>(uint x, uint y);
>(long x, long y);
>(ulong x, ulong y);
bool
bool
bool
bool
operator
operator
operator
operator
<=(int x, int y);

<=(uint x, uint y);
<=(long x, long y);
<=(ulong x, ulong y);
bool
bool
bool
bool
operator
operator
operator
operator
>=(int x, int y);

>=(uint x, uint y);
>=(long x, long y);
>=(ulong x, ulong y);

bool, , .
7.9.2
:
bool operator ==(float x, float y);
bool operator ==(double x, double y);
bool operator !=(float x, float y);
bool operator !=(double x, double y);
bool operator <(float x, float y);
bool operator <(double x, double y);
208
2
bool operator >(float x, float y);
bool operator >(double x, double y);
bool operator <=(float x, float y);
bool operator <=(double x, double y);
bool operator >=(float x, float y);
bool operator >=(double x, double y);
IEEE 754.
- , false,
!=, true. x
!= y , !(x == y).
, <, >, <=, >= ,
. , x y , x < y
false, !(x >= y) true.
,

< . < ... < . < 0.0 == +0.0 < +. < ... < +. < +
. . ,
.
.
o
,
.
,
.
7.9.3
:
bool operator ==(decimal x, decimal y);
bool operator !=(decimal x, decimal y);
bool operator <(decimal x, decimal y);
bool operator >(decimal x, decimal y);
bool operator <=(decimal x, decimal y);
bool operator >=(decimal x, decimal y);

bool, , .

System.Decimal.
7.9.4
:
bool operator ==(bool x, bool y);
bool operator !=(bool x, bool y);
== true, x y true false.

, false.
209
!== false, x y true false.

true. bool, !=
, ^.
7.9.5
:
bool operator ==(E x, E y);
bool operator !=(E x, E y);
bool operator <(E x, E y);
bool operator >(E x, E y);
bool operator <=(E x, E y);
bool operator >=(E x, E y);
x op y, x y E U,
op , ((U)x) op ((U)y).
,
.
7.9.6
:
bool operator ==(object x, object y);
bool operator !=(object x, object y);
.

object, , operator ==
operator !=. ,
.

.
_ null. ,
(6.3.1).
T, T _,
null. , T .
- , .
.
, ,

. , A B
A, B ,
. , .

. ,
.
210
,
.
T null T
, false.
,
null.
class C<T>
{
void F(T x) {
if (x == null) throw new ArgumentNullException();
...
}
}
x == null , T ,
false, T .
x == y x != y operator == operator !=,
(7.2.4)
.
,
object.
using System;
class Test
{
string s = "Test";
string t = string.Copy(s);
Console.WriteLine(s == t);
Console.WriteLine((object)s == t);
Console.WriteLine(s == (object)t);
Console.WriteLine((object)s == (object)t);
}
}

True
False
False
False
s t string,
True, string
(7.9.7).
False, object
.
, .
211
class Test
{
int i = 123;
int j = 123;
System.Console.WriteLine((object)i == (object)j);
}
}
False,
int.
7.9.7
:
bool operator ==(string x, string y);
bool operator !=(string x, string y);
string , :
null;
, .
, ,
. 7.9.6,
.
7.9.8
:
bool operator ==(System.Delegate x, System.Delegate y);
bool operator !=(System.Delegate x, System.Delegate y);
, .
null, , null.
, .
(15.1), ,
(
) .
, .

( ), .
,
__ ( )
( ) .
212
7.9.9 null
== != , ,
null, (
).

x == null
null == x
x != null
null != x
x , (7.2.4)
, HasValue x.
, !x.HasValue,
x.HasValue.
7.9.10 is
is ,
. E is T, E , T ,
, , E T
, .
.
E ,
E null E
E null, false.
D E .
o
E , D ,
E.
E , D .
E , D E.
D T .
o
T , true, D T , D
D T D
D T.
T , true, D T.
T , true, T D

false.
, is .
7.9.11 as
as
. (7.6.6) as
. , , null.
E as T E , T ,
, , . ,
.
.
213
E T (6.1.1),
(6.1.6), (6.1.7),
(6.2.4) (6.2.5).
E T .
E null.
E as T ,
E is T ? (T)(E) : (T)null
, E .
E as T,
.
, ,
as .

class X
{
public string F(object o) {
return o as string;
// OK,
}
public T G<T>(object o) where T: Attribute {
return o as T;
// , T
}
public U H(object o) {
return o as U;
}
// , U
T G , . ,
U H , as H .
7.10
&, ^ | .
:

&
:

^
:

|
x op y, op ,
, (7.2.4).
,
.
.
214
7.10.1
:
int operator &(int x, int y);
uint operator &(uint x, uint y);
long operator &(long x, long y);
ulong operator &(ulong x, ulong y);
int operator |(int x, int y);
uint operator |(uint x, uint y);
long operator |(long x, long y);
ulong operator |(ulong x, ulong y);
int operator ^(int x, int y);
uint operator ^(uint x, uint y);
long operator ^(long x, long y);
ulong operator ^(ulong x, ulong y);
& AND , |
OR , ^
OR .
.
7.10.2
E
:
E operator &(E x, E y);
E operator |(E x, E y);
E operator ^(E x, E y);
x op y, x y E U,
op , (E) ((U)x op (U)y).
,
.
7.10.3
:
bool operator &(bool x, bool y);
bool operator |(bool x, bool y);
bool operator ^(bool x, bool y);
x & y true, x y true. ,

false.
x | y true, x y true. ,
false.
x ^ y true, x true, y false, x false, y true.
false. bool, ^
, !=.
7.10.4
bool? : true, false null,

, SQL.
215
& | bool? SQL,

:
bool? operator &(bool? x, bool? y);
bool? operator |(bool? x, bool? y);

true, false null.
x
x&y
x|y
true
true
true
true
true
false
false
true
true
null
null
true
false
true
false
true
false
false
false
false
false
null
false
null
null
true
null
true
null
false
false
null
null
null
null
null
7.11
&& || .
.
:

&&
:

||
&& || & |.
x && y x & y, , y ,
x false.
x || y x | y, , y ,
x true.
x && y x || y (7.2.4),
x & y x | y.

, .
, (7.10.3)
(7.10.4), ,
7.11.1.
, ,
7.11.2.
216
.
,

. 7.11.2.
7.11.1
&& || bool ,
operator & operator |, bool,
.
x && y x ? y : false. , x
bool. , x true, y bool
. false.
x || y x ? true : y. , x
bool. , x true, true. y
bool .
7.11.2
&& || ,
operator & operator |, , T ,
.
T.
, AND OR
T T.
T operator true operator false.
- , .
&& || operator true
operator false :
x && y T.false(x) ? x : T.&(x, y), T.false(x)

operator false, T, T.&(x, y) &.
, x operator false,
, x false. , x false,
, x. y
operator & x
y, .
x || y T.true(x) ? x : T.|(x, y), T.true(x)

operator true, T, T.|(x, y) |.
, x operator true,
, x true. , x true,
, x. y
operator | x y,
.
x , y
, .
, operator true operator false, . 11.4.2.
7.12 null
?? null.
217
null:

|| null
null a ?? b , a .
a null, a ?? b a, b.
b , a null.
null , ,
. , a ?? b ?? c a ?? (b ?? c).
E1 ?? E2 ?? ... ?? EN , null, null,
null.
a ?? b ,
. a ?? b A0, A B, A a, B b (
, b ), A0 A, A ,
A . , a ?? b .
A ,
.
A b A0,
A0. a. a null, a
A0 . b
A0 .
, b A, A.
a. a null, a .
b A .
, b B A0 B,
B. a. a null, a
A0 ( A A0 ),
B . b .
a b .
7.13
?: . .
:
null
null ? :
b ? x : y b. , b true,
x . y
. x, y.
, ,
. , a ? b : c ? d : e a ? b : (c ? d : e).
?: ,
bool, , operator true.
, .
?: . X Y
.
218
X Y , .
, X Y (6.1), Y X ,
Y.
, Y X (6.1), X Y ,
X.
, .
b ? x : y .
b b:
o
b bool,
.
operator true,
b.
true, x
.
y
.
7.14
, .
,
.
. , ,
, ,
,
.
,
: _ __.
_ , __,
.
-:
=>
:
delegate
:

:
( )

,
219
:
ref
out
:
( )

,
:
=> , ( =) .
_ .
.
,
, ,
, (6.5).

.
( ) =>
:
=>
__
. , ,
,
out.
.
x => x + 1
// ,
x => { return x + 1; }
// ,
(int x) => x + 1
// ,
(int x) => { return x + 1; }
// ,
(x, y) => x * y
//
() => Console.WriteLine()
//
delegate (int x) { return x + 1; }
//
delegate { return 1 + 1; }
//
_ __
:
220
__ ,
.
_ ,
__ .
_ ,
__ .
_ _,
__ (4.6).
7.14.1
__ ()
.
__. (3.7) ( )
(3.3). ,
, ,
__ _,
.
___,
,
. (6.6)
.
__,
, out.
, __
. __ ,
.
, , ,
(4.6).
7.14.2
( ) .
, , ,
. ,
(6.5), .
ref out,
, , ref out (
) .
this , this
. ( this.x) (. x, x
). ,
.
(7.14.4) .
,
_ __ (7.14.5).
goto, break continue,

,
.
221
return
, -. , return,
,
_ __ (6.5).
, ,
- __. ,
, .
,
.
7.14.3
.
. 7.4.2.3.

class ItemList<T>: List<T>

{
public int Sum(Func<T,int> selector) {
int sum = 0;
foreach (T item in this) sum += selector(item);
return sum;
}
public double Sum(Func<T,double> selector) {

double sum = 0;
foreach (T item in this) sum += selector(item);
return sum;
}
ItemList<T> Sum. selector,

. int
double, int double.
Sum , , .
class Detail
{
public int UnitCount;
public double UnitPrice;
...
}
void ComputeSums() {
ItemList<Detail> orderDetails = GetOrderDetails(...);
int totalUnits = orderDetails.Sum(d => d.UnitCount);
double orderTotal = orderDetails.Sum(d => d.UnitPrice * d.UnitCount);
...
}
orderDetails.Sum Sum , d =>

d.UnitCount Func<Detail,int> Func<Detail,double>.
Sum, Func<Detail,int>
Func<Detail,double>.
222
orderDetails.Sum Sum,
d => d.UnitPrice * d.UnitCount double.
Sum.
7.14.4
, ,
_ __,
. - this
, -.

,
.
, (5.1.7).
, ,
, .

using System;
delegate int D();
class Test
{
static D F() {
int x = 0;
D result = () => ++x;
return result;
}

D d = F();
Console.WriteLine(d());
}
x
, , F, (
).
x, :
1
2
3
,
(18.3),
. ,
, fixed,
.
223

, ,
. , x
, .
static void F() {
for (int i = 0; i < 3; i++) {
int x = i * 2 + 1;
...
}
}
x , x
.
static void F() {
int x;
for (int i = 0; i < 3; i++) {
x = i * 2 + 1;
...
}
}
, ,
, .
.
, .

using System;
delegate void D();
class Test
{
static D[] F() {
D[] result = new D[3];
for (int i = 0; i < 3; i++) {
int x = i * 2 + 1;
result[i] = () => { Console.WriteLine(x); };
}
return result;
}
foreach (D d in F()) d();
}
}

1
3
5
x :
224
2
static D[] F() {
int x;
for (int i = 0; i < 3; i++) {
x = i * 2 + 1;
result[i] = () => { Console.WriteLine(x); };
}
return result;
}

5
5
5
for ,
. , ,
static D[] F() {
for (int i = 0; i < 3; i++) {
result[i] = () => { Console.WriteLine(i); };
}
return result;
}
.
3
3
3

. , F
static D[] F() {
int x = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < 3; i++) {
int y = 0;
result[i] = () => { Console.WriteLine("{0} {1}", ++x, ++y); };
}
return result;
}
x, y. :
11
21
31
.
:
using System;
delegate void Setter(int value);
delegate int Getter();
225
class Test
{
int x = 0;
Setter s = (int value) => { x = value; };
Getter g = () => { return x; };
s(5);
Console.WriteLine(g());
s(10);
Console.WriteLine(g());
}
}
x
. :
5
10
7.14.5
F D E
, new D(F).
, 6.5.
7.15

, , SQL XQuery.
:
from
from:
from in
:
select group
:

:
from
let
where
join
join into
orderby
let:
let =
where:
where
join:
join in on equals
226
join into:
join in on equals into
orderby:
orderby
:
,
:

:
ascending
descending
select group:
select
group
select:
select
group:
group by
:
into
from select group.
from from, let, where, join orderby.
from , ,
. let ,
, .
where .
join ,
. orderby
. select group
. , into ,
.
7.15.1
,
, . , from,
where, join, on, equals, into, let, orderby, ascending, descending, select, group by.
,
,
.
, from
, ;, = ,.
,
@ (2.4.2).
227
7.15.2
C# .
, (7.15.3).
, Where, Select, SelectMany,
Join, GroupJoin, OrderBy, OrderByDescending, ThenBy, ThenByDescending, GroupBy Cast.
, 7.15.3.
,
, .
,
- .
, C# .

. , , ,

.
,
. :
,
.
,
*. 7.15.2.7.
select groupby

from into x

from x in ( from )
, into.
from c in customers
group c by c.Country into g
select new { Country = g.Key, CustCount = g.Count() }

from g in
from c in customers
group c by c.Country
select new { Country = g.Key, CustCount = g.Count() }

customers.
GroupBy(c => c.Country).
Select(g => new { Country = g.Key, CustCount = g.Count() })

from,
from T x in e
228

from x in ( e ) . Cast < T > ( )
join,
join T x in e on k1 equals k2

join x in ( e ) . Cast < T > ( ) on k1 equals k2
,
.
from Customer c in customers

where c.City == "London"
select c

from c in customers.Cast<Customer>()
where c.City == "London"
select c

customers.
Cast<Customer>().
Where(c => c.City == "London")
,
IEnumerable,
IEnumerable<T>. , customers
ArrayList.

from x in e select x

( e ) . Select ( x => x )
from c in customers
select c

customers.Select(c => c)
.
, ,
. ,
,
, .
, ,
Select . , Select
, , .
229
from, let, where, join orderby

from, select,
from x1 in e1
from x2 in e2
select v

( e1 ) . SelectMany( x1 => e2 , ( x1 , x2 ) => v )
from, , select,
from x1 in e1
from x2 in e2

from * in ( e1 ) . SelectMany( x1 => e2 , ( x1 , x2 ) => new { x1 , x2 } )
let
from x in e
let y = f

from * in ( e ) . Select ( x => new { x , y = f } )
where
from x in e
where f

from x in ( e ) . Where ( x => f )
join into, select,

from x1 in e1
join x2 in e2 on k1 equals k2
select v

( e1 ) . Join( e2 , x1 => k1 , x2 => k2 , ( x1 , x2 ) => v )
join into, , select,

from x1 in e1
join x2 in e2 on k1 equals k2

from * in ( e1 ) . Join(
e2 , x1 => k1 , x2 => k2 , ( x1 , x2 ) => new { x1 , x2 })
230
join into,
select,
from x1 in e1
join x2 in e2 on k1 equals k2 into g
select v

( e1 ) . GroupJoin( e2 , x1 => k1 , x2 => k2 , ( x1 , g ) => v )
join into, ,
select,
from x1 in e1
join x2 in e2 on k1 equals k2 into g

from * in ( e1 ) . GroupJoin(
e2 , x1 => k1 , x2 => k2 , ( x1 , g ) => new { x1 , g })
orderby
from x in e
orderby k1 , k2 , , kn

from x in ( e ) .
OrderBy ( x => k1 ) .
ThenBy ( x => k2 ) .
.
ThenBy ( x => kn )
descending,
OrderByDescending ThenByDescending.
, let, where,
join orderby, from.
from c in customers
from o in c.Orders
select new { c.Name, o.OrderID, o.Total }

.
SelectMany(c => c.Orders,
(c,o) => new { c.Name, o.OrderID, o.Total }
)
from c in customers
from o in c.Orders
orderby o.Total descending
231

from * in customers.
SelectMany(c => c.Orders, (c,o) => new { c, o })

customers.
SelectMany(c => c.Orders, (c,o) => new { c, o }).
OrderByDescending(x => x.o.Total).
Select(x => new { x.c.Name, x.o.OrderID, x.o.Total })
x , ,
.
from o in orders
let t = o.Details.Sum(d => d.UnitPrice * d.Quantity)
where t >= 1000
select new { o.OrderID, Total = t }

from * in orders.
Select(o => new { o, t = o.Details.Sum(d => d.UnitPrice * d.Quantity) })
where t >= 1000
select new { o.OrderID, Total = t }

orders.
Select(o => new { o, t = o.Details.Sum(d => d.UnitPrice * d.Quantity) }).
Where(x => x.t >= 1000).
Select(x => new { x.o.OrderID, Total = x.t })
x , ,
.
from c in customers
join o in orders on c.CustomerID equals o.CustomerID
select new { c.Name, o.OrderDate, o.Total }

customers.Join(orders, c => c.CustomerID, o => o.CustomerID,
(c, o) => new { c.Name, o.OrderDate, o.Total })
from c in customers
join o in orders on c.CustomerID equals o.CustomerID into co
let n = co.Count()
where n >= 10
select new { c.Name, OrderCount = n }
232
2
GroupJoin(orders, c => c.CustomerID, o => o.CustomerID,
(c, co) => new { c, co })
let n = co.Count()
where n >= 10
select new { c.Name, OrderCount = n }

customers.
GroupJoin(orders, c => c.CustomerID, o => o.CustomerID,
(c, co) => new { c, co }).
Select(x => new { x, n = x.co.Count() }).
Where(y => y.n >= 10).
Select(y => new { y.x.c.Name, OrderCount = y.n)
x y , ,
.
from o in orders
orderby o.Customer.Name, o.Total descending
select o

orders.
OrderBy(o => o.Customer.Name).
ThenByDescending(o => o.Total)
select

from x in e select v

( e ) . Select ( x => v )
, v x,
(e)
:
from c in customers.Where(c => c.City == London)
select c

customers.Where(c => c.City == London)
groupby

from x in e group v by k

( e ) . GroupBy ( x => k , x => v )
, v x,
( e ) . GroupBy ( x => k )
233

from c in customers
group c.Name by c.Country

.
GroupBy(c => c.Country, c => c.Name)

,
*. ,
.
,

. .
,
.
,
.

, .
, ,

. C#
, .
,
.
from c in customers
from o in c.Orders
select new { c.Name, o.Total }

SelectMany(c => c.Orders, (c,o) => new { c, o })
select new { c.Name, o.Total }

customers.
OrderByDescending(* => o.Total).
Select(* => new { c.Name, o.Total })

customers.
OrderByDescending(x => x.o.Total).
Select(x => new { x.c.Name, x.o.Total })
234
x , ,
.
from c in customers
join o in orders on c.CustomerID equals o.CustomerID
join d in details on o.OrderID equals d.OrderID
join p in products on d.ProductID equals p.ProductID
select new { c.Name, o.OrderDate, p.ProductName }

Join(orders, c => c.CustomerID, o => o.CustomerID,
(c, o) => new { c, o })
join d in details on o.OrderID equals d.OrderID
join p in products on d.ProductID equals p.ProductID
select new { c.Name, o.OrderDate, p.ProductName }

customers.
Join(orders, c => c.CustomerID, o => o.CustomerID, (c, o) => new { c, o }).
Join(details, * => o.OrderID, d => d.OrderID, (*, d) => new { *, d }).
Join(products, * => d.ProductID, p => p.ProductID, (*, p) => new { *, p }).
Select(* => new { c.Name, o.OrderDate, p.ProductName })

customers.
Join(orders, c => c.CustomerID, o => o.CustomerID,
(c, o) => new { c, o }).
Join(details, x => x.o.OrderID, d => d.OrderID,
(x, d) => new { x, d }).
Join(products, y => y.d.ProductID, p => p.ProductID,
(y, p) => new { y, p }).
Select(z => new { z.y.x.c.Name, z.y.x.o.OrderDate, z.p.ProductName })
x, y z , ,
.
7.15.3
,
.
,
. ,
, ,
, .
C<T>,
. ,
,
.
delegate R Func<T1,R>(T1 arg1);
delegate R Func<T1,T2,R>(T1 arg1, T2 arg2);
235
class C
{
public C<T> Cast<T>();
}
class C<T> : C
{
public C<T> Where(Func<T,bool> predicate);
public C Select(Func<T,U> selector);
public C<V> SelectMany<U,V>(Func<T,C> selector,
Func<T,U,V> resultSelector);
public C<V> Join<U,K,V>(C inner, Func<T,K> outerKeySelector,
Func<U,K> innerKeySelector, Func<T,U,V> resultSelector);
public C<V> GroupJoin<U,K,V>(C inner, Func<T,K> outerKeySelector,
Func<U,K> innerKeySelector, Func<T,C,V> resultSelector);
public O<T> OrderBy<K>(Func<T,K> keySelector);
public O<T> OrderByDescending<K>(Func<T,K> keySelector);
public C<G<K,T>> GroupBy<K>(Func<T,K> keySelector);
public C<G<K,E>> GroupBy<K,E>(Func<T,K> keySelector,
Func<T,E> elementSelector);
}
class O<T> : C<T>
{
public O<T> ThenBy<K>(Func<T,K> keySelector);
}
public O<T> ThenByDescending<K>(Func<T,K> keySelector);
class G<K,T> : C<T>

{
public K Key { get; }
}
Func<T1, R> Func<T1, T2, R>,

.
C<T> O<T>, ,
ThenBy ThenByDescending OrderBy
OrderByDescending.
GroupBy ,
Key.
System.Linq
, System.Collections.Generic.IEnumerable<T>.
7.16
, ,
.
:

236
:
=
+=
-=
*=
/=
%=
&=
|=
^=
<<=

, ,
.
= .
, , .
(
, 10.8.1). 7.16.1.
, =,
. ,
, ,
. 7.16.2.
+= -=
__.
.
7.16.3.
; ,
. , a = b = c a = (b = c).
7.16.1
= .
, .
, ,
.
.
, , .
,
set.
.
x = y .
x , :
o
x .
y x
(6.1).
, x, _,
, , y
, x.
237
, y null
(6.1.6) , y,
, x.
System.ArrayTypeMismatchException.
o
, y, ,
x.
x , :
( x static) ( x
), x,
set.
y x
(6.1).
set x , y,
value.
(12.5) A[]
B[], B A.
_
,
.
string[] sa = new string[10];
object[] oa = sa;
oa[0] = null;
// Ok
oa[1] = "Hello";
// Ok
oa[2] = new ArrayList(); // ArrayTypeMismatchException
System.ArrayTypeMismatchException,
ArrayList string[].
_,
, ,
. ,
. 7.5.4 .
:
struct Point
{
int x, y;
this.x = x;
this.y = y;
}
public int X {
get { return x; }
set { x = value; }
}
}
238
public int Y {
get { return y; }
set { y = value; }
}
2
struct Rectangle
{
Point a, b;
public Rectangle(Point a, Point b) {
this.a = a;
this.b = b;
}
public Point A {
get { return a; }
set { a = value; }
}
public Point B {
get { return b; }
set { b = value; }
}
}

Point p = new Point();
p.X = 100;
p.Y = 100;
Rectangle r = new Rectangle();
r.A = new Point(10, 10);
r.B = p;
p.X, p.Y, r.A r.B , p r .
Rectangle r = new Rectangle();

r.A.X = 10;
r.A.Y = 10;
r.B.X = 100;
r.B.Y = 100;
, r.A r.B .
7.16.2
x && y x || y (7.2.4),
x op y.
x,
x = x op y, , x .
,
x y
x , x =
(T)(x op y), T x, , x .
, x op y,
x
x. , A()[B()] += C(), A , int[],
B C , int,
A, B, C.
239
,
get, set.
.
(. ) x op= y x = (T)(x op y).
,
, sbyte, byte, short, ushort char.
, int,
7.2.6.2. , .
,
x op= y , x op y x = y.
byte b = 0;
char ch = '\0';
int i = 0;
b
b
b
b
+=
+=
+=
+=
1;
1000;
i;
(byte)i;
// Ok
// , b = 1000
// , b = i
// Ok
ch += 1;
ch += (char)1;
// , ch = 1
// Ok
,
.
, .

int? i = 0;
i += 1;
// Ok
+(int?,int?).
7.16.3
+= -= ,
.
( ).
+= -=
(6.1).
,
. +=,
add; -=, remove.
. ,
_ (8.6).
7.17
__, .
:

240
:

-

7.18
_ ,
.
:
null : sbyte,
byte, short, ushort, int, uint, long, ulong, char, float, double, decimal, bool, string
. :
( null).
, .
, , .
checked unchecked
+, , ! ~.
+, , *, /, %, <<, >>, &, |, ^, &&, ||, ==, !=, <, >, <= >=
, , .
?:.
,
, null.
, ,
, . :
class C {
const object i = 5; // :
const object str = hello; // :
}
241
i , .
str ,
.
, , .
, ,
.
,
, ,
,
.
unchecked, ,

, (7.18).
, .
, .
(10.4).
(14.3).
case switch (8.7.2).
goto case (8.9.3).
(7.5.10.4), .
(17).
(6.1.8)
int sbyte, byte, short, ushort, uint ulong ,
.
7.19
_ , bool.
_:
_ _if (8.7.1),
_while (8.8.1), _do (8.8.2) _for (8.8.3).
?: (7.13) , _, -
__.
_ , bool
, operator true. ,
.
, bool,
operator true,
operator true .
DBBool 11.4.2 ,
operator true operator false.
242
8.
C# . ,
C C++.
_:
_
_
_
_:
_
_
_
_
_
_try
_checked
_unchecked
_lock
_using
_yield
_ ,
. _
_
.
void F(bool b) {
if (b)
int i = 44;
}
, if
_ if, _. , i
, . , , ,
i .
8.1
. ,
, .
( , ) ,
, . ,
,
.
, ,
. , ,
.
243
void F() {
Console.WriteLine("reachable");
goto Label;
Console.WriteLine("unreachable");
Label:
Console.WriteLine("reachable");
}
Console.WriteLine ,
.
, .
.
, ,
,
. (7.18),
,
. , ,
.

void F() {
const int i = 1;
if (i == 2) Console.WriteLine("unreachable");
}
if ,
== .
false, Console.WriteLine .
i :
void F() {
int i = 1;
if (i == 2) Console.WriteLine("reachable");
}
Console.WriteLine , .
- .
, .

void F(int x) {
Console.WriteLine("start");
if (x < 0) Console.WriteLine("negative");
}
Console.WriteLine :
- Console.WriteLine , F
.
- Console.WriteLine ,
.
if , - Console.WriteLine
.
- Console.WriteLine ,
if false.
244
switch switch ,
switch
. break.
-, ,
. return.
8.2
,
.
:
{ _ }
_ (8.2.1), .
, , .
(8.5).
, , .
, ,
(7.5.2.1).
.
, .
, .
, .
, .
,
.
, yield (8.14), .
- (10.14).
.
return (
yield return ).

