. .

-
( )

. .

3- ,

2011
 514.12(075)
22.151.59 73
54

( )
. . , . . )
, . .

, . .
54 :
. / . . . 3- ., . .
.: , 2011. 544 .
ISBN 978-5-7417-0378-6

, -

), -
,

.
514.12(075)
22.151.59 73

ISBN 978- 5-7417-0378-6 . ., 2011

( ), 2011
 3

....................................................................................... 8
..................................................................................... 10
1. ........... 12
1.1. .............................................. 12
1.2. .......................................... 21
1.3. ....................... 24
1.4. .......................... 28
1.5. . ................... 34
1.6. -
................................................................ 38
1.7. .............................. 44
1.8. -
....................................................... 47
2. ...................................... 54
2.1. ........................... 54
2.2. -
............................................................................. 57
2.3. -
....................................................................... 59
2.4. -
............................................................................. 61
2.5. -
....................................................................... 65
2.6. ..................................... 68
2.7. -
................................................................... 70
2.8. ........................ 72
2.9.
.................................................................. 75
4

3. ............................................ 79
3.1. ............................................. 79
3.2. ............... 84
3.3. ..................................... 93
3.4. ............ 103
3.5. -
...................................................... 107
4.
.................................................. 119
4.1. ................. 119
4.2. ................................ 124
4.3. ...... 127
4.4. .................. 130
4.5. .... 138
4.6. ................... 141
5. ............................... 147
5.1. ................................................ 147
5.2. .
.................................... 158
5.3. ..................... 161
5.4. .......... 169
5.5. ........ 184
5.6. ..................................................... 189
6. ......................... 191
6.1 ......................................................... 191
6.2 ....................................... 192
6.3. ................................... 199
6.4. ................................................... 205
6.5. ......................................................... 208
6.6. m n -
................................................................ 213
6.7. .................... 216
6.8. . ... 227
 5

7. ..................................... 235
7.1. ................ 235
7.2. ,
........................................ 239
7.3. ............. 244
7.4. -
....................... 251
7.5. ................... 254
8
........................................................ 267
8.1. ............................................. 267
8.2. ................... 269
8.3. -
....................................................................... 275
8.4. .. 283
8.5.
................................................................... 296
8.6.
................................................................. 303
8.7. ....................................... 317
9.
.................................. 325
9.1. .................................... 325
9.2. ................................ 329
9.3. -
............................................................................. 339
9.4. -
........................................................................... 348
9.5. -
................................................................. 353
9.6. ............................... 354
10. ................................... 356
10.1. .................... 356
10.2. .
................................................................... 360
6
10.3. -
............................................................. 362
10.4. -
.............................................................. 368
10.5.
....... 372
10.6. -
.............................................................. 378
10.7. ........................... 383
10.8. ................................. 391
11. ................................... 400
11.1. ............ 400
11.2. -
....................................................................... 403
11.3. ......................................... 405
11.4. .