(18.1). ,
.
8.2.1
.
(8.2) _switch (8.7.2).
_:
_
_ _
.
, .
,
.
245
, .
goto.
,
.
8.3
_ .
_:
;
, , ,
.
.
, , .
while :
bool ProcessMessage() {...}
void ProcessMessages() {
while (ProcessMessage())
;
}
,
:
void F() {
...
if (done) goto exit;
...
exit: ;
}
8.4
_ .
, .
_:
: _
, .
, , , .
,
.
goto (8.9.3), . ,
goto , .
.
246
2
int F(int x) {
if (x >= 0) goto x;
x = -x;
x: return x;
}
; x , .
, ,
.
,
, goto. ( :
goto try, finally,
try, finally ,
goto.)
8.5
_ .
, .
_:
__ ;
__ ;
8.5.1
__ .
__:
__ __
__:
var
__:
__
__ , __
__:
= __
__:
_
__ __
, , var ,
.
__, .
__ , ,
= __,
.
__ var var
, :
.
.
247
__
__.
__ __.
__ .
, .
:
var
var
var
var
var
x;
// ,
y = {1, 2, 3}; // ,
z = null;
// , null
u = x => x + 1; // ,
v = v++;
// ,
_ (7.5.2),
(7.16).
(5.3) , .
, __,
, . ,
__, .

.

. ,

.
void F() {
int x = 1, y, z = x * 2;
}
:
void F() {
int x; x = 1;
int y;
int z; z = x * 2;
}

, . :
var
var
var
var
var
i = 5;
s = "Hello";
d = 1.0;
numbers = new int[] {1, 2, 3};
orders = new Dictionary<int,Order>();
248
2
int i = 5;
string s = "Hello";
double d = 1.0;
int[] numbers = new int[] {1, 2, 3};
Dictionary<int,Order> orders = new Dictionary<int,Order>();
8.5.2
__ .
__:
const _
_:
_
_ , _
_:
= _
__ , .
_, .
_ , ,
= _ (7.18), .
_ ,
- (10.4).
_ (7.5.2).
, .
, _,
.
.

.
8.6 -
_ . ,
( ), .
_:
_ ;
_:
_
__
__
__
__
__
. , , x
+ y x == 1, ( ),
.
_ ,
_.
_ , _.
249
8.7

.
_:
_if
_switch
8.7.1 if
if .
_if:
if ( _ ) _
if ( _ ) _ else _
else if,
. , if
if (x) if (y) F(); else G();
:
if (x) {
if (y) {
F();
}
else {
G();
}
}
if .
_ (7.19).
true,
. ,
if.
false else,
.
, if.
false else ,
if.
if , if
false.
if ( ) , if
true.
if ,
. , if else
, if true.
8.7.2 switch
switch ,
switch-.
250
_switch:
switch ( ) _switch
_switch:
{ _switch }
_switch:
_switch
_switch _switch
_switch:
_switch _
_switch:
_switch
_switch _switch
_switch:
case _ :
default :
_switch switch, (
switch-) _switch. _switch (,
) _switch, . _switch
_switch _ (8.2.1).
switch switch-. switch sbyte, byte, short, ushort, int, uint, long, ulong, char, string
_, switch.
(6.4) switch : sbyte, byte, short, ushort, int, uint,
long, ulong, char, string.
, .
case ,
(6.1) switch.
, case switch
.
switch default.
switch .
switch-, .
, case switch,
switch-, , case.
, case switch,
switch- default,
, default.
, case switch,
switch- default ,
switch.
switch ,
. .
251
switch (i) {
case 0:
CaseZero();
break;
case 1:
CaseOne();
break;
default:
CaseOthers();
break;
}
, switch .
C C++, switch switch,

switch (i) {
case 0:
CaseZero();
case 1:
CaseZeroOrOne();
default:
CaseAny();
}
. switch
switch, goto case goto
default:
switch (i) {
case 0:
CaseZero();
goto case 1;
case 1:
CaseZeroOrOne();
goto default;
default:
CaseAny();
break;
}
_switch . :
switch (i) {
case 0:
CaseZero();
break;
case 1:
CaseOne();
break;
case 2:
default:
CaseTwo();
break;
}
, case 2:
default: _switch.

C C++, break. ,
252
switch switch
. , switch
, :
switch (i) {
default:
CaseAny();
break;
case 1:
CaseZeroOrOne();
goto default;
case 0:
CaseZero();
goto case 1;
}
switch break, goto case goto default,

,
. , while, true,
. throw return
, .
:
switch (i) {
case 0:
while (true) F();
case 1:
throw new ArgumentException();
case 2:
return;
}
switch string. :
void DoCommand(string command) {
switch (command.ToLower()) {
case "run":
DoRun();
break;
case "save":
DoSave();
break;
case "quit":
DoQuit();
break;
default:
InvalidCommand(command);
break;
}
}
(7.9.7), switch
switch , switch-
case.
switch string, case
null.
_ _switch (8.5).
, switch, switch.
253
, ,
switch (7.5.2.1).
switch , switch
.
switch- .
switch- , case
switch.
switch- , case,
switch default.
switch switch goto case goto default.
switch ,
.
switch break,
switch.
switch , switch-
default .
switch , switch- ,
case, default .
8.8
.
_:
_while
_do
_for
_foreach
8.8.1 while
while (, )
.
_while:
while ( _ ) _
while .
_ (7.19).
true,
. (,
continue), while.
false,
while.
while break (8.9.1)

while (. .
), continue (8.9.2)
( while).
254
while , while
false.
while ,
.
while break, while.
while
true.
8.8.2 do
do
.
_do:
do _ while ( _ ) ;
do .
(,
continue), _ (7.19).
true, do.
do.
do break (8.9.1)
do (. . ),
continue (8.9.2) .
do , do .
do ,
.
do break, do.

true.
8.8.3 for
for ,
,
.
_for:
for ( _for ; _for ; _for )
_
_for:
__
__
_for:
_
_for:
__
255
__:
_
__ , _
_for ( ) __ (8.5.1)
_ (8.6), . ,
_for, __
. _for _for.
_for ( ) _ (7.19).
_for ( ) _ (8.6), .
for .
_for,
. .
_for, .
_for true,
.
(, continue),
_for ( ),
, _for (. ).
_for false,
for.
for break (8.9.1)

for (. . ),
continue (8.9.2) (
_for for, _for).
for ,
.
for _for .
for , _for false.
for ,
.
for break, for.
for , _for true.
8.8.4 foreach
foreach ,
.
_foreach:
foreach ( __ in )
_
foreach .
__ var, ,
, foreach,
. ,
. foreach
256
,
. (
++ --) ref out,
.
foreach ,
. .
X ,
X System.Collections.IEnumerable ( System.Array
). System.Collections.IEnumerable,
System.Collections.IEnumerator,
X.
, X
GetEnumerator.
o
X GetEnumerator
. , ,
, ,
, . ,
-, .

.
, ,
,
, . ,
-,
.
E GetEnumerator ,
, , .
E Current
. , -,
, , ,
.
E MoveNext
. , -,
, , .

. ,
,
, bool,
, .
X, E,
Current.
T, X
System.Collections.Generic.IEnumerable<T>,
,
System.Collections.Generic.IEnumerator<T>, T.
257
T , , .
X System.Collections.IEnumerable,
,
System.Collections.IEnumerator, object.
, .
, :
C, E T. foreach,
foreach (V v in x) _
:
{
E e = ((C)(x)).GetEnumerator();
try {
V v;
while (e.MoveNext()) {
v = (V)(T)e.Current;
_
}
}
finally {
// e
}
}
e x,
. v .
(6.2) T ( ) V ( foreach),
, . x null,
System.NullReferenceException.
foreach ,
(, ), ,
.
finally .
E System.IDisposable,
finally , :
finally {
((System.IDisposable)e).Dispose();
}
, e ,
; e
System.IDisposable .
E , finally :
finally {
}
finally :
finally {
System.IDisposable d = e as System.IDisposable;
258
2
if (d != null) d.Dispose();
}
d . ,
, finally.
foreach .
, 0 Length 1.

,
.
:
using System;
class Test
{
double[,] values = {
{1.2, 2.3, 3.4, 4.5},
{5.6, 6.7, 7.8, 8.9}
};
foreach (double elementValue in values)
Console.Write("{0} ", elementValue);
Console.WriteLine();
}
}
:
1.2 2.3 3.4 4.5 5.6 6.7 7.8 8.9

int[] numbers = { 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 };
foreach (var n in numbers) Console.WriteLine(n);
n int numbers.
8.9
.
_:
_break
_continue
_goto
_return
_throw
, , .
, , ,
. ,
.
try.
try .
try .
try,
finally, finally
259
try. finally,
finally try. ,
finally try.

using System;
class Test
{
while (true) {
try {
try {
Console.WriteLine("Before break");
break;
}
finally {
Console.WriteLine("Innermost finally block");
}
}
finally {
Console.WriteLine("Outermost finally block");
}
}
Console.WriteLine("After break");
}
}
finally,
try.
:
Before break
Innermost finally block
Outermost finally block
After break
8.9.1 break
break switch, while, do, for
foreach.
_break:
break ;
break switch, while, do,

for foreach. break switch, while, do, for
foreach, .
switch, while, do, for foreach , break
.
goto (8.9.3).
break finally (8.10). break
finally, break finally,
.
break .
260
break try,
finally, finally
try. finally,
finally try.
, finally try.
break.
break ,
break .
8.9.2 continue
continue while, do, for
foreach.
_continue:
continue ;
continue
while, do, for foreach. continue
while, do, for foreach, .
while, do, for foreach , continue
.
goto (8.9.3).
continue finally (8.10). continue
finally, continue finally,
.
continue .
continue try,
finally, finally
try. finally,
finally try.
, finally
try.
continue.
continue ,
continue .
8.9.3 goto
goto , .
_goto:
goto ;
goto case _ ;
goto default ;
goto .
- goto
, .
goto ,
.
using System;
261
class Test
{
string[,] table = {
{"Red", "Blue", "Green"},
{"Monday", "Wednesday", "Friday"}
};
foreach (string str in args) {
int row, colm;
for (row = 0; row <= 1; ++row)
for (colm = 0; colm <= 2; ++colm)
if (str == table[row,colm])
goto done;
Console.WriteLine("{0} not found", str);
continue;
done:
Console.WriteLine("Found {0} at [{1}][{2}]", str, row, colm);
}
}
}
goto .
goto case
switch (8.7.2), case . goto
case switch, _
(6.1) switch,
switch case
, .
goto default
switch (8.7.2), default. goto default
switch, switch default,
.
goto finally (8.10). goto
finally, goto finally,
.
goto .
goto try,
finally, finally
try. finally,
finally try.
, finally try.
goto.
goto ,
goto .
8.9.4 return
return , -,
return.
_return:
return ;
262
return -,
, . . void, set
, add remove , ,
.
return -, ,
. . , void, get
, .
(6.1) -,
.
return finally (8.10) .
return .
return , ,
-,
. ,
.
return try,
finally, finally try.
finally,
finally try. ,
finally try.
-, .
return ,
return .
8.9.5 throw
throw .
_throw:
throw ;
throw , .
System.Exception, ,
System.Exception, ,
System.Exception ( ). null,
throw catch;
, catch.
throw ,
throw .
catch
try, . ,
,
.
catch, .
.
- try, .
S, try
try, .
263
try S S
catch, catch
. catch,
, .
catch (8.10) .
catch ,
catch.
, try catch S
S finally, finally. finally
, .
, finally,
.
-,
. , -,
, -.
-
, , ,
. .
8.10 try
try , .
, try ,
try.
_try:
try _catch
try _finally
try _catch _finally
_catch:
__catch __catch
__catch __catch
__catch:
__catch
__catch __catch
__catch:
catch ( _ )
__catch:
catch
_finally:
finally
try:
try, catch;
try, finally;
try, catch finally.
catch _, System.Exception,
System.Exception ,
System.Exception ( ).
264
catch _, ,
.
, catch. catch
.
,
.
catch ,
catch.
catch, , ,
catch. try
catch, , catch.
,
, System.Exception,
C#. catch . ,
catch
System.Exception ,
.
catch
. catch , catch
try ( ), .
catch.
catch throw (8.9.5)
, catch.
.

using System;
class Test
{
static void F() {
try {
G();
}
Console.WriteLine("Exception in F: " + e.Message);
e = new Exception("F");
throw;
// re-throw
}
}
static void G() {
throw new Exception("G");
}
try {
F();
}
Console.WriteLine("Exception in Main: " + e.Message);
}
}
}
265
F , ,
.
, :
Exception in F: G
Exception in Main: G
catch e ,
:
Exception in F: G
Exception in Main: F
break, continue goto finally

. break, continue goto finally,
finally, .
, return finally.
try .
try.
try, :
o
try finally, finally;
try.
try try,
.
o
catch, ,
. catch,
, .
catch . catch
, :
catch ,
;
catch;
catch:
try;
catch try:
o
try.
try catch catch

, :
try.
finally try.
, ,
266
break, continue, goto return,

try.
finally ,
finally, try.
, .
throw (8.9.5).
try try , try.
catch try , try.
finally try , try.
try , :
try catch;
finally, .
8.11 checked unchecked

checked unchecked
.
_checked:
checked
_unchecked:
unchecked
checked ,
unchecked .
checked unchecked checked
unchecked (7.5.12), , .
8.12 lock
lock ,
.
_lock:
lock ( ) _
lock ,
_. lock
(6.1.7); ,
_, .
lock :
lock (x) ...
x _,
System.Threading.Monitor.Enter(x);
try {
...
}
finally {
System.Threading.Monitor.Exit(x);
}
267
, x .
, ,
. , ,
, .
System.Type
. , .

. :
class Cache
{
private static object synchronizationObject = new object();
public static void Add(object x) {
lock (Cache.synchronizationObject) {
...
}
}
public static void Remove(object x) {
lock (Cache.synchronizationObject) {
...
}
}
}
8.13 using
using ,
.
_using:
using ( _ ) _
_:
__
, System.IDisposable,
Dispose. , ,
Dispose, , . Dispose,
.
_ __,
__ System.IDisposable ,
System.IDisposable. _ ,
System.IDisposable ,
System.IDisposable.
, _,
.
( ++ --),
ref out, .
using : , .
try finally.
finally . null, Dispose
.
268
using
using (ResourceType resource = expression) statement
. ResourceType ,
:
{
ResourceType resource = expression;
try {
statement;
}
finally {
((IDisposable)resource).Dispose();
}
}
ResourceType , :
{
ResourceType resource = expression;
try {
statement;
}
finally {
if (resource != null) ((IDisposable)resource).Dispose();
}
}
resource .
using
using (expression) statement
, ResourceType
expression, , resource
.
_ __,
. using
using (ResourceType r1 = e1, r2 = e2, ..., rN = eN) statement
using:
using (ResourceType r1 = e1)
using (ResourceType r2 = e2)
...
using (ResourceType rN = eN)
statement
log.txt .
, .
using System;
using System.IO;
269
class Test
{
using (TextWriter w = File.CreateText("log.txt")) {
w.WriteLine("This is line one");
w.WriteLine("This is line two");
}
using (TextReader r = File.OpenText("log.txt")) {
string s;
while ((s = r.ReadLine()) != null) {
}
}
}
TextWriter TextReader IDisposable,

using ,
.
8.14 yield
yield (8.2)
(10.14.4) (10.14.5),
.
_yield:
yield return ;
yield break ;
yield ; ,
return break. yield
.
yield .
yield ( ) _, _
__ .
yield ( )
.
yield ( ) finally try

.
yield return try,

catch, .

yield.
delegate IEnumerable<int> D();
270
2
IEnumerator<int> GetEnumerator() {
try {
yield return 1;
//
yield break;
//
}
finally {
yield return 2;
// , yield finally
yield break;
// , yield finally
}
try {
yield
yield
}
catch {
yield
yield
}
return 3;
break;
// , yield return try...catch

//
return 4;
break;
// , yield return try...catch

//
D d = delegate {
yield return 5;
};
// , yield
}
int MyMethod() {
yield return 1;

}
// ,
(6.1) yield return

(10.14.3).
yield return .
, ,
Current .
. yield return
try, finally .
MoveNext true ,
.
MoveNext
, .
yield break .
yield break try,

finally, finally
try. finally,
finally try.
, finally try.
, . MoveNext,
Dispose .
yield ,
yield .
271
9.
C# .
,
, .
using (9.4) .
9.1
_ . 0
_using, 0 _,
0 ___.
_:
_extern_alias _using _
___
C# ,
. C#
. , ,
.
_using _
___ ,
.
_ (17)
. .
.
___
, . :
A.cs:
class A {}
B.cs:
class B {}
,
A B.
, ,
.
9.2
__ namespace,
, ().
__:
namespace _ __ ;
272
_:
_ .
__:
{ _extern_alias _using
___ }
__ _
__.
__ _,
.
__ __,
.
.
( public);
.
__ _using
, ,
. ___
. ,
_using.
_ __
, ..

. :
namespace N1.N2
{
class A {}
}
class B {}

namespace N1
{
namespace N2
{
class A {}
class B {}
}
}
,
(3.3).
namespace N1.N2
{
class A {}
}
namespace N1.N2
{
class B {}
}
273
,
N1.N2.A N1.N2.B.
, ,
.
9.3
_extern_alias , .

.
_extern_alias:
_extern_alias
_extern_alias _extern_alias
_extern_alias:
extern alias ;
_extern_alias _using, _
___
.
, _extern_alias,
, _extern_alias,
. global,
.
_extern_alias
, . ,
_extern_alias ,
, .
, X Y,
:
extern alias X;
extern alias Y;
class Test
{
X::N.A a;
X::N.B b1;
Y::N.B b2;
Y::N.C c;
}
X Y,
. N.B
X.N.B Y.N.B,
X::N.B Y::N.B. ,
, .
9.4 using
using ,
. using
____ (3.8) _ (7.5.2), , ,
using
, .
274
_using:
_using
_using _using
_using:
_using_alias
_using_namespace
_using_alias (9.4.1) .
_using_namespace (9.4.2) .
_using ___
.
_using _using. ,
_using , .
9.4.1 using alias
_using_alias ,
.
_using_alias:
using = ____ ;
,
_using_alias, , _using_alias,
. :
namespace N1.N2
{
class A {}
}
namespace N3
{
using A = N1.N2.A;
}
class B: A {}
N3, A
N1.N2.A, N3.B N1.N2.A.
, R N1.N2 R.A:
namespace N3
{
using R = N1.N2;
}
class B: R.A {}
_using_alias
, _using_alias.
:
namespace N3
{
class A {}
}
275
namespace N3
{
using A = N1.N2.A;
}
// : A
N3 A,
_using_alias . ,
, _using_alias
.
_using_alias
, . ,
_using_alias ,
, .
namespace N3
{
using R = N1.N2;
}
namespace N3
{
class B: R.A {}
}
// : R
_using_alias, R,
, , R
. _using_alias ,
:
using R = N1.N2;
namespace N3
{
class B: R.A {}
}
namespace N3
{
class C: R.A {}
}
, , _using_alias,
.
using R = N1.N2;
namespace N3
{
class R {}
class B: R.A {}
// : R A
R.A B , R N3.R,
N1.N2.
, _using_alias, ,
____, _using_alias,
_using_alias, _using
. , ____ _extern_alias
,
276
_using. _using_alias _extern_alias

.
namespace N1.N2 {}
namespace N3
{
extern alias E;
using R1 = E.N;
//
using R2 = N1;
//
using R3 = N1.N2;
//
using R4 = R2.N2;
// : R2
_using_alias ,
_using_alias. _using_alias ,
E _using_alias.
_using_alias ,
, , ,
.
,
. , :
namespace N1.N2
{
class A {}
}
namespace N3
{
using R1 = N1;
using R2 = N1.N2;
class B
{
N1.N2.A a;
R1.N2.A b;
R2.A c;
}
// N1.N2.A
// N1.N2.A
// N1.N2.A
N1.N2.A, R1.N2.A R2.A ,

N1.N2.A.
,
, . :
namespace N1
{
class A<T>
{
class B {}
}
}
namespace N2
{
using W = N1.A;
// :
277
using X = N1.A.B;
// :
using Y = N1.A<int>;
// ,
using Z<T> = N1.A<T>; // : using

}
9.4.2 using namespace

_using_namespace , ,
,
.
_using_namespace:
using __ ;
,
_using_namespace, .
:
namespace N1.N2
{
class A {}
}
namespace N3
{
using N1.N2;
}
class B: A {}
N3 N1.N2
, N3.B N1.N2.A.
_using_namespace , ,
.
namespace N1.N2
{
class A {}
}
namespace N3
{
using N1;
class B: N2.A {}
// : N2
_using_namespace , N1, ,
N1. , N2.A B
, N2.
_using_alias, _using_namespace ,

. , , _using_namespace,
.
:
namespace N1.N2
{
class A {}
278
2
class B {}
}
namespace N3
{
using N1.N2;
}
class A {}
N3, A N3.A,
N1.N2.A.
, _using_namespace
, ,
.
namespace N1
{
class A {}
}
namespace N2
{
class A {}
}
namespace N3
{
using N1;
using N2;
class B: A {}
// : A
}
N1 N2 A, N3 , A N3
. A,
_using_alias, A. :
namespace N3
{
using N1;
using N2;
using A = N1.A;
class B: A {}
// A N1.A
_using_alias, _using_namespace
,
, .
__, _using_namespace,
, ____, _using_alias.
, _using_namespace
.
9.5
___ __ (9.2),
_ (9.6).
279
___:
___
___ ___
___:
__
_

___,
.
9.6
_ _ (10.1), _ (11.1),
_ (13.1), __ (14.1) _
(15.1).
_:
_
_
_
__
_
_
, .
T ,
T. T
, , N.T, N
, .
, , (10.3.8).
,
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280
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281
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282
10. Classes
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284
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285
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286
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287
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288
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289
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interface IPrintable
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290
2
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where S: T
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where S: T
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...
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// , T
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where S: A, T
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291
T ,
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x.Print();
}
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IPrintable x, T
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10.1.6 .
_ .
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292
10.2 .
.
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:
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class A {}
.
10.2.2 .
( public,
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.
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new,
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abstract,
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293
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unsafe
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10.2.5 .
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294
2
partial class C: IA, IB {...}
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partial class X
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partial class A
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10.2.7 .
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295
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296
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(, ).
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partial class Customer
{
string name;
public string Name {
get { return name; }
set {
OnNameChanging(value);
name = value;
OnNameChanged();
}
}
partial void OnNameChanging(string newName);
}
partial void OnNameChanged();
- ,
,
.
class Customer
{
string name;
set { name = value; }
, ,
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partial class Customer

{
partial void OnNameChanging(string newName)
{
Console.WriteLine( + name + + newName);
}
297
partial void OnNameChanged()

{
Console.WriteLine( + name);
}
}
:
class Customer
{
string name;
set {
OnNameChanging(value);
name = value;
OnNameChanged();
}
}
void OnNameChanging(string newName)
{
Console.WriteLine( + name + + newName);
}
void OnNameChanged()
{
Console.WriteLine( + name);
}
10.2.8 .
,
, .
using (9.4).
(7.5.2) using
, .
.
namespace N
{
using List = System.Collections.ArrayList;
partial class A
{
List x;
}
// x System.Collections.ArrayList
namespace N
{
using List = Widgets.LinkedList;
}
298
partial class A
{
List y;
}
// y Widgets.LinkedList
10.3 .
, __ ,
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(10.12)
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, , .
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_,
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299
,
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class A<T>
{
class B {}
}
// : A<T>
// : A<T>.B
class C {}
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// : A<T>.C
// : D
10.3.2 .

.

.
,
class Gen<T,U>
{
public T[,] a;
public void G(int i, T t, Gen<U,T> gt) {...}
300
2
public U Prop { get {...} set {...} }
}
public int H(double d) {...}
Gen<int[],IComparable<string>>
public int[,][] a;
public void G(int i, int[] t, Gen<IComparable<string>,int[]> gt) {...}
public IComparable<string> Prop { get {...} set {...} }
public int H(double d) {...}
a Gen T,
a int,
int[,][].
this (10.3.1)
.

.
(4.4.2) ,
, . :
class C<V>
{
public V f1;
public C<V> f2 = null;
public C(V x) {
this.f1 = x;
this.f2 = this;
}
}
class Application
{
C<int> x1 = new C<int>(1);
Console.WriteLine(x1.f1);
// 1
C<double> x2 = new C<double>(3.1415);

Console.WriteLine(x2.f1);
// 3.1415
}
10.3.3 .
. ,
, ,
.
.
. C B, B A, C
, B, , A.
.
, .
, ,
, , (3.5). ,
301
,
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class B
{
public U F(long index) {...}
}
class D<T>: B<T[]>
{
public T G(string s) {...}
}
D<int> public int

G(string s), int T. D<int>
B.
B<int[]> D<int> int T
B<T[]>. B int[] U
public U F(long index), public int[] F(long index).
10.3.4 new.
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new ,
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new , ,
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new.
10.3.5 .
__
(3.5.1): public, protected internal, protected, internal private. protected
internal, .
302
__ - ,
private.
10.3.6 .
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10.3.7 .
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M _ (7.5.4) E.M, E
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(7.5.7).
:
class Test
{
int x;
static int y;
void F() {
x = 1;
y = 1;
}
// O, this.x = 1
// O, Test.y = 1
static void G() {

x = 1;
// , this.x
y = 1;
// O, Test.y = 1
}
303

Test t = new Test();
t.x = 1;
// O
t.y = 1;
// ,
Test.x = 1;
// ,
Test.y = 1;
// O
}
}
F , _ (7.5.2)
. G ,
_ .
Main , _ (7.5.4) ,
.
10.3.8 .
, , . ,
, .
:
using System;
class A
{
class B
{
static void F() {
Console.WriteLine("A.B.F");
}
}
}
B , A, A
, .
.
(3.8.1) S.N, S ,
N.

public internal,
internal. ,
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private;
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private.
304
2
public class List
{
//
private class Node
{
public object Data;
public Node Next;
public Node(object data, Node next) {
this.Data = data;
this.Next = next;
}
}
private Node first = null;
private Node last = null;
//
public void AddToFront(object o) {...}
public void AddToBack(object o) {...}
public object RemoveFromFront() {...}
public object RemoveFromBack() {...}
}
public int Count { get {...} }
Node.
(3.7.1) .
new, .
using System;
class Base
{
public static void M() {
Console.WriteLine("Base.M");
}
}
class Derived: Base
{
new public class M
{
public static void F() {
Console.WriteLine("Derived.M.F");
}
}
}
class Test
{
Derived.M.F();
}
}
M, M, Base.
305
this
- _this (7.5.7). ,
this -.
-,
this -
.
using System;
class C
{
int i = 123;
public void F() {
Nested n = new Nested(this);
n.G();
}
public class Nested
{
C this_c;
public Nested(C c) {
this_c = c;
}
public void G() {
Console.WriteLine(this_c.i);
}
}
class Test
{
C c = new C();
c.F();
}
}
. C Nested this
Nested, C.
-
, -,
- private protected.
using System;
class C
{
private static void F() {
Console.WriteLine("C.F");
}
306
public class Nested

{
public static void G() {
F();
}
}
class Test
{
C.Nested.G();
}
}
C, Nested. Nested G
F, C, F .
,
-.
using System;
class Base
{
protected void F() {
Console.WriteLine("Base.F");
}
}
class Derived: Base
{
public class Nested
{
public void G() {
Derived d = new Derived();
d.F();
//
}
}
}
class Test
{
Derived.Nested n = new Derived.Nested();
n.G();
}
}
Derived.Nested F, Base,
Derived, Derived.

.
.
, .
, ,
. , ,
-, .
307
;
.
, Inner;
:
class Outer<T>
{
class Inner
{
public static void F(T t, U u) {...}
}
static void F(T t) {
Outer<T>.Inner<string>.F(t, "abc");
Inner<string>.F(t, "abc");
//
//
Outer<int>.Inner<string>.F(3, "abc"); //
Outer.Inner<string>.F(t, "abc");
// , Outer
}
}
,
, :
class Outer<T>
{
class Inner<T>
{
public T t;
}
}
// , T Outer
// T Inner
10.3.9
C#
, , ,
, .
, ,
,
.
, .
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:

C#;
,
C#;
, , ,
,
C#.
(10.13) (10.3.9.1).
308
,
P (10.7) T :
T get_P();
void set_P(T value);
, .

using System;
class A
{
public int P {
get { return 123; }
}
}
class B: A
{
new public int get_P() {
return 456;
}
new public void set_P(int value) {

}
class Test
{
B b = new B();
A a = b;
Console.WriteLine(a.P);
Console.WriteLine(b.P);
Console.WriteLine(b.get_P());
}
}
A P , get_P
set_P. B A .
:
123
123
456
,
E (10.8) T :
void add_E(T handler);
void remove_E(T handler);
,
(10.9) T L :
T get_Item(L);
void set_Item(L, T value);
, .
309
,
, (10.13), :
void Finalize();
10.4
, : ,
. _
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_:
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(7.5.4).
_. ,
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case, goto case, enum,
.
7.18, _ ,
. null
_, string, new, new
310
, ,
string, null.
,
,
_, readonly (10.5.2).
, ,
, .
class A
{
public const double X = 1.0, Y = 2.0, Z = 3.0;
}
class A
{
public const double X = 1.0;
public const double Y = 2.0;
public const double Z = 3.0;
}
,
.
.
class A
{
public const int X = B.Z + 1;
public const int Y = 10;
}
class B
{
public const int Z = A.Y + 1;
}
A.Y, B.Z A.X, 10, 11 12.

,
. : A B ,
A.X B.Z, B.Z A.Y.
10.5
, , . _
.
_:
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_:
_
_ _
311
_:
new
public
protected
internal
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readonly
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(7.5.9)
(7.6.5).
, ,
, .
class A
{
public static int X = 1, Y, Z = 100;
}
class A
{
public static int X = 1;
public static int Y;
public static int Z = 100;
}
312
10.5.1
static, , ,
. static,
. (5),
C#, ,
.
,
(4.4.2). , ,
.
.
class C<V>
{
static int count = 0;
public C() {
count++;
}
public static int Count {
}
}
class Application
{
C<int> x1 = new C<int>();
Console.WriteLine(C<int>.Count);
// 1
C<double> x2 = new C<double>();

// 1
C<int> x3 = new C<int>();

// 2
. ,
.
__ (7.5.4) E.M, M ,
E , M, M , E
, M.
10.3.7.
10.5.2
_ readonly, , ,
.
, ,
. ( .)
, readonly :
_, (
_);
313
, ;
, .
, readonly
out ref.
readonly out ref

.

static readonly , ,
const,
.
public class Color
{
Color
Color
Color
Color
Color
Black = new Color(0, 0, 0);

White = new Color(255, 255, 255);
Red = new Color(255, 0, 0);
Green = new Color(0, 255, 0);
Blue = new Color(0, 0, 255);
private byte red, green, blue;

public Color(byte r, byte g, byte b) {
red = r;
green = g;
blue = b;
}
}
Black, White, Red, Green Blue const,

. static readonly
.

.
, ,
,
. , :
using System;
namespace Program1
{
public class Utils
{
public static readonly int X = 1;
}
}
namespace Program2
{
class Test
{
Console.WriteLine(Program1.Utils.X);
}
}
}
314
Program1 Program2 , .
Program1.Utils.X ,
Console.WriteLine , .
, X Program1 , Console.WriteLine
, Program2 . X , X
Program2 Program1
Program2.
10.5.3 volatile
_ volatile, , ,
c volatile.
, , -volatile
,
, _ (8.12).
, . volatile
:
volatile volatile. volatile ,

, ,
;
volatile volatile. volatile

, , ,
.
, volatile,
, , .
volatile,
. volatile :
_;
byte, sbyte, short, ushort, int, uint, char, float, bool, System.IntPtr System.UintPtr;
_, byte, sbyte, short, ushort, int uint.
using System;
using System.Threading;
class Test
{
public static int result;
public static volatile bool finished;
static void Thread2() {
result = 143;
finished = true;
}
finished = false;
// Thread2()
new Thread(new ThreadStart(Thread2)).Start();
315
// , Thread2 result
// finished true.
for (;;) {
if (finished) {
Console.WriteLine("result = {0}", result);
return;
}
}
:
result = 143
Main , Thread2.
-volatile result, true volatile finished.
, finished true, result.
finished volatile, 143 result.
finished volatile, result
finished, 0 result.
finished volatile .
10.5.4
, , ,
(5.2) . ,
.
using System;
class Test
{
static bool b;
int i;

Console.WriteLine("b = {0}, i = {1}", b, t.i);
}

b = False, i = 0
b, i .
10.5.5
_.
,
.
, .
using System;
316
2
class Test
{
static double x = Math.Sqrt(2.0);
int i = 100;
string s = "Hello";
Test a = new Test();
Console.WriteLine("x = {0}, i = {1}, s = {2}", x, a.i, a.s);
}
}

x = 1.4142135623731, i = 100, s = Hello
x ,
i s .
, 10.5.4, , ,
. , ,
,
. , ,
,
.

. .
using System;
class Test
{
static int a = b + 1;
static int b = a + 1;

Console.WriteLine("a = {0}, b = {1}", a, b);
}
. a b, .

a = 1, b = 2
a b 0 ( int)
. a, b ,
a 1. b, a 1,
b 2.

, , .
(10.12),
.

.
using System;
317
class Test
{
Console.WriteLine("{0} {1}", B.Y, A.X);
}
public static int F(string s) {

return 1;
}
class A
{
public static int X = Test.F("Init A");
}
class B
{
public static int Y = Test.F("Init B");
}
:
Init A
Init B
11
:
Init B
Init A
11
X Y ;
. :
using System;
class Test
{
Console.WriteLine("{0} {1}", B.Y, A.X);
}
public static int F(string s) {

return 1;
}
class A
{
static A() {}
}
public static int X = Test.F("Init A");
class B
{
static B() {}
public static int Y = Test.F("Init B");
}
318
:
Init B
Init A
11
( 10.12) ,
B ( B)
A.

,
(10.11.1) . ,
.
10.11.
.
, this ,
_, .
class A
{
int x = 1;
int y = x + 1;
}
// , this
y ,
.
10.6
, ,
. _:
_:
_ _
_:
_ partial __
_ __
( __ )
___
_:
_
_ _
319
_:
new
public
protected
internal
private
static
virtual
sealed
override
abstract
extern
__:
void
_:
_ .
_:
_ (17)
(10.3.5), new (10.3.4), static (10.6.2), virtual (10.6.3),
override (10.6.4), sealed (10.6.5), abstract (10.6.6) extern (10.6.7).
, :
(10.3.5);
: static, virtual override;
: new override;
abstract,
: static, virtual, sealed extern;
private,
: virtual, override abstract;
sealed,
override;
partial,
: new, public, protected, internal, private, virtual, sealed, override, abstract
extern.
__ ,
. , __
void. partial, void.
_ .
(13.4.1), _ . _
_, . .
320
__ (10.1.3).
, .
extern, __ .
__ (10.6.1).
___
(10.1.5)
__, override.
__ __
, (3.5.4).
abstract extern _ . partial
_ , .
_ , .
, (3.6)
. , , ,
. ,
, ,
.
, .
-, .
, ,
, , , ,
ref out.
_ _
__, _
___, .
.
10.6.1
, , __ .
__:
_
_ , _
_
_:
_
_ , _
_:
_
_:
ref
out
this
_:
params _
, ,
_.
321
_ (17),
ref, out this, . _
. this
.
10.6.9.
_ (17), params,
_ .
. _
(12.1).
, .
10.6.1.4.
,
.
, .
.

.
(7.5.5.1)
,
.
_ (7.5.2).
:
, ;
, ref;
, out;
, params.
3.6, ref out , params

.

, , .
,
, .
,
, (6.1) .
.
,
, .

, ref, .
, .
, ,
.
,
ref, __ (5.3.3)
322
, . ,
.
.
, (10.14), .
using System;
class Test
{
static void Swap(ref int x, ref int y) {
int temp = x;
x = y;
y = temp;
}

int i = 1, j = 2;
Swap(ref i, ref j);
Console.WriteLine("i = {0}, j = {1}", i, j);
}

i = 2, j = 1
Swap Main x i, y j. ,
i j.
, ,
.
class A
{
string s;
void F(ref string a, ref string b) {
s = "One";
a = "Two";
b = "Three";
}
void G() {
F(ref s, ref s);
}
F G s a, b. , s, a b
, s.

, out, .
, .
, ,
.
,
out, __
(5.3.3) , .
323
, , ,
,
.
, , ,
, .
.
, (10.2.7) (10.14),
.
, .
.
using System;
class Test
{
static void SplitPath(string path, out string dir, out string name) {
int i = path.Length;
while (i > 0) {
char ch = path[i 1];
if (ch == '\\' || ch == '/' || ch == ':') break;
i--;
}
dir = path.Substring(0, i);
name = path.Substring(i);
}
string dir, name;
SplitPath("c:\\Windows\\System\\hello.txt", out dir, out name);
Console.WriteLine(dir);
Console.WriteLine(name);
}
}
:
c:\Windows\System\
hello.txt
, dir name
SplitPath, .

, params, .
,
. , string[] string[][]
, string[,] . params
ref out.
:
, , ,
(6.1) .
, ;
,
, (6.1)
324
. ,
,

.
,
(10.6.1.1) .
using System;
class Test
{
static void F(params int[] args) {
Console.Write(" {0} :", args.Length);
foreach (int i in args)
Console.Write(" {0}", i);
}

int[] arr = {1, 2, 3};
F(arr);
F(10, 20, 30, 40);
F();
}

3 : 1 2 3
4 : 10 20 30 40
0 :
F a . F
int[]
. , F
int[] .
:
F(new int[] {10, 20, 30, 40});
F(new int[] {});

, (7.4.3.1).
, ,
.
using System;
class Test
{
static void F(params object[] a) {
Console.WriteLine("F(object[])");
}
static void F() {

Console.WriteLine("F()");
}
325
static void F(object a0, object a1) {

Console.WriteLine("F(object,object)");
}
F();
F(1);
F(1, 2);
F(1, 2, 3);
F(1, 2, 3, 4);
}
}

F();
F(object[]);
F(object,object);
F(object[]);
F(object[]);

.
, .
,
.
, .
object[],
object.
, object[] object.

.

using System;
class Test
{
static void F(params object[] args) {
foreach (object o in args) {
Console.Write(o.GetType().FullName);
Console.Write(" ");
}
}
object[] a = {1, "", 123.456};
object o = a;
F(a);
F((object)a);
F(o);
F((object[])o);
}
}
326
2
System.Int32 System.String System.Double
System.Object[]
System.Object[]
System.Int32 System.String System.Double
F F,
( object[]). ,
F,
. F ,
( object
object[]).
F, .
object[], ,
( object[]).
10.6.2
static. static ,
.
.
this .
,
this (7.5.7).
__ (7.5.4) E.M M
E , M, M ,
M.
10.3.7.
10.6.3
virtual,
. virtual , .
,
, , .
, .

(10.6.4).
,
, .
. ,
N A , C
R ( R C C ),
.
C, N A M
, C. 7.5.5.1.
, M , M.
M ,
M R.
327
, ,
.
M R .
R virtual M,
M.
, R override M,
M.
M R
M R.
:
using System;
class A
{
public void F() { Console.WriteLine("A.F"); }
public virtual void G() { Console.WriteLine("A.G"); }
}
class B: A
{
new public void F() { Console.WriteLine("B.F"); }
}
public override void G() { Console.WriteLine("B.G"); }
class Test
{
B b = new B();
A a = b;
a.F();
b.F();
a.G();
b.G();
}
}
A F G. B
F, F,
G. :
A.F
B.F
B.G
B.G
, a.G() B.G, A.G. ,

( B),
(A).
,
. ,
.
using System;
328
2
class A
{
public virtual void F() { Console.WriteLine("A.F"); }
}
class B: A
{
public override void F() { Console.WriteLine("B.F"); }
}
class C: B
{
new public virtual void F() { Console.WriteLine("C.F"); }
}
class D: C
{
public override void F() { Console.WriteLine("D.F"); }
}
class Test
{
D d = new D();
A a = d;
B b = d;
C c = d;
a.F();
b.F();
c.F();
d.F();
}
}
C D ,
A, C. , C, ,
A. , D ,
C. D ,
A. :
B.F
B.F
D.F
D.F
,
D , .
10.6.4
override,
.
. .
,
.
, override,
. M, C,
C .
C
. , ,
329
M, .
, public, protected,
protected internal internal , C.
,
.
(. ).
.
, ,
.
, .
,
.

. ,
. protected internal
, , ,
protected.
, .
.
:
abstract class C<T>
{
public virtual T F() {...}
public virtual C<T> G() {...}
}
public virtual void H(C<T> x) {...}
class D: C<string>
{
public override string F() {...}
//
public override C<string> G() {...}

public override void H(C<T> x) {...}
C<string>
}
class E<T,U>: C
{
public override U F() {...}
//
// .
//
public override C G() {...}
//
public override void H(C<T> x) {...}
// . C

_ (7.5.8).
330
2
class A
{
int x;
public virtual void PrintFields() {

Console.WriteLine("x = {0}", x);
}
class B: A
{
int y;
public override void PrintFields() {

base.PrintFields();
Console.WriteLine("y = {0}", y);
}
base.PrintFields() B PrintFields, A.
_ ,
. B ((A)this).PrintFields(),
PrintFields, B, A.
, PrintFields , ((A)this)
B.
override.
, ,
.
class A
{
public virtual void F() {}
}
class B: A
{
F()
}
// .
F B override , , F
A. F B A, ,
new.

class A
{
}
class B: A
{
new private void F() {}
}
class C: B
{
public override void F() {}
}
// A.F B
// . A.F
331
F B F, A.
F B private,
B C. , F C
, F A.
10.6.5
sealed,
. sealed,
override. sealed
.

using System;
class A
{
public virtual void F() {
}
public virtual void G() {
Console.WriteLine("A.G");
}
}
class B: A
{
sealed override public void F() {
Console.WriteLine("B.F");
}
override public void G() {

Console.WriteLine("B.G");
}
class C: B
{
override public void G() {
Console.WriteLine("C.G");
}
}
B : F sealed G
. sealed B
F C.
10.6.6
abstract,
. ,
virtual.
,
. ,
.
, __
.
332
(10.1.1.1).

public abstract class Shape
{
public abstract void Paint(Graphics g, Rectangle r);
}
public class Ellipse: Shape
{
public override void Paint(Graphics g, Rectangle r) {
g.DrawEllipse(r);
}
}
public class Box: Shape
{
g.DrawRect(r);
}
}
Shape
. Paint ,
. Ellipse Box Shape.
, Paint
.
_ (7.5.8)
.
abstract class A
{
}
class B: A
{
base.F();
}
}
// . base.F
base.F() ,
.
.
.
.
using System;
class A
{
public virtual void F() {
}
}
333
abstract class B: A
{
public abstract override void F();
}
class C: B
{
Console.WriteLine("C.F");
}
}
A , B .
C .
10.6.7
extern, .
, C#.
, __
. .
extern DllImport (17.5),
(DLL).
.
DllImport,
static. extern
DllImport:
using System.Text;
using System.Security.Permissions;
using System.Runtime.InteropServices;
class Path
{
[DllImport("kernel32", SetLastError=true)]
static extern bool CreateDirectory(string name, SecurityAttribute sa);
static extern bool RemoveDirectory(string name);
static extern int GetCurrentDirectory(int bufSize, StringBuilder buf);
static extern bool SetCurrentDirectory(string name);
10.6.8
partial, .
(10.2).
.
. 10.2.7.
10.6.9
this,
. ,
.
this .
334
, :
public static class Extensions
{
public static int ToInt32(this string s) {
return Int32.Parse(s);
}
public static T[] Slice<T>(this T[] source, int index, int count) {
if (index < 0 || count < 0 || source.Length index < count)
T[] result = new T[count];
Array.Copy(source, index, result, 0, count);
return result;
}
}
. ,

(7.5.5.2). .
:
static class Program
{
string[] strings = { "1", "22", "333", "4444" };
foreach (string s in strings.Slice(1, 2)) {
Console.WriteLine(s.ToInt32());
}
}
}
Slice string[], ToInt32 string,

. ,
:
static class Program
{
string[] strings = { "1", "22", "333", "4444" };
foreach (string s in Extensions.Slice(strings, 1, 2)) {
Console.WriteLine(Extensions.ToInt32(s));
}
}
}
10.6.10
_ .
,
. (8.2),
, .
, void,
return (8.9.4) . , void,
( ),
.
335
void, return
, .
, , . ,
, , .

class A
{
public int F() {}
// .
public int G() {

return 1;
}
public int H(bool b) {
if (b) {
return 1;
}
else {
return 0;
}
}
}
F, , ,
. G H ,
return,
.
10.6.11
7.4.2.
10.7
, .
: , , . .
. , ,
. ,
. , ,
. , ,
. ,
.
_:
_:
_ _
{ __ }
_:
_
_ _
336
_:
new
public
protected
internal
private
static
virtual
sealed
override
abstract
extern
_:
_ .
_ (17),

, (10.6).
. _ .
, _
. (13.4.1) _
_, . ( ).
, (3.5.4).
__ { }
(10.7.2) . ,
.
,
. ,
ref out.
extern, .
,
__ .
10.7.1
static, .
static , .
.
this .
,
this (7.5.7) .
__ (7.5.4) E.M
M E , M, M
, M.
10.3.7.
337
10.7.2
__ ,
.
__:
___get ___set
___set ___get
___get:
__ get __
___set:
__ set __
__:
protected
internal
private
protected internal
internal protected
__:
___get,
___set .
get set, __
__.
__ .
__
.
, override,
__ ,
(get set), .
, override,
__
.
__ ,
. :
o
public,
__.
protected internal,
__ internal, protected private.
internal protected,
__ private.
private,
__ .
abstract extern __
. , ,
. (get set),
338
(10.7.3). __ ,
, , ,
.
get ,
. ,
, get
(7.1.1). get
, 10.6.10. , return
get ,
. , get .
set void
, . set
value. (7.16)
++ -- (7.5.9, 7.6.5), set (
+
+ --), (7.16.1). set
void , 10.6.10. ,
return set . set
value,
.
get set
.
, (get set), .
, get, .

.
, set, .

.
.

public class Button: Control
{
private string caption;
public string Caption {
get {
return caption;
}
set {
if (caption != value) {
caption = value;
Repaint();
}
}
}

//
}
339
Button Caption. get Caption

, caption. set
, , , .
. get ,
, set ,
.
Caption Button:
Button okButton = new Button();
okButton.Caption = "";
// set
string s = okButton.Caption;
// get
set ,
get .
get set
.
.
class A
{
private string name;

}
// .

set { name = value; }
}
// .
.
, ,
. , , ,
.
,

.
class A
{
public int P {
set {...}
}
}
class B: A
{
new public int P {
get {...}
}
}
P B P A .
,
B b = new B();
b.P = 1;
// . B.P
((A)b).P = 1; // . A.P
340
b.P ,
P B P A. ,
P .

. :
class Label
{
private int x, y;
public Label(int x, int y, string caption) {
this.x = x;
this.y = y;
this.caption = caption;
}
public int X {
get { return x; }
}
public int Y {
get { return y; }
}
public Point Location {
get { return new Point(x, y); }
}

get { return caption; }
}
Label int (x y)
. X Y,
Location Point. Label
Point, ,
:
class Label
{
private Point location;
public Label(int x, int y, string caption) {
this.location = new Point(x, y);
this.caption = caption;
}
public int X {
get { return location.x; }
}
public int Y {
get { return location.y; }
}
public Point Location {

get { return location; }
}
341

get { return caption; }
}
}
x y public , Label
.
,
. ,
,
.
,
.
get ,
, get
.
class Counter
{
private int next;
public int Next {
get { return next++; }
}
}
Next . ,
,
.
get ,
get , .
get
.
get ,
.
,
. :
using System.IO;
public class Console
{
private static TextReader reader;
private static TextWriter writer;
private static TextWriter error;
public static TextReader In {
get {
if (reader == null) {
reader = new StreamReader(Console.OpenStandardInput());
}
return reader;
}
}
342
2
public static TextWriter Out {
get {
if (writer == null) {
writer = new StreamWriter(Console.OpenStandardOutput());
}
return writer;
}
}
public static TextWriter Error {

get {
if (error == null) {
error = new StreamWriter(Console.OpenStandardError());
}
return error;
}
}
Console (In, Out Error),

, .
Console .
, Out,
Console.Out.WriteLine("!");
TextWriter .
In Error, .
10.7.3
, ,
, .
:
public class Point {
public int X { get; set; } //
public int Y { get; set; } //
}
:
public class Point {
private int x;
private int y;
public int X { get { return x; } set { x = value; } }
public int Y { get { return y; } set { y = value; } }
}
,
. ,
.
. ,
:
public class ReadOnlyPoint {

public int X { get; private set; }
public int Y { get; private set; }
public ReadOnlyPoint(int x, int y) { X = x; Y = y; }
}
343
,
,
. ,
.
10.7.4
__, (3.5.2)
__.
__,
.
__ (7.3)
(7.4.3).
.

.
(7.1.1)
get.
(7.16.1)
set.
(7.16.2)
++ -- (7.5.9, 7.6.5)
(get set).
A.Text B.Text ,
set. , B.Count M,
A.Count.
class A
{
public string Text {
get { return "!"; }
set { }
}
public int Count {

get { return 5; }
set { }
}
class B: A
{
private string text = "!";
private int count = 0;
new public string Text {
get { return text; }
protected set { text = value; }
}
new protected int Count {
set { count = value; }
}
}
344
2
class M
{
B b = new B();
b.Count = 12;
// set A.Count
int i = b.Count;
// get A.Count
b.Text = " ?";
// . set B.Text
string s = b.Text;
// get B.Text
}
}
, ,
__.
, __:
public interface I
{
string Prop { get; }
}
public class C: I
{
public Prop {
get { return ""; }
//
internal set {...}
// , I.Prop
set
}
}
10.7.5 , ,
virtual , .
virtual .
.
abstract , ,
.
,
.
, __ .
, abstract override, ,
.
.
(10.1.1.1).
,
, override.
. .
.
,
, .
( ),
.
( ),
.
345
sealed.
.
.
, , ,
,
, . , ,
10.6.3, 10.6.4, 10.6.5 10.6.6,
.
get ,
, .
set void,
, , , .

abstract class A
{
int y;
public virtual int X {
get { return 0; }
}
public virtual int Y {
get { return y; }
set { y = value; }
}
}
public abstract int Z { get; set; }
X , Y , Z
. Z ,
A .
, A:
class B: A
{
int z;
public override int X {
get { return base.X + 1; }
}
public override int Y {
set { base.Y = value < 0? 0: value; }
}
public override int Z {

get { return z; }
set { z = value; }
}
X, Y Z
. , ,
. get X set
Y base .
Z . , B
346
, B
.
override,
. ,

. :
public class B
{
public virtual int P {
protected set {...}
get {...}
}
}
public class D: B
{
public override int P {
protected set {...}
get {...}
}
}
// protected
//
10.8
, .
.
_:
_:
_ event
;
_ event _
{ ___ }
_:
_
_ _
_:
new
public
protected
internal
private
static
virtual
sealed
override
abstract
extern
__ :
___add ___remove
___remove ___add
___add:
add
347
___remove:
remove
_ (17),

, (10.6).
_ (4.2) ,
(3.5.4).
___.
, , ,
(10.8.1).
.
, ___,
_.
, _.
_ abstract
___, .
extern, .
,
extern ___ .
+= -= (7.16.3).

. ,
.
+= -= ,
.
, .
x += y x -= y ( x ,
x) void ( x x
).
.
Button:
public delegate void EventHandler(object sender, EventArgs e);
{
public event EventHandler Click;
}
public class LoginDialog: Form
{
Button OkButton;
Button CancelButton;
348
2
public LoginDialog() {
OkButton = new Button(...);
OkButton.Click += new EventHandler(OkButtonClick);
CancelButton = new Button(...);
CancelButton.Click += new EventHandler(CancelButtonClick);
}
void OkButtonClick(object sender, EventArgs e) {
// OkButton.Click
}
void CancelButtonClick(object sender, EventArgs e) {

// CancelButton.Click
}
LoginDialog
Button Click.
10.8.1 ,
, ,
. abstract extern
____.
, . (15),
, .
, null.

public delegate void EventHandler(object sender, EventArgs e);
{
public event EventHandler Click;
protected void OnClick(EventArgs e) {
if (Click != null) Click(this, e);
}
public void Reset() {
Click = null;
}
}
Click Button. ,
, . OnClick Button
"" Click. ,
,
. , , null.
Button Click +=
=,
b.Click += new EventHandler();
Click,
b.Click = new EventHandler();
Click.
, ,
,
349
. ,
(8.12) (7.5.10.6)
.
, :
class X
{
public event D Ev;
}
, :
class X
{
private D __Ev; //
public event D Ev {
add {
lock(this) { __Ev = __Ev + value; }
}
remove {
lock(this) { __Ev = __Ev - value; }
}
}
X Ev __Ev. "__Ev"
; .
:
class X
{
public static event D Ev;
}
, :
class X
{
private static D __Ev; //
public static event D Ev {
add {
lock(typeof(X)) { __Ev = __Ev + value; }
}
remove {
lock(typeof(X)) { __Ev = __Ev - value; }
}
}
10.8.2
___,
Button. ,
.
____
.
350
____ ,
.
___add
___remove. add
remove, . , ___add,
, , ,
___remove, ,
.
___add ___remove
void.
value. ,
. ,
+=, add, -=,
remove.
. ___add
___remove void,
10.6.10. , return .
value,

.

class Control: Component
{
//
static readonly object mouseDownEventKey = new object();
static readonly object mouseUpEventKey = new object();
// ,
protected Delegate GetEventHandler(object key) {...}
// ,
protected void AddEventHandler(object key, Delegate handler) {...}
// ,
protected void RemoveEventHandler(object key, Delegate handler) {...}
// MouseDown
public event MouseEventHandler MouseDown {
add { AddEventHandler(mouseDownEventKey, value); }
remove { RemoveEventHandler(mouseDownEventKey, value); }
}
// MouseUp
public event MouseEventHandler MouseUp {
add { AddEventHandler(mouseUpEventKey, value); }
remove { RemoveEventHandler(mouseUpEventKey, value); }
}
// MouseUp
protected void OnMouseUp(MouseEventArgs args) {
MouseEventHandler handler;
handler = (MouseEventHandler)GetEventHandler(mouseUpEventKey);
if (handler != null)
handler(this, args);
}
}
351
Control . AddEventHandler
, GetEventHandler ,
, RemoveEventHandler
. , ,
null ,
.
10.8.3
static, .
static, .
, this
.
,
this (7.5.7) .
__ (7.5.4) E.M, M
, E , M, M , E
, M.
10.3.7.
10.8.4 , ,
virtual , .
virtual .
abstract , ,
.

.
,
____.
, abstract override, ,
.
.
(10.1.1.1).

, override.
.
.
.
,
, .
sealed.
.
.
new
.
, , ,
, ,
, . , , 10.6.3,
352
10.6.4, 10.6.5 10.6.6, ,

. -
, void , .
10.9
, , .
_:
_:
_ _
{ __ }
_:
_
_ _
_:
new
public
protected
internal
private
virtual
sealed
override
abstract
extern
_:
this [ __ ]
_ . this [ -- ]
_ (17)
(10.3.5) new (10.3.4), virtual (10.6.3), override (10.6.4),
sealed (10.6.5), abstract (10.6.6) extern (10.6.7).
, (10.6),
, static
.
virtual, override abstract , .
abstract override ,
.
, .
,
this.
_, . this. ,
, .
__ .
(10.6.1), ,
, ref out .
, __
, (3.5.4).
353
__ (10.7.2), {" "},

. ,
.
, ,
. ,
ref out.
(3.6) . ,
.
.
,
.
, :
, ;
_ (7.5.2) __ (7.5.4),
__ (7.5.6.2);
static , ;
get , get
, ;
set value,
set ,
, value;
,
, ;

base.P, P .
base[E], E
, .
, , 10.7.2 10.7.3,
, .
extern,
. ,
__ .
BitArray,
.
using System;
class BitArray
{
int[] bits;
int length;
public BitArray(int length) {
if (length < 0) throw new ArgumentException();
bits = new int[((length - 1) >> 5) + 1];
this.length = length;
}
354
2
public int Length {
get { return length; }
}
public bool this[int index] {

get {
if (index < 0 || index >= length) {
throw new IndexOutOfRangeException();
}
return (bits[index >> 5] & 1 << index) != 0;
}
set {
if (index < 0 || index >= length) {
}
if (value) {
bits[index >> 5] |= 1 << index;
}
else {
bits[index >> 5] &= ~(1 << index);
}
}
}
BitArray , bool[] (
, ),
, bool[].
CountPrimes BitArray
1 :
class CountPrimes
{
static int Count(int max) {
BitArray flags = new BitArray(max + 1);
int count = 1;
for (int i = 2; i <= max; i++) {
if (!flags[i]) {
for (int j = i * 2; j <= max; j += i) flags[j] = true;
count++;
}
}
return count;
}

int max = int.Parse(args[0]);
int count = Count(max);
Console.WriteLine(" {0} 1 {1}", count, max);
}
, BitArray , bool[].
26 10 .
AZ,
09.
using System;
355
class Grid
{
const int NumRows = 26;
const int NumCols = 10;
int[,] cells = new int[NumRows, NumCols];
public int this[char c, int col] {
get {
c = Char.ToUpper(c);
if (c < 'A' || c > 'Z') {
}
if (col < 0 || col >= NumCols) {
}
return cells[c - 'A', col];
}
set {
c = Char.ToUpper(c);
if (c < 'A' || c > 'Z') {
}
if (col < 0 || col >= NumCols) {
}
cells[c - 'A', col] = value;
}
10.9.1
7.4.2.
10.10
, ,
. _:
_:
_ _ _
_:
_
_ _
_:
public
static
extern
_:
__
__
__
__:
operator __ ( )
356
__:
+ - ! ~ ++ -- true false
__:
operator __ ( ,
)
__:
+
*
/
%
&
|
^
<<
right_shift
==
!=
>
<
>=
<=
__:
implicit operator ( )
explicit operator ( )
_:
: (10.10.1),
(10.10.2) (10.10.3).
extern, .
, _
. _ ,
, .
, , 10.6.10.
:
: public static;
-.
ref out ;
(10.10.1, 10.10.2, 10.10.3)

, ;
, ,
, (3.5.4);
,
.
357
, , ,
. ,
, , , ,
, . , new
.
7.2.
6.4.
10.10.1
, T
, :
+, -, ! ~ T T?
;
++ T T?
, ;
true false T T?
bool.
(+, -, !, ~, ++, --, true false)

.
, .
true false .
, . true
false 7.11.2 7.19.
operator ++
:
public class IntVector
{
public IntVector(int length) {...}
public int Length {...}
public int this[int index] {...}
//
// -
public static IntVector operator ++(IntVector iv) {

IntVector temp = new IntVector(iv.Length);
for (int i = 0; i < iv.Length; i++)
temp[i] = iv[i] + 1;
return temp;
}
}
class Test
{
IntVector iv1 = new IntVector(4);
IntVector iv2;
// 4 x 0
iv2 = iv1++; // iv2 4 x 0, iv1 4 x 1

iv2 = ++iv1; // iv2 4 x 2, iv1 4 x 2
}
}
358
, , 1 ,
, (7.6.5)
(7.5.9). C++,
.
.
10.10.2
, T
, :
- ,
T T?, ;
<< >> ,
T T?, int int?, .
( +, -, *, /, %, &, |, ^, <<, >>, ==, !=, >, <,

>= <=) .
.
.
.
,
. :
operator == operator !=
operator > operator <
operator >= operator <=
10.10.3
, (6.4),
.
, implicit,
, .
, , .
6.1.
, explicit,
, .
, 6.2.
,
, , .
S T, S T ,
, S0 T0 , S0 T0 S
T . S
T, :
S0 T0 ;
S0, T0 ,
;
S0, T0 _;
359
, , S T T
S.
, S T,
, ,
.

class C<T> {...}
class D<T>: C<T>
{
public static implicit operator C<int>(D<T> value) {...}
//
public static implicit operator C<string>(D<T> value) {...} //

public static implicit operator C<T>(D<T> value) {...}
//
, , 10.9.3, T int string

. ,
C<T> D<T>.
, ,
, . , C
C int int C, int bool.
. ,
object,
object . ,
,
.
,
, .
struct Convertible<T>
{
public static implicit operator Convertible<T>(T value) {...}
public static explicit operator T(Convertible<T> value) {...}
}
object T, ,
( , ,
object).
, ,
, , . :
(6.1) S T,
( ) S T ;
(6.2) S T,
S T .
S T .
, object, , Convertible<T> ,
. .
360
2
void F(int i, Convertible<int> n) {
i = n;
//
i = (int)n;
//
n = i;
//
n = (Convertible<int>)i;
//
object
, :
void F(object o, Convertible<object> n) {
o = n;
//
o = (object)n;
//
n = o;
//
n = (Convertible<object>)o;//
}
_.
, -
_, _
, _.
. ( ,
, .)
implicit explicit .
, implicit explicit
.
, ,
.
(,
) (, ),
.

using System;
public struct Digit
{
byte value;
public Digit(byte value) {
if (value < 0 || value > 9) throw new ArgumentException();
this.value = value;
}
public static implicit operator byte(Digit d) {
return d.value;
}
public static explicit operator Digit(byte b) {
return new Digit(b);
}
361
Digit byte ,
, byte Digit , Digit
byte.
10.11
, ,
. _:
_:
_ _
_
_:
_
_ _
_:
public
protected
internal
private
extern
_:
( __ )
_
_:
: base ( _ )
: this ( _ )
_:
_ (17),
(10.3.5) extern (10.6.7).
.
_ ,
. , .
__
, __ (10.6).
(3.6) ,
(7.4.2) .
, __ ,
, (3.5.4).
_
, _ .
10.11.1.
extern,
.
, _ .
_ ,
.
void (10.6.10).
362
. , ,
, .
,
(10.11.4).
__ (7.5.10.1)
_.
10.11.1
( object)
_. ,
, _:
base(_)
.
_ 7.4.3.
,
, (10.11.4),
.
, ;
this(_)
.
_ 7.4.3.
, .

, .
, ,
.
,
base(). ,
C(...) {...}

C(...): base() {...}
, _
, . ,
. .
class A
{
public A(int x, int y) {}
}
class B: A
{
public B(int x, int y): base(x + y, x - y) {}
}
.
this ,
_,
.
363
10.11.2

base(...), ,
_ , .
,
.
.
10.11.3
,
.
-
, .

using System;
class A
{
public A() {
PrintFields();
}
public virtual void PrintFields() {}
}
class B: A
{
int x = 1;
int y;
public B() {
y = -1;
}
public override void PrintFields() {
Console.WriteLine("x = {0}, y = {1}", x, y);
}
}
new B() B, :
x = 1, y = 0
x 1,
. y 0 ( int),
y .
,
_.
using System;
class A
{
int x = 1, y = -1, count;
public A() {
count = 0;
}
364
2
public A(int n) {
count = n;
}
}
class B: A
{
double sqrt2 = Math.Sqrt(2.0);
ArrayList items = new ArrayList(100);
int max;
public B(): this(100) {
items.Add("default");
}
public B(int n): base(n 1) {
max = n;
}
}
,
(base this). , ,
(,
, ).
class A
{
int x, y, count;
public A() {
x = 1;
y = -1;
object();
count = 0;
}
public A(int n) {
x = 1;
y = -1;
object();
count = n;
}
//
//
// object()
//
//
// object()
}
class B: A
{
double sqrt2;
ArrayList items;
int max;
public B(): this(100) {

B(100);
items.Add("default");
}
// B(int)
365
public B(int n): base(n 1) {

sqrt2 = Math.Sqrt(2.0);
//
items = new ArrayList(100); //
A(n 1);
// A(int)
max = n;
}
10.11.4
,
.
.
, , .
, .
. ,

protected C(): base() {}
public C(): base() {}
C .

class Message
{
object sender;
string text;
}
,
. ,
class Message
{
object sender;
string text;
}
public Message(): base() {}
10.11.5
T ,
T T T. ,
,
. :
public class Trig
{
private Trig() {}
//
public const double PI = 3.14159265358979323846;

public static double Sin(double x) {...}
public static double Cos(double x) {...}
public static double Tan(double x) {...}
}
366
Trig , .
.
,
.
10.11.6
this(...)
.
class Text
{
public Text(): this(0, 0, null) {}
public Text(int x, int y): this(x, y, null) {}
public Text(int x, int y, string s) {

//
}

. this(...)
, .
:
Text t1 = new Text();
Text t2 = new Text(5, 10);
Text t3 = new Text(5, 20, "Hello");
// , Text(0, 0, null)
// , Text(5, 10, null)
10.12
, ,
.
__:
__:
__ ( )
__
__:
extern static
static extern
__:
__ (17)
extern (10.6.7).
__ ,
. ,
.
extern,
.
, __
.
__ , ,
367
, . _
void (10.6.10).
.

.
, :
Main (3.1), ,
Main.

(10.5.1) .
(5.2). (10.4.5.1)
. .
using System;
class Test
{
A.F();
B.F();
}
}
class A
{
static A() {
Console.WriteLine("Init A");
}
}
}
class B
{
static B() {
Console.WriteLine("Init B");
}
Console.WriteLine("B.F");
}
}
:
Init A
A.F
Init B
B.F
368
A A.F,
B B.F.
,
.
using System;
class A
{
static A() {
X = B.Y + 1;
}
class B
{
public static int Y = A.X + 1;
static B() {}

Console.WriteLine("X = {0}, Y = {1}", A.X, B.Y);
}

X = 1, Y = 2
Main B.Y,
B. Y A,
A.X. A
X Y, . A.X
1. A
,
Y, 2.

,
-,
(10.1.5). , ,
:
class Gen<T> where T: struct
{
static Gen() {
if (!typeof(T).IsEnum) {
throw new ArgumentException("T enum");
}
}
}
10.13
, ,
. _:
369
_:
extern ~ ( ) _
_:
_ (17).
_ ,
. , .
extern,
.
, _ .
_ , .
_ _
void (10.6.10).
. , , ,
.
, ,
.
, .
, .
,
. ,
, .
. , ,
, . 3.9.

using System;
class A
{
~A() {
Console.WriteLine(" A");
}
}
class B: A
{
~B() {
Console.WriteLine(" B");
}
}
class Test
{
B b = new B();
b = null;
GC.Collect();
}
}
370
2
B
A
,
.
Finalize System.Object.
C# ( )
. ,
class A
{
override protected void Finalize() {}
public void F() {
this.Finalize();
}
//
//
.
, .
, :
class A
{
void Finalize() {}
}
//
, Finalize System.Object.
, , . 16.3.
10.14
(7.4), (8.2), .
,
(10.14.1)
(10.14.2). _, _
__, , ,
.
, ref out
.
10.14.1
System.Collections.IEnumerator
System.Collections.Generic.IEnumerator<T>.
IEnumerator IEnumerator<T>
.
10.14.2
System.Collections.IEnumerable
System.Collections.Generic.IEnumerable<T>.
IEnumerable IEnumerable<T>
.
371
10.14.3 yield
. yield
.
, IEnumerator IEnumerable, object.
, IEnumerator<T> IEnumerable<T>, T.
10.14.4
, ,
, .
. ,
, ,
MoveNext . :
IEnumerator IEnumerator<T>, T yield .
System.IDisposable.
( ) ,
.
, before, running, suspended after,

before.
,
,
. , ,
, , , ,
(2.4.2).
, .
MoveNext, Current Dispose
IEnumerable IEnumerable<T>, .
, IEnumerator.Reset.
System.NotSupportedException.
MoveNext
MoveNext .
MoveNext Current
. , MoveNext,
MoveNext:
before, MoveNext:
o
running;
( this)
, ;
, (
).
running, MoveNext .
suspended, MoveNext:
372
running;
( this)
, .
, , ,
MoveNext;
,
yield return, , ,
( ).
after, MoveNext false.
MoveNext , :
yield return, yield break,
, .
yield return (8.14):

o
, , , yield
Current ;
.
( this) , yield return.
yield return try, finally
;
suspended;
MoveNext true , ,
.
yield break (8.14):

o
yield break try,

finally ;
after;
MoveNext false , , .
:
o
after;
MoveNext false , , .
:
o
finally
;
after;
MoveNext.
Current
Current yield return .
suspended, Current ,
MoveNext.
before, running after, Current .
373
, object, Current
IEnumerable Current
IEnumerator<T> object.
Dispose
Dispose
after.
before, Dispose after.
running, Dispose .
suspended, Dispose:
o
running;
finally, yield return

yield break.
, after,
Dispose;
after.
after, Dispose .
10.14.5
, ,
, .
. GetEnumerator
, , ,
MoveNext .
:
IEnumerable IEnumerable<T>, T .
( ) ,
.
,
,
. , ,
, , , ,
(2.4.2).
, . ,
IEnumerator IEnumerator<T>,
, .
GetEnumerator .
GetEnumerator , ,
. ,
.
GetEnumerator
GetEnumerator IEnumerable
IEnumerable<T>. GetEnumerator ,
.
374
,
, , 10.14.4.
10.14.6

C#. , , ,
Microsoft C#, .
Stack<T> GetEnumerator .
.
using System;
using System.Collections.Generic;
class Stack<T>: IEnumerable<T>
{
T[] items;
int count;
public void Push(T item) {
if (items == null) {
items = new T[4];
}
else if (items.Length == count) {
T[] newItems = new T[count * 2];
Array.Copy(items, 0, newItems, 0, count);
items = newItems;
}
items[count++] = item;
}
public T Pop() {
T result = items[--count];
items[count] = default(T);
return result;
}
public IEnumerator<T> GetEnumerator() {

for (int i = count - 1; i >= 0; --i) yield return items[i];
}
GetEnumerator ,
, .
class Stack<T>: IEnumerable<T>
{
...
return new __Enumerator1(this);
}
class __Enumerator1: IEnumerator<T>, IEnumerator

{
int __state;
T __current;
Stack<T> __this;
int i;
375
public __Enumerator1(Stack<T> __this) {

this.__this = __this;
}
public T Current {
get { return __current; }
}
object IEnumerator.Current {
}
public bool MoveNext() {
switch (__state) {
case 1: goto __state1;
case 2: goto __state2;
}
i = __this.count - 1;
__loop:
if (i < 0) goto __state2;
__current = __this.items[i];
__state = 1;
return true;
__state1:
--i;
goto __loop;
__state2:
__state = 2;
return false;
}
public void Dispose() {
__state = 2;
}
void IEnumerator.Reset() {
throw new NotSupportedException();
}
}

MoveNext . , i
, MoveNext.
1 10.
FromTo .
using System;
class Test
{
static IEnumerable<int> FromTo(int from, int to) {
while (from <= to) yield return from++;
}
376
2
IEnumerable<int> e = FromTo(1, 10);
foreach (int x in e) {
foreach (int y in e) {
Console.Write("{0,3} ", x * y);
}
}
}
}
FromTo ,
, .
using
using
using
using
System;
System.Threading;
System.Collections;
System.Collections.Generic;
class Test
{
...
static IEnumerable<int> FromTo(int from, int to) {
return new __Enumerable1(from, to);
}
class __Enumerable1:
IEnumerable<int>, IEnumerable,
IEnumerator<int>, IEnumerator
{
int __state;
int __current;
int __from;
int from;
int to;
int i;
public __Enumerable1(int __from, int to) {
this.__from = __from;
this.to = to;
}
public IEnumerator<int> GetEnumerator() {
__Enumerable1 result = this;
if (Interlocked.CompareExchange(ref __state, 1, 0) != 0) {
result = new __Enumerable1(__from, to);
result.__state = 1;
}
result.from = result.__from;
return result;
}
IEnumerator IEnumerable.GetEnumerator() {
return (IEnumerator)GetEnumerator();
}
public int Current {

}
377
}
switch (__state) {
case 1:
if (from > to) goto case 2;
__current = from++;
__state = 1;
return true;
case 2:
__state = 2;
return false;
default:
throw new InvalidOperationException();
}
}
__state = 2;
}
}
}
, ,
, .
GetEnumerator . GetEnumerator
, , .
, ,
. Interlocked.CompareExchange
.
from to . from
, __from,
, from .
MoveNext InvalidOperationException,
__state 0.
GetEnumerator.
. Tree<T> GetEnumerator
. .
using System;
class Tree<T>: IEnumerable<T>
{
T value;
Tree<T> left;
Tree<T> right;
378
2
public Tree(T value, Tree<T> left, Tree<T> right) {
this.value = value;
this.left = left;
this.right = right;
}

if (left != null) foreach (T x in left) yield x;
yield value;
if (right != null) foreach (T x in right) yield x;
}
class Program
{
static Tree<T> MakeTree<T>(T[] items, int left, int right) {
if (left > right) return null;
int i = (left + right) / 2;
return new Tree<T>(items[i],
MakeTree(items, left, i - 1),
MakeTree(items, i + 1, right));
}
static Tree<T> MakeTree<T>(params T[] items) {
return MakeTree(items, 0, items.Length - 1);
}
// :
// 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
// C
Tree<int> ints = MakeTree(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9);
foreach (int i in ints) Console.Write("{0} ", i);
Tree<string> strings = MakeTree(

"", "", "", "", "", "", "");
foreach (string s in strings) Console.Write("{0} ", s);
GetEnumerator ,
, .
class Tree<T>: IEnumerable<T>
{
...
return new __Enumerator1(this);
}
class __Enumerator1 : IEnumerator<T>, IEnumerator

{
Node<T> __this;
IEnumerator<T> __left, __right;
int __state;
T __current;
379
public __Enumerator1(Node<T> __this) {

this.__this = __this;
}
public T Current {
}
}
try {
switch (__state) {
case 0:
__state = -1;
if (__this.left == null) goto __yield_value;
__left = __this.left.GetEnumerator();
goto case 1;
case 1:
__state = -2;
if (!__left.MoveNext()) goto __left_dispose;
__current = __left.Current;
__state = 1;
return true;
__left_dispose:
__state = -1;
__left.Dispose();
__yield_value:
__current = __this.value;
__state = 2;
return true;
case 2:
__state = -1;
if (__this.right == null) goto __end;
__right = __this.right.GetEnumerator();
goto case 3;
case 3:
__state = -3;
if (!__right.MoveNext()) goto __right_dispose;
__current = __right.Current;
__state = 3;
return true;
__right_dispose:
__state = -1;
__right.Dispose();
__end:
__state = 4;
break;
380
}
}
finally {
if (__state < 0) Dispose();
}
return false;

try {
switch (__state) {
case 1:
case -2:
__left.Dispose();
break;
case 3:
case -3:
__right.Dispose();
break;
}
}
finally {
__state = 4;
}
}
}
}
, foreach,
__left __right . __state ,
Dispose().
, foreach .
381
11.
, , .
, . , ,
.
,
, .
, .
, .
-,
,
, .
4.1.4, C# , int, double bool,
. , , C#
.
().
11.1
_ _ (), :
_:
(/) _ (/) partial (/) struct
__ (/)
_ (/) ____
(/) _ ;(/)
_ (17),
_ (11.1.1), partial,
struct, , ,
__ (10.1.3),
_ (11.1.2) ),
____ (10.1.5), _ (11.1.4)
().
11.1.1
_ :
_:
_
_ _
_:
new
public
protected
internal
private
382

.
,
(10.1).
11.1.2 partial
partial , _ .

, 10.2.
11.1.3
_,
, .
_:
: __
13.4.
11.1.4
_ .
_:
{ __ (/) }
11.2
, __ ,
System.ValueType.
__:
__
__ __
__:
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
__
_
, 11.3, , 10.13
10.14, .
11.3
:
(11.3.1).
System.ValueType (11.3.2).
383

(11.3.3).
,
,
null (11.3.4).

object (11.3.5).
this (7.5.7).

(11.3.7).
(11.3.8).
(11.3.9).
11.3.1
(4.1) . ,
(4.2) .
,
, . B
A, , A B
. X Y
, X Y.
, ,
. ,
struct Node
{
int data;
Node next; // , Node
}
, Node .
.
struct A { B b; }
struct B { C c; }
struct C { A a; }
, A, B C .
,
, .
( ref out)
. ,
, null.

struct Point
{
public int x, y;
384

this.x = x;
this.y = y;
}

Point b = a;
a.x = 100;
System.Console.WriteLine(b.x);
10. a b
, b a.x.
Point , 100, a b
.
11.3.2
System.ValueType, ,
, object.
, .
.
abstract sealed.
,
protected protected internal.
- abstract virtual,
override ,
System.ValueType.
11.3.3

.
, , .

- .
- ref out.
,
,
. , .
7.16.1.
11.3.4
5.2,
.
null. ,
null, ,

, null.
Point
Point[] a = new Point[100];

385
Point ,
x y (0) .
,
(4.1.2). , ,
.
, ,
,
null.
,
.
using System;
struct KeyValuePair
{
string key;
string value;
public KeyValuePair(string key, string value) {

if (key == null || value == null) throw new ArgumentException();
this.key = key;
this.value = value;
}

. , KeyValuePair , key
value null, .
11.3.5
object ,
, .
object
(, ).
, . object ,
, .
object
. ,

. , ,
, .
, System.Object
(, Equals, GetHashCode ToString),
. ,
.
:
using System;
struct Counter
{
int value;
386
public override string ToString() {

value++;
return value.ToString();
}
class Program
{
static void Test<T>() where T: new() {
T x = new T();
Console.WriteLine(x.ToString());
}

Test<Counter>();
}
:
1
2
3
, ToString
, , x.ToString()
.

-. , , ICounter Increment,
. ICounter ,
Increment ,
Increment, .
using System;
interface ICounter
{
void Increment();
}
struct Counter: ICounter
{
int value;
return value.ToString();
}
void ICounter.Increment() {
value++;
}
387
class Program
{
static void Test<T>() where T: ICounter, new() {
T x = new T();
x.Increment();
// x
((ICounter)x).Increment();
// x
}
Test<Counter>();
}
}
Increment x.
Increment, x. ,
:
0
1
1
. 4.3.
11.3.6 this
- this
. , this
, -, this
- .
this out ,
- this ref
. this , ,
-, this this
ref out.
11.3.7
11.3.4, ,
,
null.
.
. .
,
struct Point
{
public int x = 1; // ,
public int y = 1; // ,
}
, .
11.3.8
, .
,
388
,
, null (4.1.2).
. :
struct Point
{
int x, y;

this.x = x;
this.y = y;
}

Point, x y .
base(...).
, this
out , , out, this
(5.3) .
, this ref
, ref, this
. :
struct Point
{
int x, y;
public int X {
set { x = value; }
}
public int Y {
set { y = value; }
}
X = x;
// , this
Y = y;
// , this
}
}
- ( set X Y)
, . ,
Point , , .
11.3.9
389
11.3.10
,
.
:
- .
(11.3.4)
. .
11.4
struct ,
, .
11.4.1
DBInt integer,
int, , .
.
using System;
public struct DBInt
{
// Null DBInt.
public static readonly DBInt Null = new DBInt();
// true, DBInt
,
// .
false,
// DBInt ,
0.
int value;
bool defined;
// . DBInt
.
DBInt(int value) {
this.value = value;
this.defined = true;
}
// IsNull true, DBInt
.
public bool IsNull { get { return !defined; } }
// Value DBInt 0,

// DBInt .
public int Value { get { return value; } }
// int DBInt.
390
2
public static implicit operator DBInt(int x) {
return new DBInt(x);
}
// DBInt int. ,
// DBInt .
public static explicit operator int(DBInt x) {
if (!x.defined) throw new InvalidOperationException();
return x.value;
}
public static DBInt operator +(DBInt x) {
return x;
}
public static DBInt operator -(DBInt x) {
return x.defined ? -x.value : Null;
}
public static DBInt operator +(DBInt x, DBInt y) {
return x.defined && y.defined? x.value + y.value: Null;
}
public static DBInt operator -(DBInt x, DBInt y) {
return x.defined && y.defined? x.value - y.value: Null;
}
public static DBInt operator *(DBInt x, DBInt y) {
return x.defined && y.defined? x.value * y.value: Null;
}
public static DBInt operator /(DBInt x, DBInt y) {
return x.defined && y.defined? x.value / y.value: Null;
}
public static DBInt operator %(DBInt x, DBInt y) {
return x.defined && y.defined? x.value % y.value: Null;
}
public static DBBool operator ==(DBInt x, DBInt y) {
return x.defined && y.defined? x.value == y.value: DBBool.Null;
}
public static DBBool operator !=(DBInt x, DBInt y) {
return x.defined && y.defined? x.value != y.value: DBBool.Null;
}
public static DBBool operator >(DBInt x, DBInt y) {
return x.defined && y.defined? x.value > y.value: DBBool.Null;
}
public static DBBool operator <(DBInt x, DBInt y) {
return x.defined && y.defined? x.value < y.value: DBBool.Null;
}
public static DBBool operator >=(DBInt x, DBInt y) {
return x.defined && y.defined? x.value >= y.value: DBBool.Null;
}
public static DBBool operator <=(DBInt x, DBInt y) {

return x.defined && y.defined? x.value <= y.value: DBBool.Null;
}
391
public override bool Equals(object obj) {

if (!(obj is DBInt)) return false;
DBInt x = (DBInt)obj;
return value == x.value && defined == x.defined;
}
public override int GetHashCode() {
return value;
}
return defined? value.ToString(): DBInt.Null;
}
}
11.4.2
DBBool .
DBBool.True, DBBool.False DBBool.Null, Null
.
.
using System;
public struct DBBool
{
// DBBool.
public static readonly DBBool Null = new DBBool(0);
public static readonly DBBool False = new DBBool(-1);
public static readonly DBBool True = new DBBool(1);
// , 1, 0 1 False, Null True.
sbyte value;
// . 1,
0 1.
DBBool(int value) {
this.value = (sbyte)value;
}
// DBBool. true,
// DBBool , false.
public bool IsNull { get { return value == 0; } }
public bool IsFalse { get { return value < 0; } }
public bool IsTrue { get { return value > 0; } }
// bool DBBool. True
DBBool.True,
// false DBBool.False.
public static implicit operator DBBool(bool x) {
return x? True: False;
}
// DBBool bool. ,
// DBBool Null,
true false.
392
2
public static explicit operator bool(DBBool x) {
if (x.value == 0) throw new InvalidOperationException();
return x.value > 0;
}
// . Null, Null,

// True False.
public static DBBool operator ==(DBBool x, DBBool y) {
if (x.value == 0 || y.value == 0) return Null;
return x.value == y.value? True: False;
}
// . Null, Null,

// True False.
public static DBBool operator !=(DBBool x, DBBool y) {
if (x.value == 0 || y.value == 0) return Null;
return x.value != y.value? True: False;
}
// . True,
False, Null,
// Null, False,
True.
public static DBBool operator !(DBBool x) {
return new DBBool(-x.value);
}
// AND. False,
False,
// Null, Null,
True.
public static DBBool operator &(DBBool x, DBBool y) {
return new DBBool(x.value < y.value? x.value: y.value);
}
// OR. True,
True,
// Null, Null,
False.
public static DBBool operator |(DBBool x, DBBool y) {
return new DBBool(x.value > y.value? x.value: y.value);
}
// . True,
True,
// False.
public static bool operator true(DBBool x) {
return x.value > 0;
}
// . True,
False,
// False.
public static bool operator false(DBBool x) {

return x.value < 0;
}
393
public override bool Equals(object obj) {

if (!(obj is DBBool)) return false;
return value == ((DBBool)obj).value;
}
public override int GetHashCode() {
return value;
}
394

if (value > 0) return "DBBool.True";
if (value < 0) return "DBBool.False";
return "DBBool.Null";
}
12.
, ,
. , ,
, ,
.
, , .
, . , ,
.
. ,
.
,
. ,
.
: N
0 N 1 .
.
, .
, .
12.1
__, _:
_:
__ _
__:
_:
_
_ _
_:
[ _ (/) ]
_:
,
_ ,
__ , _.
_ _: _ ,
, , .
,
_:
T[R] R (__) T.
T[R][R1]...[RN] R T[R1]...[RN].
_
__ . int[][,,][,]
int.
null
.
12.1.1 System.Array
System.Array .
(6.1.6) System.Array,
(6.2.4) System.Array . , System.Array
_. _,
_.
System.Array null
.
12.1.2 IList
T[] System.Collections.Generic.IList<T> (
IList<T>) . T[]
IList<T> .
S T S[] IList<T>
S[] IList<T> (6.1.6).
S T S[] IList<T> (6.2.4).
:
class Test
{
string[] sa = new string[5];
object[] oa1 = new object[5];
object[] oa2 = sa;
IList<string> lst1 = sa;

IList<string> lst2 = oa1;
//
// ,
IList<object> lst3 = sa;

IList<object> lst4 = oa1;
//
//
IList<string> lst5 = (IList<string>)oa1;//

IList<string> lst6 = (IList<string>)oa2;//
}
lst2 = oa1 , object[]

IList<string> .
(IList<string>)oa1 , oa1
object[], string[]. (IList<string>)oa2
, oa2 string[].
S[] IList<T>
IList<T> S[] (6.2.4).
S[] IList<T>,
.
.
396
12.2
__ (7.5.10.4)
, _ (12.6).

. ,
.
. System.Array ,
.
, __,
(5.2).
12.3
__ (7.5.6.1)
A[I1, I2, ..., IN], A , IX
int, uint, long, ulong ,
. ,
, .
foreach (8.8.4).
12.4
, System.Array.
12.5
A B (6.1.6)
(6.2.4) A B, A[R]
B[R], R _ ( ).
. ,
A[R] B[R] ,
B A.

, ,
(7.16.1). :
class Test
{
static void Fill(object[] array, int index, int count, object value) {
for (int i = index; i < index + count; i++) array[i] = value;
}

string[] strings = new string[100];
Fill(strings, 0, 100, "Undefined");
Fill(strings, 0, 10, null);
Fill(strings, 90, 10, 0);
}
array[i] Fill ,
, , value, null
, array. Main
Fill ,
397
System.ArrayTypeMismatchException
array[i]. , int
string.
__. ,
int[] object[] .
12.6
(10.5),
(8.5.1) (7.5.10.4):
_:
{ __ (/) }
{ __ , }
__:
_
__ , _
_:
_
,
{ } ,.
( ) .
.

.
.
,
int[] a = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8};

int[] a = new int[] {0, 2, 4, 6, 8};
,
.
, .
. ,
int[] 5,
:
a[0] = 0; a[1] = 2; a[2] = 4; a[3] = 6; a[4] = 8;
,
. ,
, .

.
. ,
int[,] b = {{0, 1}, {2, 3}, {4, 5}, {6, 7}, {8, 9}};

int[,] b = new int[5, 2];
398
:
b[0,
b[1,
b[2,
b[3,
b[4,
0]
0]
0]
0]
0]
=
=
=
=
=
0;
2;
4;
6;
8;
b[0,
b[1,
b[2,
b[3,
b[4,
1]
1]
1]
1]
1]
=
=
=
=
=
1;
3;
5;
7;
9;
,
, ,
. :
int i = 3;
int[] x = new int[3] {0, 1, 2};
//
int[] y = new int[i] {0, 1, 2};
// , i
int[] z = new int[3] {0, 1, 2, 3}; // ,
y ,
. z
,
.
399
13.
. , ,
.
, .
, , .
. ,
, .
13.1
_ _ (9.6), .
_:
(/) _ (/) partial (/) interface
__ (/)
_ (/) ___ (/)
_ ;(/)
_ (17),
_ (13.1.1), partial,
interface , ,
__ (10.1.3), _ (13.1.2),
___ (10.1.5)
_ (13.1.4), .
13.1.1
_ :
_:
_
_ _
_:
new
public
protected
internal
private

.
new , .
, (. 10.3.4).
(3.5.1).
13.1.2 partial
partial , _
.
,
10.2.
13.1.3
,
.
,
, .
_::
: __

_
_ .

(3.5.4). , private
internal _ public
.

.

. ,
, .
.
interface IControl
{
void Paint();
}
{
}
{
}
interface IComboBox: ITextBox, IListBox {}
IComboBox IControl, ITextBox

IListBox.
, IComboBox SetText SetItems, Paint.
, ,
.
13.1.4
_ .
402
_:
{ __ (/) }
13.2
, , ,
.
__:
__
__ __
__:
__
__
__
__
, .
, , .
, , , , ,
.
public.
. ,
abstract, public, protected, internal, private,
virtual, override static.
,
public delegate void StringListEvent(IStringList sender);
public interface IStringList
{
void Add(string s);
int Count { get; }
event StringListEvent Changed;
}
string this[int index] { get; set; }
, : ,
, .
_ (3.3), __,
_,
. __ :
, .
(3.6) ,
, , ,
, ref out.
,
.
,
.
403
.
, .
, .
,
. ,
new, ,
. 3.7.1.2.
new , ,
. ,
new.
, object , , -
(13.2). , object
(7.3.1).
13.2.1
__:
__:
(/) new (/)
__
( __ (/) )
____ (/) ;
, __,
__ , (10.6).
,
.
13.2.2
__:
__:
(/) new (/) { ___ }
___:
(/) get ;
(/) set ;
(/) get ; (/) set ;
(/) set ; (/) get ;
,
(10.7).

(10.7.2) ,
. , , :
, .
13.2.3
__:
__:
(/) new (/) event ... ;
404
,
(10.8).
13.2.4
__:
__:
(/) new (/) this [ __ ]
{ ___ }
, __
, (10.9).

(10.9) ,
. , , :
, .
13.2.5
(7.5.4)
(7.5.6.2) I.M I[A], I , M ,
, A .
, (
),
(7.3), (7.5.6.2) (7.5.5.1)
:
.
, ( )
.
.
.

interface IList
{
int Count { get; set; }
}
interface ICounter
{
void Count(int i);
}
interface IListCounter: IList, ICounter {}
class C
{
void Test(IListCounter x) {
x.Count(1);
x.Count = 1;
((IList)x).Count = 1;
((ICounter)x).Count(1);
}
}
//
//
// , IList.Count.set
// , ICounter.Count
,
(7.3) Count IListCounter .
405
, x
.
,
.

interface IInteger
{
void Add(int i);
}
interface IDouble
{
void Add(double d);
}
interface INumber: IInteger, IDouble {}
class C
{
void Test(INumber n) {
n.Add(1);
// IInteger.Add
n.Add(1.0);
// IDouble.Add
((IInteger)n).Add(1); // IInteger.Add
((IDouble)n).Add(1);
// IDouble.Add
}
}
n.Add(1) IInteger.Add
, 7.4.3. n.Add(1.0)
IDouble.Add. ,
, .

interface IBase
{
void F(int i);
}
interface ILeft: IBase
{
new void F(int i);
}
interface IRight: IBase
{
void G();
}
interface IDerived: ILeft, IRight {}
class A
{
void Test(IDerived d) {
d.F(1);
// ILeft.F
((IBase)d).F(1);
// IBase.F
((ILeft)d).F(1);
// ILeft.F
((IRight)d).F(1);
// IBase.F
}
}
406
IBase.F ILeft.F. d.F(1) ILeft.F

, IBase.F ,
IRight.
:
, .
IDerived ILeft IBase IBase.F ,
IDerived IRight IBase.
13.3
.
, , .
, . ,
interface IControl
{
void Paint();
}
{
}
Paint IControl.Paint, SetText

ITextBox.SetText.
Paint ITextBox.Paint.
,
. :
namespace System
{
public interface ICloneable
{
object Clone();
}
}
Clone System.ICloneable.Clone.
13.4
. ,
,
. :
interface ICloneable
{
object Clone();
}
interface IComparable
{
int CompareTo(object other);
}
class ListEntry: ICloneable, IComparable

{
public object Clone() {...}
407
public int CompareTo(object other) {...}

}
, ,
. ,
. :
interface IControl
{
void Paint();
}
{
}
class TextBox: ITextBox
{
public void SetText(string text) {...}
}
TextBox IControl, ITextBox.

, ,
(4.4). ,
, .
:
class C<U,V> {}
interface I1<V> {}
class D: C<string,int>, I1<string> {}
class E<T>: C<int,T>, I1<T> {}
,
13.4.2.
13.4.1

. , ,
, . :
interface IList<T>
{
T[] GetElements();
}
interface IDictionary<K,V>
{
V this[K key];
void Add(K key, V value);
}
class List<T>: IList<T>, IDictionary<int,T>
{
T[] IList<T>.GetElements() {...}
T IDictionary<int,T>.this[int index] {...}
408
2
void IDictionary<int,T>.Add(int index, T value) {...}
}
IDictionary<int,T>.this IDictionary<int,T>.Add
.
.
.
, , , -
Close,
Dispose IDisposable :
interface IDisposable
{
void Dispose();
}
class MyFile: IDisposable
{
void IDisposable.Dispose() {
Close();
}
public void Close() {
//
System.GC.SuppressFinalize(this);
}
}

, .
,
.
,
abstract, virtual, override static, .

.
,
. , ,
.
:

,
. ,
, ,
.

.
,

.
,
, , ,

. ,
409
class Shape: ICloneable

{
object ICloneable.Clone() {...}
int IComparable.CompareTo(object other) {...} //
}
IComparable.CompareTo ,
IComparable Shape
ICloneable.
class Shape: ICloneable
{
}
class Ellipse: Shape
{
}
//
ICloneable.Clone Ellipse ,
ICloneable Ellipse.
, . ,
interface IControl
{
void Paint();
}
{
}
class TextBox: ITextBox
{
}
void ITextBox.SetText(string text) {...}
Paint IControl.Paint.
13.4.2
, ,
. ,
. , ,
:
interface I<T>
{
void F();
}
410
2
class X<U,V>: I, I<V>

{
void I.F() {...}
void I<V>.F() {...}
}
//: I I<V>
, :
I<int> x = new X<int,int>();
x.F();
, ,
:
L , ,
C.
L , L.
C L
L , C .
.
X L I I<V>.
, , U V
, .
, :
interface I<T>
{
void F();
}
class Base: I
{
void I.F() {}
}
class Derived<U,V>: Base, I<V> //
void I<V>.F() {}
}
, , Derived<U,V>
I, I<V>.
I<int> x = new Derived<int,int>();
x.F();
Derived, Derived<int,int> I<int>

(13.4.6).
13.4.3
, ,
, (
),
.
411
, ,
.
interface I<A,B,C>
{
void F<T>(T t) where T: A;
void G<T>(T t) where T: B;
void H<T>(T t) where T: C;
}
class C: I<object,C,string>
{
public void F<T>(T t) {...}
//
public void G<T>(T t) where T: C {...}
//
public void H<T>(T t) where T: string {...} //
}
C.F<T> I<object,C,string>.F<T>. C.F<T>

( ) T: object, object
. C.G<T>
I<object,C,string>.G<T>,
.
C.H<T> , ( string)
. ,
. ,
I<object,C,string>.H<T> .
:
class C: I<object,C,string>
{
...
public void H(U u) where U: class {...}
void I<object,C,string>.H<T>(T t) {
string s = t; //
H<T>(t);
}

. , t s , T
T: string, .
13.4.4
,
.
.
C
, C. I.M,
I , M,
S, C C
:
412
S , I M,
I.M.
, S , ,
M, I.M .
, I.M.
, S ,
, , ,
.
,
C, . ,
, .
A B
.
A B , A B , .
A B , A B , A , B
(A ,
).
A B , A B .
A B , A B , A
, B (A ,
).
:
, ,
.
,
.

interface ICloneable
{
object Clone();
}
class C: ICloneable
{
public object Clone() {...}
}
Clone ICloneable ICloneable.Clone C,

.
,
, ,
. :
interface IControl
{
void Paint();
}
413
interface IForm
{
void Paint();
}
class Page: IControl, IForm
{
}
Paint Page Paint IControl,

IForm. ,
.
, ,
. :
interface IBase
{
int P { get; }
}
interface IDerived: IBase
{
new int P();
}

class C: IDerived
{
int IBase.P { get {...} }
int IDerived.P() {...}
}
class C: IDerived
{
public int P { get {...} }
}
int IDerived.P() {...}
class C: IDerived
{
int IBase.P { get {...} }
public int P() {...}
}
,
.
interface IControl
{
void Paint();
}
{
}
414
2
{
}
class ComboBox: IControl, ITextBox, IListBox
{
void ITextBox.SetText(string text) {...}
void IListBox.SetItems(string[] items) {...}
}
IControl, ,
IControl, ITextBox, IControl,
IListBox. . ,
ITextBox IListBox
IControl, ComboBox : IControl, ITextBox
IListBox.
.
interface Interface1
{
void F();
}
class Class1
{
public void F() {}
public void G() {}
}
class Class2: Class1, Interface1
{
new public void G() {}
}
F Class1 Interface1 Class2.

13.4.5
, .
,
, . ,
interface IControl
{
void Paint();
}
class Control: IControl
{
}
class TextBox: Control

{
new public void Paint() {...}
}
415
Paint TextBox Paint Control,

Control.Paint IControl.Paint, Paint

Control c = new Control();
TextBox t = new TextBox();
IControl ic = c;
IControl it = t;
c.Paint();
//
t.Paint();
//
ic.Paint();
//
it.Paint();
//
Control.Paint();
TextBox.Paint();
Control.Paint();
Control.Paint();
,
.
,
interface IControl
{
void Paint();
}
{
public virtual void Paint() {...}
}
{
public override void Paint() {...}
}

Control c = new Control();
TextBox t = new TextBox();
IControl ic = c;
IControl it = t;
c.Paint();
//
t.Paint();
//
ic.Paint();
//
it.Paint();
//
Control.Paint();
TextBox.Paint();
Control.Paint();
TextBox.Paint();
,
.
, ,
. :
interface IControl
{
void Paint();
}
{
void IControl.Paint() { PaintControl(); }
protected virtual void PaintControl() {...}
}
416
2
{
protected override void PaintControl() {...}
}
, Control,
IControl.Paint PaintControl.
13.4.6
, ,
.
,
. ,
, .
,
interface IControl
{
void Paint();
}
{
}
class MyControl: Control, IControl
{
public void Paint() {}
}
, Control IControl.Paint Control.IControl.Paint,

MyControl, IControl.Paint
MyControl.Paint.

. :
interface IMethods
{
void F();
void G();
void H();
void I();
}
class Base: IMethods
{
void IMethods.F() {}
void IMethods.G() {}
public void H() {}
public void I() {}
}
class Derived: Base, IMethods

{
public void F() {}
void IMethods.H() {}
}
417
IMethods Derived
Derived.F, Base.IMethods.G, Derived.IMethods.H Base.I.

.
. :
interface IBase
{
void F();
}
interface IDerived: IBase
{
void G();
}
class C: IDerived
{
void IBase.F() {...}
void IDerived.G() {...}
}
class D: C, IDerived
{
public void F() {...}
}
public void G() {...}
IDerived IBase,
IBase.F D.F.
13.4.7
, , ,
, . ,
. :
interface IMethods
{
void F();
void G();
}
abstract class C: IMethods
{
public abstract void G();
}
IMethods F G ,
C , .
, ,
. :
interface IMethods
{
void F();
void G();
}
418
2
abstract class C: IMethods
{
void IMethods.F() { FF(); }
void IMethods.G() { GG(); }
protected abstract void FF();
}
protected abstract void GG();
C , ,
FF GG, IMethods.
419
14.
(4.1),
.
:
enum Color
{
Red,
Green,
Blue
}
Color, Red, Green Blue.
14.1
.
enum , ,
.
_:
_ enum
_ _ ;
_:
: _
_:
{ __ }
{ __ , }
,
. ,
. byte,
sbyte, short, ushort, int, uint, long ulong. , char
. ,
, int.
:
enum Color: long
{
Red,
Green,
Blue
}
long.
long, , ,
long, int,
.
14.2
_ , ,
:
_:
_
_ _
_:
new
public
protected
internal
private
,
.
,
(10.1.1). ,
abstract sealed.
.
14.3
,
. .
__:
__
__ , __
__:

= _
.
.
. :
enum Color: uint
{
Red = -1,
Green = -2,
Blue = -3
}
, -1, -2 -3
uint.
.
:
enum Color
{
Red,
Green,
Blue,
Max = Blue
}
422
, Blue Max
.
.
_, ,
,
. ,
:
,
, ;

.
, ,
.
:
using System;
enum Color
{
Red,
Green = 10,
Blue
}
class Test
{
Console.WriteLine(StringFromColor(Color.Red));
Console.WriteLine(StringFromColor(Color.Green));
Console.WriteLine(StringFromColor(Color.Blue));
}
static string StringFromColor(Color c) {
switch (c) {
case Color.Red:
return String.Format("Red = {0}", (int) c);
case Color.Green:
return String.Format("Green = {0}", (int) c);
case Color.Blue:
return String.Format("Blue = {0}", (int) c);
default:
return " ";
}
}
}
. :
Red = 0
Green = 10
Blue = 11
Red (
);
423
Green 10;
Blue , ,
.
, ,
. ,

, .
,
.
:
enum Circular
{
A = B,
B
}
, A B . A
B , B A .
.
.
.
.
- ,
.
14.4 System.Enum
System.Enum (
), , System.Enum,
. (4.3.1)
System.Enum, (4.3.2) System.Enum
.
, System.Enum _. , _,
_. System.Enum
System.ValueType (4.1.1), , , object.
System.Enum null
.
14.5
;
(6.2.2), ,
. , ,
. ,
,
.
( ,
: . 14.3). ,
E v, (E)v.
424
: ==, !=, <, >, <=,

>= (7.9.5), + (7.7.4), - (7.7.5), ^, &, | (7.10.2), ~ (7.6.4), ++, -- (7.5.9 7.6.5)
sizeof (18.5.4).
System.Enum (
System.ValueType object). ,
.
425
15.
, , C++, Pascal Modula
. C++,
-, C++, , .
, System.Delegate.
, ,
, . , ,
. ,
, .
.
,
, ; (15.1)
. .
15.1
_ _ (9.6), .
_:
_ delegate __
__
( __ )
___ ;
_:
_
_ _
_:
new
public
protected
internal
private
,
.
new , ;
, ,
10.3.4.
, ,
(3.5.1).
.
__ ,
__ .
__ .
C# , . ,

. ,
(7.9.8).
:
delegate int D1(int i, double d);
class A
{
public static int M1(int a, double b) {...}
}
class B
{
delegate int D2(int c, double d);
public static int M1(int f, double g) {...}
public static void M2(int k, double l) {...}
public static int M3(int g) {...}
}
public static void M4(int g) {...}
D1 D2 A.M1 B.M1,
;
, . D1 D2
B.M2, B.M3 B.M4,
.
,
.

.
,
. :
delegate bool Predicate<T>(T value);
class X
{
static bool F(int i) {...}
static bool G(string s) {...}
}
Predicate<int> X.F, Predicate<string>

X.G.
_ .
, System.Delegate. sealed,
.
System.Delegate. , System.Delegate
; , .
C# .
, ,
, , .
428
, System.Delegate
.
, , .
(15.2) , ,
. , ,
: ,
, .
+ (7.7.4) += (7.16.2).
- (7.7.5) -= (7.16.2).
(7.9.8).

:
class C
{
public static void M1(int i) {...}
}
class Test
{
D cd3 = cd1 + cd2;
D cd4 = cd3 + cd1;
D cd5 = cd4 + cd3;
}
//
//
// M1
// M1
// M1
M1
M2
+ M2
+ M2 + M1
+ M2 + M1 + M1 + M2
cd1 cd2 .
cd3 , M1 M2, .
cd4 M1, M2 M1, . , cd5
M1, M2, M1, M1 M2, . (
) . 15.4.
15.2
M D, :
D M , D
ref out, M;
( ref out)
(6.1.1) (6.1.6)
D M;
ref out D , M;

M D.
429
15.3
__ (7.5.10.5)
. :
, __,
( null) ,
__,
:
class C
{
public void M2(int i) {...}
}
class Test
{
C t = new C();
D cd2 = new D(t.M2);
D cd3 = new D(cd2);
}
}
//
//
//
.
, ,
;
.
15.4
C# .
, ,
, , , ,
. ( . 7.5.5.3).
, ,
, ,
, .
, ,
, , .
, .
(10.6.1.2),
; , ,
, .
,
.
,
, ,
, , , .
430
, null,
, , , :
using System;
class C
{
public static void M1(int i) {
Console.WriteLine("C.M1: " + i);
}
public static void M2(int i) {
}
public void M3(int i) {
}
}
class Test
{
cd1(-1);
// M1
cd2(-2);
// M2
D cd3 = cd1 + cd2;
cd3(10);
// M1, M2
cd3 += cd1;
cd3(20);
// M1, M2, M1
C c = new C();
D cd4 = new D(c.M3);
cd3 += cd4;
cd3(30);
// M1, M2, M1, M3
cd3 -= cd1;
cd3(40);
// M1
// M1, M2, M3
cd3 -= cd4;
cd3(50);
// M1, M2
cd3 -= cd2;
cd3(60);
// M1
cd3 -= cd2;
cd3(60);
//
// M1
cd3 -= cd1;
// , cd3 null
//
// System.NullReferenceException
cd3(70);
cd3 -= cd1;
//
}
}
cd3 += cd1;, .
. , ,
.
431
, cd3 -= cd1;, cd3

. (
) .
:
C.M1:
C.M2:
C.M1:
C.M2:
C.M1:
C.M2:
C.M1:
C.M1:
C.M2:
C.M1:
C.M3:
C.M1:
C.M2:
C.M3:
C.M1:
C.M2:
C.M1:
C.M1:
432
-1
-2
10
10
20
20
20
30
30
30
30
40
40
40
50
50
60
60
16.
C# ,
, , .
C# C++, :
C# ,
System.Exception. C++
;
C# finally (8.10) ,
, .
C++ ;
C# , ,
null,
.
16.1
.
throw (8.9.5) .
, throw.
,
C#, ,
. , (7.7.2)
System.DivideByZeroException, . ,
, . 16.4.
16.2 System.Exception
System.Exception .
, :
Message , string,
InnerException , Exception. NULL,
, ,
catch InnerException. , NULL,
, .
, , .
System.Exception.
16.3
try (8.10).
, catch,
, .
try, catch
try . , , ,
try, .
, catch,
,
. catch, ,
.
catch ,
catch. catch,
finally try
, , .
catch , :
catch (10.12)
, System.TypeInitializationException
, .
System.TypeInitializationException , ;
catch ,
, . .
, , .
,
( ).
( object) , .
16.4
C#.
434
2
System.ArithmeticException
,
,
System.DivideByZeroException
System.ArrayTypeMismatchException
,

.
System.DivideByZeroException
System.IndexOutOfRangeException
System.InvalidCastException
System.NullReferenceException
,
, ,
.
System.OutOfMemoryException

( new).
System.OverflowException

checked.
System.StackOverflowException

-
;
.
System.TypeInitializationException
,
catch
.
435
17.
C# ,
. ,
_ public, protected, internal private.
C# ,
.
. ,
HelpAttribute, (
),
.
(17.1),
(17.1.2). C#
(17.2)
(17.3).
17.1
, System.Attribute,
. ,
. Attribute.
, .
17.1.1
AttributeUsage (17.4.1) , .
AttributeUsage (17.1.2),
, . :
using System;
[AttributeUsage(AttributeTargets.Class | AttributeTargets.Interface)]
public class SimpleAttribute: Attribute
{
...
}
SimpleAttribute,
_ _. :
[Simple] class Class1 {...}
[Simple] interface Interface1 {...}
Simple.
SimpleAttribute, Attribute,
Simple. ,
:
[SimpleAttribute] class Class1 {...}
[SimpleAttribute] interface Interface1 {...}
AttributeUsage (17.1.2), AllowMultiple,

, .
AllowMultiple True,
.
AllowMultiple False,

.
:
using System;
[AttributeUsage(AttributeTargets.Class, AllowMultiple = true)]
public class AuthorAttribute: Attribute
{
private string name;
public AuthorAttribute(string name) {
this.name = name;
}
}
}
AuthorAttribute. :
[Author("Brian Kernighan"), Author("Dennis Ritchie")]
class Class1
{
...
}
Author.
AttributeUsage , Inherited,
, ,
. Inherited True,
. Inherited False,
. , True.
X, AttributeUsage, :
using System;
class X: Attribute {...}
:
using System;
[AttributeUsage(
AttributeTargets.All,
AllowMultiple = false,
Inherited = true)
]
class X: Attribute {...}
17.1.2
.

. , ,
438

.
:
using System;
[AttributeUsage(AttributeTargets.Class)]
public class HelpAttribute: Attribute
{
public HelpAttribute(string url) {
...
}
public string Topic {
get {...}
set {...}
}
//
//
public string Url {

get {...}
}
}
HelpAttribute, url
Topic. Url ,
, .
:
[Help("http://www.mycompany.com/.../Class1.htm")]
class Class1
{
...
}
[Help("http://www.mycompany.com/.../Misc.htm", Topic = "Class2")]
class Class2
{
...
}
17.1.3

, :
: bool, byte, char, double, float, int, long, sbyte, short, string, uint,
ulong ushort;
object;
System.Type;
, , , (
), (17.2);
, ,
.
439
17.2
.
, .
(
) _ (9.6), __ (10.1.5),
__ (13.2), __ (11.2),
__ (14.3), __ (10.7.2),
____ (10.8.1) __ (10.6.1).
. ,
, .
,
, . , [A][B], [B][A], [A, B] [B, A]
.
_:
__
__:
__
__ __
__:
[ ____ _ ]
[ ____ _ , ]
____:
___ :
___:
assembly
module
:
_
_:
_
_ _
_:
[ ___ _ ]
[ ___ _ , ]
___:
__ :
__:
field
event
method
param
property
return
type
_:
_ ,
440
:
_ _
_:
_
_:
( __ )
( __ , __ )
( __ )
__:
_
__ , _
_:
__
__:
_
__ , _
_:
= __
__:
_
. ( ) .
__;
, , __,
, .
.
_ . _ _,
. . :
class Class1 {}
[Class1] class Class2 {} //
, Class1
, Class1 .
.
___.
,
____.
, ___

(
). , ___
, .
:
, , ,
. ,
___.
___ assembly ,
441
; ___ module ,
;
, , ,
. ___
. ___ type ,
; ___ return
, ;
, , ,
. ___
. ___ method ,
; ___ return ,
;
, , ,
. ___
. ___ method
, ; ___
return , ;
, , ,
, ( )
add remove. ___
. ___ event
, ; ___
field , ;
___ method , ;
, get ,
, .
___ .
___ method , ;
___ return ,
;
, set ,
, .
___ .
___ method , ;
___ param ,
; ___ return ,
;
, add remove ,
, .
___ .
___ method , ;
___ param ,
; ___ return ,
.
___ , .
, , type:
[type: Author("Brian Kernighan")]
class Class1 {}
442
2
[Author("Dennis Ritchie")]
class Class2 {}
___. ,
param :
[param: Author("Brian Kernighan")]
class Class1 {}
//
Attribute. _ _
, . ,
, . _
,
(2.4.2), ,
. :
using System;
[AttributeUsage(AttributeTargets.All)]
public class X: Attribute
{}
public class XAttribute: Attribute
{}
[X]
class Class1 {}
// :
[XAttribute]
class Class2 {}
// XAttribute
[@X]
class Class3 {}
[@XAttribute]
class Class4 {}
// X
// XAttribute
X XAttribute. [X] ,
X, XAttribute.
. [XAttribute]
( , XAttributeAttribute).
X,
XAttribute, :
using System;
public class XAttribute: Attribute
{}
[X]
class Class1 {}
// XAttribute
[XAttribute]
class Class2 {}
// XAttribute
[@X]
class Class3 {}
// : "X"

. :
using System;
443
public class HelpStringAttribute: Attribute
{
string value;
public HelpStringAttribute(string value) {
this.value = value;
}
public string Value {
get {...}
}
}
[HelpString(" Class1")]
[HelpString(" Class1")]
public class Class1 {}
,
HelpString, ,
Class1.
E __, :
E (17.1.3);
E :
o
System.Type;
__.
:
using System;
public class TestAttribute: Attribute
{
public int P1 {
get {...}
set {...}
}
public Type P2 {
get {...}
set {...}
}
public object P3 {
get {...}
set {...}
}
}
[Test(P1 = 1234, P3 = new int[] {1, 3, 5}, P2 = typeof(float))]
class MyClass {}
_typeof (7.5.11), ,
, ,
.
.
444
2
class A: Attribute
{
public A(Type t) {...}
}
class G<T>
{
[A(typeof(T))] T t;
}
class X
{
[A(typeof(List<int>))] int x;
[A(typeof(List<>))] int y;
}
// ,
// ,
// ,
17.3
, .
, .
,
.
,
, .
17.3.1
T, __ P
__ N :
__
new T(P). ,
C T, ;
C , ;
_ Arg N:
Name _ Arg;
Name
T. T , .
:
T, C T, __ P
__ N.
17.3.2
T, C T,
__ P __ N. ,
:
__
new T(P) C, .
, O T;
_ Arg N :
445
Name _ Arg. Name

, , O,
;
Value __ Arg;
Name O, Value;
Name O. Value;
O, T,
__ P __ N.
17.4
. :
System.AttributeUsageAttribute (17.4.1), ,
System.Diagnostics.ConditionalAttribute (17.4.2),
System.ObsoleteAttribute (17.4.3), .
17.4.1 AttributeUsage
AttributeUsage .
, AttributeUsage, System.Attribute,
. .
namespace System
{
public class AttributeUsageAttribute: Attribute
{
public AttributeUsageAttribute(AttributeTargets validOn) {...}
public virtual bool AllowMultiple { get {...} set {...} }
public virtual bool Inherited { get {...} set {...} }
public virtual AttributeTargets ValidOn { get {...} }
}
public enum AttributeTargets
{
Assembly = 0x0001,
Module
= 0x0002,
Class
= 0x0004,
Struct
= 0x0008,
Enum
= 0x0010,
Constructor = 0x0020,
Method
= 0x0040,
Property = 0x0080,
Field
= 0x0100,
Event
= 0x0200,
Interface = 0x0400,
Parameter
= 0x0800,
Delegate = 0x1000,
ReturnValue = 0x2000,
446
2
All = Assembly | Module | Class | Struct | Enum | Constructor |
Method | Property | Field | Event | Interface | Parameter |
Delegate | ReturnValue
}
}
17.4.2 Conditional
Conditional
.
namespace System.Diagnostics
{
[AttributeUsage(AttributeTargets.Method | AttributeTargets.Class,
AllowMultiple = true)]
public class ConditionalAttribute: Attribute
{
public ConditionalAttribute(string conditionString) {...}
public string ConditionString { get {...} }
}
}

, Conditional, . Conditional
.
, , , .
, ; ( ) .
:
_ _.
Conditional ,
;
void;
override.
virtual.
Conditional;
.
.
, ,
__. :
#define DEBUG
using System;
using System.Diagnostics;
class Class1
{
[Conditional("DEBUG")]
public static void M() {
Console.WriteLine("Executed Class1.M");
}
}
447
class Class2
{
public static void Test() {
Class1.M();
}
}
Class1.M . Test Class2 .

DEBUG , Class2.Test, M.
DEBUG , Class2.Test Class1.M.
,
. :
class1.cs:
class Class1
{
Console.WriteLine(" Class1.F");
}
}
class2.cs:
#define DEBUG
class Class2
{
public static void G() {
Class1.F();
}
}
// F
class3.cs:
#undef DEBUG
class Class3
{
public static void H() {
Class1.F();
}
}
// F
Class2 Class3 Class1.F,

, DEBUG. Class2,
Class3, F Class2 , F Class3 .
.
base base.M
. :
class1.cs:
using System;
448
2
class Class1
{
public virtual void M() {
Console.WriteLine("Class1.M ");
}
}
class2.cs:
using System;
class Class2: Class1
{
public override void M() {
Console.WriteLine("Class2.M ");
base.M();
// base.M !
}
}
class3.cs:
#define DEBUG
using System;
class Class3
{
Class2 c = new Class2();
c.M();
}
}
// M
Class2 M, . ,
, DEBUG,
. , Class2.M .
_ .

(17.1), Conditional,
. ,
, Conditional. :
using System;
[Conditional("ALPHA")]
[Conditional("BETA")]
public class TestAttribute : Attribute {}
TestAttribute ,
ALPHA BETA.
(17.2) ,
,
.
,
. :
test.cs:
449
using System;
[Conditional(DEBUG)]
public class TestAttribute : Attribute {}
class1.cs:
#define DEBUG
[Test]
// TestAttribute
class Class1 {}
class2.cs:
#undef DEBUG
[Test]
// TestAttribute
class Class2 {}
Class1 Class2 Test,

, DEBUG. Class1,
Class2, Test Class1 ,
Test Class2 .
17.4.3 Obsolete
Obsolete ,
.
namespace System
{
[AttributeUsage(
AttributeTargets.Class |
AttributeTargets.Struct |
AttributeTargets.Enum |
AttributeTargets.Interface |
AttributeTargets.Delegate |
AttributeTargets.Method |
AttributeTargets.Constructor |
AttributeTargets.Property |
AttributeTargets.Field |
AttributeTargets.Event,
Inherited = false)
]
public class ObsoleteAttribute: Attribute
{
public ObsoleteAttribute() {...}
public ObsoleteAttribute(string message) {...}
public ObsoleteAttribute(string message, bool error) {...}
public string Message { get {...} }
public bool IsError { get {...} }
}
}
, Obsolete,
. , ,
450
false.
, true.
:
[Obsolete(" ; B")]
class A
{
public void F() {}
}
class B
{
public void F() {}
}
class Test
{
A a = new A();
a.F();
}
}
//
A Obsolete. A Main
, ;
B.
17.5
. Microsoft .NET C#.
17.5.1 COM Win32
.NET , C#
, COM DLL
Win32. , DllImport static extern, ,
DLL Win32.
System.Runtime.InteropServices,
.NET.
.NET IndexerName
.NET
.NET. IndexerName ,
Item. IndexerName
.
namespace System.Runtime.CompilerServices.CSharp
{
[AttributeUsage(AttributeTargets.Property)]
public class IndexerNameAttribute: Attribute
{
public IndexerNameAttribute(string indexerName) {...}
public string Value { get {...} }
451
18.
C#, , C C++ ,
. C#
, .
C# , C C++. C#
, ,
. ,
C C++.
C C++
C#, .
, , , ,

. C#
.
,
, .
C
C#.

, .
unsafe, ,
.
18.1
C# .
unsafe ,
_:
, , unsafe,
( ,
) ;
, , , , , , ,
unsafe,
;
_ .
.
. (...)
, .
_:
...
unsafe
_:
...
unsafe
_:
...
unsafe
_:
...
unsafe
_:
...
unsafe
_:
...
unsafe
_:
...
unsafe
_:
...
unsafe
_:
...
unsafe
_:
...
unsafe
_:
...
unsafe
_:
extern unsafe ~ ( ) _
unsafe extern ~ ( ) _
__:
extern unsafe static
unsafe extern static
extern static unsafe
unsafe static extern
static extern unsafe
static unsafe extern
_:
...
_
_:
unsafe

public unsafe struct Node
{
public int Value;
public Node* Left;
public Node* Right;
}
454
unsafe, ,
. Left Right
. :
public struct Node
{
public int Value;
public unsafe Node* Left;
public unsafe Node* Right;
}
unsafe .
, ,
unsafe .
public class A
{
public unsafe virtual void F() {
char* p;
...
}
}
public class B: A
{
base.F();
...
}
}
unsafe F A F
, . F
B unsafe, , , F
B .
,
public unsafe class A
{
public virtual void F(char* p) {...}
}
public class B: A
{
public unsafe override void F(char* p) {...}
}
, F ,
. ,
A, unsafe , B.
18.2
(4) _, _
_. _ typeof (7.5.10.6)
, .
:
...
_
455
_ _ void
*:
_:
_ *
void *
_:
, * , _ .
, .
( ),
, .
, ,
_.
_ , _
_ . , _
:
sbyte, byte, short, ushort, int, uint, long, ulong, char, float, double, decimal bool;
_;
_;
_,
_.
: ()
, .
:
byte*
byte
char*
char
int**
int
int*[]
int
void*
.
C C++, , C# *
,
. :
int* pi, pj; // NOT int *pi, *pj;
, T* T.
* (18.5.1) . ,
P int*, *P int, ,
P.
456
, null.
null . null
.
void* . ,
void*,
. void* (
).
. ,
object object.
, (4.3) .
.
18.4.
_ volatile (10.5.3).
ref out,
,
, ,
, , . .
using System;
class Test
{
static int value = 20;
unsafe static void F(out int* pi1, ref int* pi2) {
int i = 10;
pi1 = &i;
fixed (int* pj = &value) {

// ...
pi2 = pj;
}

int i = 10;
unsafe {
int* px1;
int* px2 = &i;
F(out px1, ref px2);
Console.WriteLine("*px1 = {0}, *px2 = {1}",
*px1, *px2); //
}
, . ,
int,
int,
, , null:
457
unsafe static int* Find(int* pi, int size, int value) {

for (int i = 0; i < size; ++i) {
if (*pi == value)
return pi;
++pi;
}
return null;
}
* (18.5.1);
-> (18.5.2);
[] (18.5.3);
& (18.5.4);
++ (18.5.5);
+
(18.5.6);
==, !=, <, >, <= => (18.5.7);
stackalloc (18.7);
fixed ,
(18.6).
18.3
(18.5.4) fixed (18.6) :
.
,
. ( ,
, .)
, .
( .)
& (18.5.4) .
,
fixed (18.6),
fixed.
, :
, _ (7.5.2),
,
;
, __ (7.5.4) V.I, V
_;
, ____ (18.5.1)
*P, ____ (18.5.2) P->I
____ (18.5.3) P[E].
.
458
, .
, ref out ,
, , . ,
, , ,
.
18.4
(6.1)
:
_ void*.
null _.
, (6.2)
:
_ _;
sbyte, byte, short, ushort, int, uint, long ulong _;
_ sbyte, byte, short, ushort, int, uint, long ulong.
, (6.3.1)
:
_ void*.
.
, ,
.
,
, , .
, : A
B, C,
A C.
,
:
char c = 'A';
char* pc = &c;
void* pv = pc;
int* pi = (int*)pv;
int i = *pi;
//
*pi = 123456;
//

.
. ,
double :
using System;
459
class Test
{
unsafe static void Main() {
double d = 123.456e23;
unsafe {
byte* pb = (byte*)&d;
for (int i = 0; i < sizeof(double); ++i)
Console.Write("{0:X2} ", *pb++);
}
}
}
, .
. 32-
64-
, uint
ulong .
18.5
,
. ,
, _
(7.5.2), __ (7.5.4), _ (7.5.5) __ (7.5.6)
.
____ (7.5)
_ (7.6) :
____:
...
____
____
_sizeof
_:
...
____
_
.
.
18.5.1
____ (*)
_.
____:
* _
*
, . *P, P
T*, T. * void*
.
* null .
, ,
460
, *
. *
(. 18.4)
.
,
*P, (5.3.1).
18.5.2
____ _, "->"
.
____:
_ ->
P->I, P ,
void*, I , P.
P->I , (*P).I.
(*) . 18.5.1. ( .) .
7.5.4.

using System;
struct Point
{
public int x;
public int y;
return "(" + x + "," + y + ")";
}
}
class Test
{
Point point;
unsafe {
Point* p = &point;
p->x = 10;
p->y = 20;
Console.WriteLine(p->ToString());
}
}
}
-> .
P->I (*P).I, Main :
461
class Test
{
Point point;
unsafe {
Point* p = &point;
(*p).x = 10;
(*p).y = 20;
Console.WriteLine((*p).ToString());
}
}
}
18.5.3
____ ____,
, [" "].
____:
____ [ ]
P[E], P ,
void*, E , int,
uint, long ulong.
P[E] , *(P + E).
(*) . 18.5.1. (+)
. 18.5.6.

class Test
{
unsafe {
char* p = stackalloc char[256];
for (int i = 0; i < 256; i++) p[i] = (char)i;
}
}
}
for.
P[E] *(P + E), :
class Test
{
unsafe {
char* p = stackalloc char[256];
for (int i = 0; i < 256; i++) *(p + i) = (char)i;
}
}
}
,
. , C C++.
18.5.4
_ (&), _.
462
_:
& _
E T (18.3),
&E , E. T*,
. , E
, E E
. fixed
(18.6), . 7.5.4,
,
readonly, , . , , .
.
& , , &
, ,
, .
, .

using System;
class Test
{
int i;
unsafe {
int* p = &i;
*p = 123;
}
Console.WriteLine(i);
}
}
i &i, p.
*p i,
, , .
& ,
. , API
, API. API
,
.
18.5.5
++ -- (7.5.9 7.6.5)
, void*. , T*
:
T* ++(T* x);
T* --(T* x);
, x + 1 x - 1, (18.5.6). ,
T* ++ sizeof(T) ,
, -- sizeof(T) , .
,
, .
463
18.5.6
+ - (7.7.4 7.7.5)
, void*. , T* :
T*
T*
T*
T*
+(T*
+(T*
+(T*
+(T*
x,
x,
x,
x,
T*
T*
T*
T*
+(int x, T* y);
+(uint x, T* y);
+(long x, T* y);
+(ulong x, T* y);
T*
T*
T*
T*
(T*
(T*
(T*
(T*
x,
x,
x,
x,
int y);
uint y);
long y);
ulong y);
int y);
uint y);
long y);
ulong y);
long (T* x, T* y);
P T* N int, uint, long ulong, P

+ N N + P T*, N * sizeof(T)
, P. P - N T*,
N * sizeof(T) , P.
, P Q, T*, P Q ,
P Q, sizeof(T). long. , P - Q
((long)(P) - (long)(Q)) / sizeof(T).
:
using System;
class Test
{

unsafe {
int* values = stackalloc int[20];
int* p = &values[1];
int* q = &values[15];
Console.WriteLine("p - q = {0}", p - q);
Console.WriteLine("q - p = {0}", q - p);
}
}
:
p - q = -14
q - p = 14
,
, , .
18.5.7
==, !=, <, >, <= => (7.9)
. :
bool ==(void* x, void* y);
bool !=(void* x, void* y);
464
2
bool <(void* x, void* y);
bool >(void* x, void* y);
bool <=(void* x, void* y);
bool >=(void* x, void* y);
void*,
.
, , .
18.5.8 sizeof
sizeof , . ,
sizeof, _ (18.2).
_sizeof:
sizeof ( _ )
sizeof int.
sizeof , .
sizeof(sbyte)
sizeof(byte)
sizeof(short)
sizeof(ushort)
sizeof(int)
sizeof(uint)
sizeof(long)
sizeof(ulong)
sizeof(char)
sizeof(float)
sizeof(double)
sizeof(bool)
sizeof
, .
.
, .
, , .
, ,
, .
18.6 fixed
_ (8)
, fixed, ,
.
465
_:
...
_fixed
_fixed:
fixed ( _ __fixed ) _
__fixed:
__fixed
__fixed , __fixed
__fixed:
= __fixed
__fixed:
& __
__fixed _
,
__fixed. , fixed,
__fixed, ,
_ fixed. , fixed,
. ,
( ++ --)
ref out.
__fixed :
&, __ (5.3.3)
(18.3) T , T*
, fixed.

fixed;
_ T , T*
, fixed.
,
fixed. fixed
, null ;
string , char*
, fixed.
,
fixed. fixed ,
null;
_ __,
, ,
, fixed.
(18.7.2),

fixed.
, __fixed, fixed ,
, ,
fixed. , ,
__fixed, ,
466
fixed ,
.
, , fixed,
. , ,
fixed, API, ,
API .
( ).

.

class Test
{
static int x;
int y;
unsafe static void F(int* p) {
*p = 1;
}
unsafe {
fixed (int* p = &x) F(p);
fixed (int* p = &t.y) F(p);
fixed (int* p = &a[0]) F(p);
fixed (int* p = a) F(p);
}
}
}
fixed.
, ,
.
&, .
fixed .
, a &a[0] fixed ,
a.
fixed string:
class Test
{
static string name = "xx";
unsafe static void F(char* p) {
for (int i = 0; p[i] != '\0'; ++i)
Console.WriteLine(p[i]);
}
unsafe {
fixed (char* p = name) F(p);
fixed (char* p = "xx") F(p);
}
}
}
467

, 0 Length 1.
, ,
. fixed, p a,
p p + a.Length - 1 .
p[0] p[a.Length - 1] .

.
:
using System;
class Test
{
int[,,] a = new int[2,3,4];
unsafe {
fixed (int* p = a) {
for (int i = 0; i < a.Length; ++i) //
p[i] = i;
}
}
for (int i = 0; i < 2; ++i)

for (int j = 0; j < 3; ++j) {
for (int k = 0; k < 4; ++k)
Console.Write("[{0},{1},{2}] = {3,2} ", i, j, k, a[i,j,k]);
}
:
[0,0,0]
[0,1,0]
[0,2,0]
[1,0,0]
[1,1,0]
[1,2,0]
=
=
=
=
=
=
0 [0,0,1] =
4 [0,1,1] =
8 [0,2,1] =
12 [1,0,1] =
16 [1,1,1] =
20 [1,2,1] =
1 [0,0,2] = 2 [0,0,3] = 3
5 [0,1,2] = 6 [0,1,3] = 7
9 [0,2,2] = 10 [0,2,3] = 11
13 [1,0,2] = 14 [1,0,3] = 15
17 [1,1,2] = 18 [1,1,3] = 19
21 [1,2,2] = 22 [1,2,3] = 23

class Test
{
unsafe static void Fill(int* p, int count, int value) {
for (; count != 0; count--) *p++ = value;
}
unsafe {
fixed (int* p = a) Fill(p, 100, -1);
}
}
}
fixed , ,
.
:
468
2
unsafe struct Font
{
public int ;
public fixed char name[32];
}
class Test
{
unsafe static void PutString(string s, char* buffer, int bufSize) {
int len = s.Length;
if (len > bufSize) len = bufSize;
for (int i = 0; i < len; i++) buffer[i] = s[i];
for (int i = len; i < bufSize; i++) buffer[i] = (char)0;
}
Font f;
unsafe static void Main()

{
Test test = new Test();
test.f.size = 10;
fixed (char* p = test.f.name) {
PutString("Times New Roman", p, 32);
}
}
fixed , ,
.
char*, , ,
null. fixed, p s,
p p + s.Length - 1 ,
p + s.Length null ( '\0').

. , ,
, ,
, .
null API,
C. , , null.
null , ,
null char*.
18.7
C
, API.
18.7.1
,
.
.

(18.1).
469
__:
___
___:
___ fixed
__
--- ;
___:
___
___
___
___:
new
public
protected
internal
private
unsafe
__:
___:
___
___
___
___:
[ _ ]
(17), new
(10.2.2), (10.2.3) unsafe
(18.1). ,
. ,
.
static.
(-),
. sbyte,
byte, short, ushort, int, uint, long, ulong, char, float, double bool.
,
. ,
, , [ ].
,
. int,
.
.
,
,
. ,
470
2
unsafe struct A
{
public fixed int x[5], y[10], z[100];
}
unsafe struct A
{
public fixed int x[5];
public fixed int y[10];
public fixed int z[100];
}
18.7.2
(7.3) , .
_ (7.5.2)
__ (7.5.4).
,
this.I, I .
E.I E I
, E.I
:
E.I ,
;
E , ;
, E (18.3), E.I
__fixed (18.6), ;
E ,
I E. S*, S
I, .

. ,
.
,
.
unsafe struct Font
{
public int size;
public fixed char name[32];
}
class Test
{
unsafe static void PutString(string s, char* buffer, int bufSize) {
int len = s.Length;
if (len > bufSize) len = bufSize;
for (int i = 0; i < len; i++) buffer[i] = s[i];
for (int i = len; i < bufSize; i++) buffer[i] = (char)0;
}
471
unsafe static void Main()

{
Font f;
f.size = 10;
PutString("Times New Roman", f.name, 32);
}
18.7.3
(5.3),

.
, ,
, ,

(5.2).
.
18.8
(8.5.1)
, .
__:
_stackalloc
_stackalloc:
stackalloc _ [ ]
_ , ,
.
. ,
, _,
.
stackalloc T[E] , T
(18.2), E int. E * sizeof(T)
( T*) . E ,
. E , ,
. ,
System.StackOverflowException.
.
catch finally (8.10).
, stackalloc.
, ,
. alloca, ,
C C++.

using System;
472
2
class Test
{
static string IntToString(int value) {
int n = value >= 0? value: -value;
unsafe {
char* buffer = stackalloc char[16];
char* p = buffer + 16;
do {
*--p = (char)(n % 10 + '0');
n /= 10;
} while (n != 0);
if (value < 0) *--p = '-';
return new string(p, 0, (int)(buffer + 16 - p));
}
}
Console.WriteLine(IntToString(12345));
Console.WriteLine(IntToString(-999));
}
}
stackalloc IntToString 16
. .
18.9
stackalloc, C#
, .
.
Memory,
C#:
using System;
using System.Runtime.InteropServices;
public unsafe class Memory
{
// .
// API HeapXXX .
static int ph = GetProcessHeap();
// Private .
private Memory() {}
// .
// .
public static void* Alloc(int size) {
void* result = HeapAlloc(ph, HEAP_ZERO_MEMORY, size);
if (result == null) throw new OutOfMemoryException();
return result;
}
// src dst.
// .
473
public static void Copy(void* src, void* dst, int count) {

byte* ps = (byte*)src;
byte* pd = (byte*)dst;
if (ps > pd) {
for (; count != 0; count--) *pd++ = *ps++;
}
else if (ps < pd) {
for (ps += count, pd += count; count != 0; count--) *--pd = *--ps;
}
}
// .
public static void Free(void* block) {
if (!HeapFree(ph, 0, block)) throw new InvalidOperationException();
}
// .
// ,
// .
public static void* ReAlloc(void* block, int size) {
void* result = HeapReAlloc(ph, HEAP_ZERO_MEMORY, block, size);
if (result == null) throw new OutOfMemoryException();
return result;
}
// .
public static int SizeOf(void* block) {
int result = HeapSize(ph, 0, block);
if (result == -1) throw new InvalidOperationException();
return result;
}
// API
const int HEAP_ZERO_MEMORY = 0x00000008;
// API
[DllImport("kernel32")]
static extern int GetProcessHeap();
static extern void* HeapAlloc(int hHeap, int flags, int size);
static extern bool HeapFree(int hHeap, int flags, void* block);
static extern void* HeapReAlloc(int hHeap, int flags,
void* block, int size);
static extern int HeapSize(int hHeap, int flags, void* block);
Memory:
474
2
class Test
{
unsafe {
byte* buffer = (byte*)Memory.Alloc(256);
try {
for (int i = 0; i < 256; i++) buffer[i] = (byte)i;
byte[] array = new byte[256];
fixed (byte* p = array) Memory.Copy(buffer, p, 256);
}
finally {
Memory.Free(buffer);
}
for (int i = 0; i < 256; i++) Console.WriteLine(array[i]);
}
}
}
256 Memory.Alloc
, 0 255. 256
Memory.Copy . ,
Memory.Free
.
475
A.
C#
XML-. ,
, XML
, . ,
, .
( , ) (
, , ). XML
. ( , , C#.)
.
,
.
,
, ,
XML.
A.1
, ,
XML , .
, ( ///),
, ( /**).
( , )
( , , ), .
(17.2) ,
, .
:
___:
/// _
____:
/** ___ */
___ _
/// ___,
___, _
XML-.
____ ,
_, ,
_
____,
XML-. _ ,
.
.
/// <summary> <c>Point</c>
/// .</summary>
///
public class Point
{
/// <summary> <c>draw</c> .</summary>
void draw() {}
}
XML
(http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-xml). XML
, .
,
A.2. :
<param> . ,
,
. ,
.
, .
, . ,
. , cref,

using, .
(. . " List<T>"),
XML. (. . "List{T}") escape-
XML (. . "List<T>").
<summary>
.
<include> XML-.
,
(, ).

.
A.2
, XML.

. (, .)
478
Appendix A
<c>
A.2.1
<code>
A.2.2
<example>
A.2.3
<exception>
A.2.4
<include>
A.2.5
XML
<list>
A.2.6
<para>
A.2.7
<param>
A.2.8
<paramref>
A.2.9
<permission>
A.2.10
<summary>
A.2.11
<returns>
A.2.12
<see>
A.2.13
<seealso>
A.2.14
See Also
<summary>
A.2.15
<value>
A.2.16
<typeparam>
<typeparamref
>
A.2.1 <c>
,
, .
<code> (A.2.2).
:
<c></c>
.
/// .</summary>
public class Point

{
// ...
}
479
A.2.2 <code>

. <c> (A.2.1).
:
<code> </code>
.
///
///
///
///
///
///
///
///
///
///
<summary>
x y.
<example>:
<code>
Point p = new Point(3,5);
p.Translate(-1,3);
</code>
<c>p</c> (2,8).
</example>
</summary>
public void Translate(int xor, int yor) {

X += xor;
Y += yor;
}
A.2.3 <example>
, ,
. <code> (A.2.2).
:
<example></example>
.
. <code> (A.2.2).
A.2.4 <exception>
, .
:
<exception cref=""></exception>
cref=""
. , ,
.
, .
.
480
Appendix A
public class DataBaseOperations
{
/// <exception cref="MasterFileFormatCorruptException"></exception>
/// <exception cref="MasterFileLockedOpenException"></exception>
public static void ReadRecord(int flag) {
if (flag == 1)
throw new MasterFileFormatCorruptException();
else if (flag == 2)
throw new MasterFileLockedOpenException();
//
}
}
A.2.5 <include>
XML- .
XML-, XPath
, XML . <include>
XML .
:
<include file="_" path="xpath" />
file="_"
XML-. ,
.
path="xpath"
Xpath, XML XML-.

.
:
/// <include file="docs.xml" path='extradoc/class[@name="IntList"]/*' />
public class IntList { }
"docs.xml" :
<?xml version="1.0"?>
<extradoc>
<class name="IntList">
<summary>
.
</summary>
</class>
<class name="StringList">
<summary>
.
</summary>
</class>
</extradoc>
, :
/// <summary>
/// .
/// </summary>
public class IntList { }
481
A.2.6 <list>
.
<listheader> . (
.)
<item>.
, . ,
.
:
<list type="bullet" | "number" | "table">
<listheader>
<term></term>
<description></description>
</listheader>
<item>
<term></term>
</item>
<item>
<term></term>
</item>
</list>
, .
, .
.
public class MyClass
{
/// <summary> :
/// <list type="bullet">
/// <item>
/// <description> 1.</description>
/// </item>
/// <item>
/// <description> 2.</description>
/// </item>
/// </list>
/// </summary>
public static void Main () {
// ...
}
}
A.2.7 <para>
, <summary> (A.2.11) <returns>
(A.2.12), .
:
482
Appendix A
<para></para>
.
.
/// <summary> Point.
/// <para>
///
/// Point.</para></summary>
public static void Main() {
// ...
}
A.2.8 <param>
, .
:
<param name=""></param>
.
.
/// <summary>
/// .</summary>
/// <param name="xor"> x.</param>
/// <param name="yor"> y.</param>
public void Move(int xor, int yor) {
X = xor;
Y = yor;
}
A.2.9 <paramref>
, .
, .
:
<paramref name=""/>
483
///
///
///
///
<summary> Point
(<paramref name="xor"/>,<paramref name="yor"/>).</summary>
<param name="xor"> x .</param>
<param name="yor"> y .</param>
public Point(int xor, int yor) {

X = xor;
Y = yor;
}
A.2.10 <permission>
.
:
<permission cref=""></permission>
cref=""
. , ,
.
.
.
/// <permission cref="System.Security.PermissionSet">
/// .</permission>
// ...
}
A.2.11 <summary>
. ( <summary> (A.2.15)
.)
:
<summary></summary>
.
.
/// .</summary>
///
public class Point
{
// ...
}
A.2.12 <returns>
.
484
Appendix A
:
<returns></returns>
.
.
/// <summary> .</summary>
/// <returns>, (x,y),
/// , .</returns>
return "(" + X + "," + Y + ")";
}
A.2.13 <see>
. <seealso> (A.2.14)
, See Also.
:
<see cref=""/>
cref=""
. , ,
.
.
/// <summary>
/// .</summary>
/// <see cref="Translate"/>
X = xor;
Y = yor;
}
/// <summary>
/// x y.
/// </summary>
/// <see cref="Move"/>
X += xor;
Y += yor;
}
A.2.14 <seealso>
See Also. <see> (A.2.13)
.
:
<seealso cref=""/>
cref=""
485
. , ,
.
.
/// <summary> ,
/// .</summary>
/// <seealso cref="operator=="/>
/// <seealso cref="operator!="/>
public override bool Equals(object o) {
// ...
}
A.2.15 <summary>
. <summary> (A.2.11)
.
:
<summary></summary>
.
.
/// <summary> Point
(0,0).</summary>
public Point() : this(0,0) {
}
A.2.16 <value>
.
:
<value> </value>
.
.
/// <value> <c>X</c> x .</value>
public int X
{
get { return x; }
set { x = value; }
}
A.2.17 <typeparam>
, , ,
.
:
<typeparam name=""></typeparam>
486
Appendix A
.
.
/// <typeparam name="T">, .</typeparam>
public class MyList<T> {
...
}
A.2.18 <typeparamref>
, .
, .
:
<typeparamref name=""/>
.
.
/// <summary> <typeparamref
name=T> />> .</summary>
/// <param name="string"> </param>
public List<T> FetchData<T>(string query) {
...
}
A.3
,
.
.
,
.
, , ,
.
A.3.1
:
;
,
. :
487
( , )
( )
( , , ,
)
;
. ,
,
.
, .
, .
, # (U+0023). (,
);
, .
, . .
, CLI, :
o
, ,
:
, , ,
;
out ref @. ,
params, ;
, , [ _ : , ,
_ : ], ,
, , .
, .
, , : .
[] :
, , void, *
. void System.Void;
, , ,
`,
;
, , ,
`` `, ;
, ,
, {,
}.
488
Appendix A
A.3.2
C# ,
, :
, :
enum Color { Red, Blue, Green }
namespace Acme
{
interface IProcess {...}
struct ValueType {...}
class Widget: IProcess
{
public class NestedClass {...}
public interface IMenuItem {...}
public delegate void Del(int i);
public enum Direction { North, South, East, West }
}
class MyList<T>
{
class Helper<U,V> {...}
}
"T:Color"
"T:Acme.IProcess"
"T:Acme.ValueType"
"T:Acme.Widget"
"T:Acme.Widget.NestedClass"
"T:Acme.Widget.IMenuItem"
"T:Acme.Widget.Del"
"T:Acme.Widget.Direction"
T:Acme.MyList`1
T:Acme.MyList`1.Helper`2
:
namespace Acme
{
struct ValueType
{
private int total;
}

{
public class NestedClass
{
private int value;
}
489
private string message;

private static Color defaultColor;
private const double PI = 3.14159;
protected readonly double monthlyAverage;
private long[] array1;
private Widget[,] array2;
private unsafe int *pCount;
private unsafe float **ppValues;
}
"F:Acme.ValueType.total"
"F:Acme.Widget.NestedClass.value"
"F:Acme.Widget.message"
"F:Acme.Widget.defaultColor"
"F:Acme.Widget.PI"
"F:Acme.Widget.monthlyAverage"
"F:Acme.Widget.array1"
"F:Acme.Widget.array2"
"F:Acme.Widget.pCount"
"F:Acme.Widget.ppValues"
;
namespace Acme
{
{
static Widget() {...}
public Widget() {...}
}
public Widget(string s) {...}
}
"M:Acme.Widget.#cctor"
"M:Acme.Widget.#ctor"
"M:Acme.Widget.#ctor(System.String)"
;
namespace Acme
{
{
~Widget() {...}
}
}
"M:Acme.Widget.Finalize"
;
namespace Acme
{
struct ValueType
{
public void M(int i) {...}
}
490
Appendix A
{
public class NestedClass
{
public void M(int i) {...}
}
public
public
public
public
public
public
public
static void M0() {...}

void M1(char c, out float f, ref ValueType v) {...}
void M2(short[] x1, int[,] x2, long[][] x3) {...}
void M3(long[][] x3, Widget[][,,] x4) {...}
unsafe void M4(char *pc, Color **pf) {...}
unsafe void M5(void *pv, double *[][,] pd) {...}
void M6(int i, params object[] args) {...}
}
class MyList<T>
{
public void Test(T t) { }
}
class UseList
{
public void Process(MyList<int> list) { }
public MyList<T> GetValues<T>(T inputValue) { return null; }
}
}
"M:Acme.ValueType.M(System.Int32)"
"M:Acme.Widget.NestedClass.M(System.Int32)"
"M:Acme.Widget.M0"
"M:Acme.Widget.M1(System.Char,System.Single@,Acme.ValueType@)"
"M:Acme.Widget.M2(System.Int16[],System.Int32[0:,0:],System.Int64[][])"
"M:Acme.Widget.M3(System.Int64[][],Acme.Widget[0:,0:,0:][])"
"M:Acme.Widget.M4(System.Char*,Color**)"
"M:Acme.Widget.M5(System.Void*,System.Double*[0:,0:][])"
"M:Acme.Widget.M6(System.Int32,System.Object[])"
M:Acme.MyList`1.Test(`0)
M:Acme.UseList.Process(Acme.MyList{System.Int32})
M:Acme.UseList.GetValues``(``0)
;
namespace Acme
{
{
public int Width { get {...} set {...} }
public int this[int i] { get {...} set {...} }
public int this[string s, int i] { get {...} set {...} }
}
}
"P:Acme.Widget.Width"
"P:Acme.Widget.Item(System.Int32)"
"P:Acme.Widget.Item(System.String,System.Int32)"
491
namespace Acme
{
{
public event Del AnEvent;
}
}
"E:Acme.Widget.AnEvent"
;
namespace Acme
{
{
public static Widget operator+(Widget x) {...}
}
}
"M:Acme.Widget.op_UnaryPlus(Acme.Widget)"
: op_UnaryPlus, op_UnaryNegation,
op_LogicalNot, op_OnesComplement, op_Increment, op_Decrement, op_True op_False.
;
namespace Acme
{
{
public static Widget operator+(Widget x1, Widget x2) {...}
}
}
"M:Acme.Widget.op_Addition(Acme.Widget,Acme.Widget)"
: op_Addition, op_Subtraction,
op_Multiply, op_Division, op_Modulus, op_BitwiseAnd, op_BitwiseOr, op_ExclusiveOr,
op_LeftShift, op_RightShift, op_Equality, op_Inequality, op_LessThan, op_LessThanOrEqual,
op_GreaterThan op_GreaterThanOrEqual.
"~",
;
namespace Acme
{
{
public static explicit operator int(Widget x) {...}
public static implicit operator long(Widget x) {...}
}
}
"M:Acme.Widget.op_Explicit(Acme.Widget)~System.Int32"
"M:Acme.Widget.op_Implicit(Acme.Widget)~System.Int64"
A.4
A.4.1 C#
Point:
492
Appendix A
namespace Graphics
{
/// <summary> <c>Point</c> .
/// </summary>
public class Point
{
/// <summary> <c>x</c>
/// x .</summary>
private int x;
/// <summary> <c>y</c>
/// y .</summary>
private int y;
/// <value> <c>X</c> x .</value>
public int X
{
get { return x; }
set { x = value; }
}
/// <value> <c>Y</c> y .</value>
public int Y
{
get { return y; }
set { y = value; }
}
/// <summary> Point
/// (0,0).</summary>
public Point() : this(0,0) {}
/// <summary> Point
/// (<paramref name="xor"/>,<paramref name="yor"/>).</summary>
/// <param><c>xor</c> x Point.</param>
/// <param><c>xor</c> y Point.</param>
public Point(int xor, int yor) {
X = xor;
Y = yor;
}
/// <summary>
/// .</summary>
/// <param><c>xor</c> x.</param>
/// <param><c>yor</c> y.</param>
/// <see cref="Translate"/>
X = xor;
Y = yor;
}
493
/// <summary>
/// x y.
/// <example>:
/// <code>
/// Point p = new Point(3,5);
/// p.Translate(-1,3);
/// </code>
/// <c>p</c> (2,8).
/// </example>
/// </summary>
/// <param><c>xor</c> x.</param>
/// <param><c>yor</c> y.</param>
/// <see cref="Move"/>
X += xor;
Y += yor;
}
/// <summary> , Point
/// .</summary>
/// <param><c>o</c> ,
.
/// </param>
/// <returns>True, Point
/// ; False.</returns>
public override bool Equals(object o) {
if (o == null) {
return false;
}
if (this == o) {
return true;
}
if (GetType() == o.GetType()) {
Point p = (Point)o;
return (X == p.X) && (Y == p.Y);
}
return false;

/// <returns>, (x,y),
/// , .</returns>
return "(" + X + "," + Y + ")";
}
494
Appendix A
/// .</summary>
/// <param><c>p1</c> Point.</param>
/// <seealso cref="Equals"/>
public static bool operator==(Point p1, Point p2) {
if ((object)p1 == null || (object)p2 == null) {
return false;
}
if (p1.GetType() == p2.GetType()) {
return (p1.X == p2.X) && (p1.Y == p2.Y);
}
}
return false;

/// .</summary>
/// <seealso cref="Equals"/>
public static bool operator!=(Point p1, Point p2) {
return !(p1 == p2);
}
}
}
/// <summary> Point

/// .
/// <para>
/// ,
/// Point.</para></summary>
public static void Main () {
//
}
A.4.2 XML
,
Point:
<?xml version="1.0"?>
<doc>
<assembly>
<name>Point</name>
</assembly>
<members>
<member name="T:Graphics.Point">
<summary> <c>Point</c>
.
</summary>
</member>
495
<member name="F:Graphics.Point.x">
<summary> <c>x</c>
x .</summary>
</member>
<member name="F:Graphics.Point.y">
<summary> <c>y</c>
y .</summary>
</member>
<member name="M:Graphics.Point.#ctor">
<summary> Point
(0,0).</summary>
</member>
<member name="M:Graphics.Point.#ctor(System.Int32,System.Int32)">
<summary> Point
(<paramref name="xor"/>,<paramref name="yor"/>).</summary>
<param><c>xor</c> x Point.</param>
<param><c>yor</c> y Point.</param>
</member>
<member name="M:Graphics.Point.Move(System.Int32,System.Int32)">
<summary>
.</summary>
<param><c>xor</c> x.</param>
<param><c>yor</c> y.</param>
<see cref="M:Graphics.Point.Translate(System.Int32,System.Int32)"/>
</member>
<member
name="M:Graphics.Point.Translate(System.Int32,System.Int32)">
<summary>
x y.
<example>:
<code>
Point p = new Point(3,5);
p.Translate(-1,3);
</code>
<c>p</c> (2,8).
</example>
</summary>
<param><c>xor</c> x.</param>
<param><c>yor</c> y.</param>
<see cref="M:Graphics.Point.Move(System.Int32,System.Int32)"/>
</member>
<member name="M:Graphics.Point.Equals(System.Object)">
<summary> , Point
.</summary>
<param><c>o</c> ,
.
</param>
<returns>True, Point
; False.</returns>
<seealso
cref="M:Graphics.Point.op_Equality(Graphics.Point,Graphics.Point)"/>
<seealso
cref="M:Graphics.Point.op_Inequality(Graphics.Point,Graphics.Point)"/>
</member>
496
Appendix A
<member name="M:Graphics.Point.ToString">
<summary> .</summary>
<returns>,
(x,y),
, .</returns>
</member>
<member
name="M:Graphics.Point.op_Equality(Graphics.Point,Graphics.Point)">
<summary> , Point
.</summary>
<param><c>p1</c> Point.</param>
; False.</returns>
<seealso cref="M:Graphics.Point.Equals(System.Object)"/>
<seealso
cref="M:Graphics.Point.op_Inequality(Graphics.Point,Graphics.Point)"/>
</member>
<member
name="M:Graphics.Point.op_Inequality(Graphics.Point,Graphics.Point)">
<summary> , Point
.</summary>
; False.</returns>
<seealso cref="M:Graphics.Point.Equals(System.Object)"/>
<seealso
cref="M:Graphics.Point.op_Equality(Graphics.Point,Graphics.Point)"/>
</member>
<member name="M:Graphics.Point.Main">
<summary> Point.
<para> ,

Point.</para></summary>
</member>
<member name="P:Graphics.Point.X">
<value> <c>X</c>
x .</value>
</member>
<member name="P:Graphics.Point.Y">
<value> <c>Y</c>
y .</value>
</member>
</members>
</doc>
497
B.
,
, .
, .
B.1
:
_
_:
__
_ __
__:
_ _
__
_:
_
_ _
_:
B.1.1
_:
(U+000D)
(U+000A)
(U+000D), (U+000A)
(U+0085)
(U+2028)
(U+2029)
B.1.2
:
_
__
_:
// _
_:
_
_ _
_:
__
__:
(U+000D)
(U+000A)
(U+0085)
(U+2028)
(U+2029)
__:
/* ___ /
___:
___
___ ___
___:
/
_____
:
*
*
_____:
(/) (*)
B.1.3
:
Zs
(U+0009)
(U+000B)
(U+000C)
B.1.4
:
_
_
_
_
_
___
B.1.5
__:
\u _ _ _
_
\U _ _ _
_ _ _
_ _
B.1.6
:
_
@ ___
500
Appendix C
_:
___, _
___:
__ __
__:
_ ( , U+005F)
__:
__
__ __
__:
_
__
:
Lu, Ll, Lt, Lm, Lo Nl
__, Lu, Ll, Lt,
Lm, Lo Nl
_:
Mn Mc
__, Mn Mc
_:
Nd
__, Nd
:
Pc
__, Pc
__:
Cf
__, Cf
501
B.1.7
_: :
abstract
byte
class
delegate
event
fixed
if
internal
new
override
readonly
short
struct
try
unsafe
volatile
as
base
bool
break
case
catch
char
checked
const
continue
decimal
default
do
double
else
enum
explicit
extern
false
finally
float
for
foreach
goto
implicit
in
int
interface
is
lock
long
namespace
null
object
operator
out
params
private
protected public
ref
return
sbyte
sealed
sizeof
stackalloc static
string
switch
this
throw
true
typeof
uint
ulong
unchecked
ushort
using
virtual
void
while
B.1.8
:
_
_
_
_
_
_null
_:
true
false
_:
__
__
__:
_ __
_:
_
_ _
_: :
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
__: :
U u L l UL Ul uL ul LU Lu lU lu
__:
0x _ __
0X _ __
_:
_
_ _
502
Appendix C
_: :
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F a b c d e f
_:
_ . _ _
__
. _ _ __
_ _ __
_ __
_:
e _
E _
: :
+ -
__: :
F f D d M m
_:
' '
:
_
__
__
__
_:
(') (U+0027), (\) (U+005C)
__
__: :
\' \" \\ \0 \a \b \f \n \r \t \v
__:
\x _ _
_ _
_:
__
__
__:
" ___ "
___:
___
___ ___
___:
____
__
__
__
____:
(") (U+0022), (\) (U+005C)
__
503
__:
@" ___ "
___:
___
___ ___
___:
____
__
____:
"
__:
""
_null:
null
B.1.9
___: :
{
+
=
->
&=
}
<
==
|=
[
*
>
!=
^=
]
/
?
<=
<<
(
%
??
>=
<<=
)
&
::
+=
=>
.
|
++
-=
,
^
-*=
:
!
&&
/=
;
~
||
%=
_:
>|>
__:
>|>=
B.1.10
_:
_
__
_
_
_
_pragma
_:
___ true false
_:
__
__:
__
__ || __
__:
__
__ && __
504
Appendix C
__:
__
__ ==
__
__ !=
__
__:
__
! __
__:
true
false
_
( _ )
_:
# define _ __
# undef _ __
__:
_ _
__:
__if __elif __else _endif
__if:
# if _ __
__
__elif:
__elif
__elif __elif
__elif:
# elif _ __
__
__else:
# else __
__
_endif:
# endif __
__:
_
_
_:
__
__
__:
_ _
_
_:
__ _
505
__:
_ (#)
_:
# error _
# warning _
_:
_
_ _
_:
__ __ __
__:
# region _
__:
# endregion _
_:
# line _ __
_:
_ _
_
default
hidden
_:
" __ "
__:
__
__ __
__:
_ "
_pragma:
# pragma __pragma
__
__pragma:
___pragma
___pragma:
warning _
warning _ _
_:
disable
restore
_:
_
_ , _
506
Appendix C
B.2
B.2.1
__:
____
_:
____
____:
__
____ . __
__
B.2.2
:
_
_
_
_:
_struct
_
_struct:
_
_
_
_:
_
bool
_:
_
___
decimal
_:
sbyte
byte
short
ushort
int
uint
long
ulong
char
___:
float
double
_:
non-nullable-value-type ?
___:
507
_:
_
_:
_
_
_
_
_:
_
object
string
_:
_
_:
__ _
__:
_:
_
_ _
_:
[ _ ]
_:
,
_ ,
_:
_
__:
< _ >
_:
_
_ , _
_:
_:
B.2.3
_:
B.2.4
_:
_ ,
508
Appendix C
ref _
out _
_:
primary-no-array-creation-expression
array-creation-expression
____:
_
__
___
_
___
__this
___
__
__
__
__
___
_typeof
_checked
_unchecked
___
__
_:
__
__:
( )
___:
_ . __
_ __
__
: :
bool
byte
object sbyte
char
short
decimal
string uint
double float
ulong
int
ushort
long
_:
_ ( _ )
___:
____ [ _ ]
_:
_ ,
__this:
this
___:
base .
base [ _ ]
509
__:
_ ++
__:
_ -__:
new ( _ )
___
new ___
___:
_
_
_:
{ __ }
{ __ , }
__:
_
__ , _
_:
= _
_:
___
_:
{ __ }
{ __ , }
__:
_
__ , _
_:
__
{ _ }
__:
new __ [ _ ] _
_
new _ _
new _ _
__:
new _ ( )
___:
new __
__:
{ __ }
{ __ , }
__:
_
__ , _
510
Appendix C
_:
_
___
=
_typeof:
typeof ( )
typeof ( __ )
typeof ( void )
__:
__
:: __
__ .
__
__:
< >
:
,
,
_checked:
checked ( )
_unchecked:
unchecked ( )
___:
default ( )
_:
_
+ _
- _
! _
~ _
__
__
___
__:
++ _
__:
-- _
___:
( ) _
_:
_
_ * _
_ / _
_ % _
_:
_
_ + _
_ _
511
_:
_
_ << _
_ _ _
_:
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
< _
> _
<= _
>= _
is
as
_:
_
_ == _
_ != _
_:
_
_ & _
__:
_
__ ^ _
__:
__
__ | __
__:
__
__ && __
__:
__
__ || __
___null:
__
__ ?? ___null
_:
___null
___null ? :
_:
__ => __
__:
delegate ___
__:
___
___
___:
( ____ )
512
Appendix C
____
___
____ , ___
___:
___
___:
ref
out
___:
( ____ )
___
____
___
____ ,
___
___:
__:
_:
_from _
_from:
from in
_:
__ _select__group
_
__:
__
__ __
__:
_from
_let
_where
_join
_join-into
_orderby
_let:
let =
_where:
where _
_join:
join in on equals
_join-into:
join in on equals
into
513
_orderby:
orderby
:
,
:
_
_:
ascending
descending
_select__group:
_select
_group
_select:
select
_group:
group by
_:
into _
:
_ _
_:
=
+=
-=
*=
/=
%=
&=
|=
^=
<<=
___
:
__
__:
_
_
_
_:
_:
514
Appendix C
B.2.5
:
_
_
_
_:
_
_
_
_
_
_try
_checked
_unchecked
_lock
_using
_yield
:
{ _ }
_:
_
_:
;
_:
:
_:
__ ;
__ ;
__:
__ __
__:
var
__:
__
__ , __
__:
= __
__:
__:
const _
515
_:
_
_ , _
_:
= _
_:
_ ;
_:
_
__
__
__
__
__
_:
_if
_switch
_if:
if ( _ ) _
if ( _ ) _ else _
_switch:
switch ( ) _switch
_switch:
{ _switch }
_switch:
_switch
_switch _switch
_switch
_switch _
_switch:
_switch
_switch _switch
_switch:
case _ :
default :
_:
_while
_do
_for
_foreach
_while:
while ( _ ) _
_do:
do _ while ( _ ) ;
516
Appendix C
_for:
for ( _for ; _for ; _for )
_
_for:
__
__
_for:

_for:
__
__:
_
__ , _
_foreach:
foreach ( __ in )
_
_jump:
_break
_continue
_goto
_return
_throw
_break:
break ;
_continue:
continue ;
_goto:
goto ;
goto case _ ;
goto default ;
_return:
return ;
_throw:
throw ;
_try:
try _catch
try _finally
try _catch _ finally
_catch:
__catch __catch
__catch __catch
__catch:
__catch
__catch __catch
__catch:
catch ( _ )
517
__catch:
catch
_finally:
finally
_checked:
checked
_unchecked:
unchecked
_lock:
lock ( ) _
_using:
using ( _ ) _
_:
__
_yield:
yield return ;
yield break ;
B.2.6
_:
__ _using
_
___
__:
namespace _ __ ;
_:
_ .
__:
{ __ _using
___ }
__:
__
__ __
__:
extern alias ;
_using:
_using
_using _using
_using:
_using__
_using___
_using___:
using = ____ ;
518
Appendix C
_using___:
using __ ;
___:
___
___ ___
___:
__
_
_:
_
_
_
_
_
__:
:: __
B.2.7
_:
_ partial class
__
_ ___
_ ;
_:
_
_ _
_:
new
public
protected
internal
private
abstract
sealed
static
__:
< _ >
_:
_
_ , _
_:
_:
: _
: __
: _ , __
519
__:
_
__ , _
___:
___
___
___
___:
where _ : __
__:
_
_
__
_ , _
_ , __
_ , __
_ , _ , __
_:
_
class
struct
_:
_
_
_ , _
_ , _
__:
new ( )
_:
{ __ }
__:
__
__ __
__:
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
__
_
_:
_ const
_ ;
520
Appendix C
_:
_
_ _
_:
new
public
protected
internal
private
_:
_
_ , _
_:
= _
_:
_ _ ;
_:
_
_ _
_:
new
public
protected
internal
private
static
readonly
volatile
_:
_
_ , _
_:
= _
_:
_
_:
_ _
_:
_ partial
__ _ __
( __ )
___
_:
_
_ _
521
_:
new
public
protected
internal
private
static
virtual
sealed
override
abstract
extern
__:
void
_:
_ .
_:
__:
_
_ , _
_
_:
_
_ , _
_:
_
_:
ref
out
this
_:
params _
_:
_ _
{ __ }
_:
_
_ _
522
Appendix C
_:
new
public
protected
internal
private
static
virtual
sealed
override
abstract
extern
_:
_ .
__:
___get ___set
___set ___get
___get:
__ get __
___set:
__ set __
__:
protected
internal
private
protected internal
internal protected
__:
_:
_ event
_ ;
_ event _
{ ____ }
_:
_
_ _
523
_:
new
public
protected
internal
private
static
virtual
sealed
override
abstract
extern
____:
___add ___remove
___remove ___add
___add:
add
___remove:
remove
_:
_ _
{ __ }
_:
_
_ _
_:
new
public
protected
internal
private
virtual
sealed
override
abstract
extern
_:
this [ __ ]
_ . this [ __ ]
_:
_ _ _
_:
_
_ _
_:
public
static
extern
524
Appendix C
_:
__
__
__
__:
operator __ ( )
__:
+ - ! ~ ++ -- true false
__:
operator __ ( ,
)
__:
+
*
/
%
&
|
^
<<
_
==
!=
>
<
>=
<=
__:
implicit operator ( )
explicit operator ( )
_:
_:
_ _
_
_:
_
_ _
_:
public
protected
internal
private
extern
_:
( __ )
_
525
_:
: base ( _ )
: this ( _ )
_:
__:
__ ( )
__
__:
extern static
static extern
__:
_:
extern ~ ( ) _
_:
B.2.8
_:
_ partial struct
__
_
___ _ ;
_:
_
_ _
_:
new
public
protected
internal
private
_:
: __
_:
{ __ }
__:
__
__ __
526
Appendix C
__:
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
__
_
B.2.9
_:
__ _
__:
_:
_
_ _
_:
[ _ ]
_:
,
_ ,
_:
{ __ }
{ __ , }
__:
_
__ , _
_:
_
B.2.10
_:
_ partial interface
__
_ ___
_ ;
_:
_
_ _
527
_:
new
public
protected
internal
private
_:
: __
_:
{ __ }
__:
__
__ __
__:
__
__
__
__
__:
new __
__
( __ )
___ ;
__:
new
{ ___ }
___:
get ;
set ;
get ; set ;
set ; get ;
__:
new event ;
__:
new this [ __ ]
{ ___ }
B.2.11
_:
_ enum
_ _ ;
_:
: _
_:
{ __ }
{ __ , }
528
Appendix C
_:
_
_ _
_:
new
public
protected
internal
private
__:
__
__ __
__:

= _
B.2.12
_:
_ delegate
__ __
( __ )
___ ;
_:
_
_ _
_:
new
public
protected
internal
private
B.2.13
_:
__
__:
__
__ __
__:
[ ___ _ ]
[ ___ _ , ]
___:
__ :
__:
assembly
module
:
_
529
_:
_
_ _
_:
[ __ _ ]
[ __ _ , ]
__:
_ :
_:
field
event
method
param
property
return
type
_:
_ ,
:
_ _
_:
_
_:
( ___ )
( ___ , __ )
( __ )
___:
__
___ , __
__:
__
__:
_
__ , _
_:
= __
__:
B.3
_:
...
unsafe
_:
...
unsafe
530
Appendix C
_:
...
unsafe
_:
...
unsafe
_:
...
unsafe
_:
...
unsafe
_:
...
unsafe
_:
...
unsafe
_:
...
unsafe
_:
...
unsafe
_:
...
unsafe
_:
extern unsafe ~ ( )
_
unsafe extern ~ ( )
_
__:
extern unsafe static
unsafe extern static
extern static unsafe
unsafe static extern
static extern unsafe
static unsafe extern
_:
...
_unsafe
_unsafe:
unsafe
:
...
_
531
_:
_ *
void *
_:
____:
...
____
____
_sizeof
_:
...
____
____:
* _
____:
_ ->
____:
____ [ ]
_addressof:
& _
_sizeof:
sizeof ( _ )
_:
...
_
_:
fixed ( _ __ )
_
__:
__
__ , __
__:
= __
__:
& __
__:
___
___:
___ fixed
__
___ ;
532
Appendix C
___:
___
___
___
___:
new
public
protected
internal
private
unsafe
__:
___:
___
___
___
___:
[ _ ]
__:
_stackalloc
_stackalloc:
stackalloc _ [ ]
533
C.
. The Unicode Standard, Version 3.0. Addison-Wesley, Reading,
Massachusetts, 2000, ISBN 0-201-616335-5.
IEEE. IEEE .
ANSI/IEEE 754-1985. - http://www.ieee.org.
ISO/IEC. C++. ANSI/ISO/IEC 14882:1998.

C#. Спецификация языка. Версия 3.0. 2007. Microsoft

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C#

(Microsoft Corp.), 1999-2007. .

(Microsoft Corp.), 1999-2007. .

(Microsoft Corp.), 1999-2007. .

(Microsoft Corp.), 1999-2007. .

(Microsoft Corp.), 1999-2007. .

9.4.1 using alias......................................................................................................................272

(Microsoft Corp.), 1999-2007. .

(Microsoft Corp.), 1999-2007. .

(Microsoft Corp.), 1999-2007. .

(Microsoft Corp.), 1999-2007. .

1.1 Hello world

C# cs. Hello, World

Hello, World using,

(Microsoft Corp.), 1999-2007. .

csc /r:acme.dll test.cs

(Microsoft Corp.), 1999-2007. .

: sbyte, short, int, long

, delegate int D(...)

8-, 16-, 32- 64-

(Microsoft Corp.), 1999-2007. .

2 147 483 648...2 147 483 647

0...4 294 967 295

0...18 446 744 073 709 551 615

1,5 1045 3,4 1038 7

5,0 10324 1,7 10308 15

1,0 1028 7,9 1028 28

(Microsoft Corp.), 1999-2007. .

int; int[,] int, int[][] ,

(Microsoft Corp.), 1999-2007. .

(Microsoft Corp.), 1999-2007. .

(Microsoft Corp.), 1999-2007. .

*= /= %= += -= <<= >>= &= ^= |

(Microsoft Corp.), 1999-2007. .

static void Main() {

static void Main() {

static void Main() {

static void Main(string[] args) {

(Microsoft Corp.), 1999-2007. .

static void Main(string[] args) {

static void Main(string[] args) {

static void Main() {

static void Main(string[] args) {

static void Main(string[] args) {

static void Main() {

static void Main(string[] args) {

(Microsoft Corp.), 1999-2007. .

static void Main(string[] args) {

static int Add(int a, int b) {

static IEnumerable<int> Range(int from, int to) {

static double Divide(double x, double y) {

static void Main() {

(Microsoft Corp.), 1999-2007. .

static void Main() {

public Point(int x, int y) {

(Microsoft Corp.), 1999-2007. .

public class Pair<TFirst,TSecond>

(Microsoft Corp.), 1999-2007. .

public TSecond Second;

public Point3D(int x, int y, int z): base(x, y) {

(Microsoft Corp.), 1999-2007. .

Black = new Color(0, 0, 0);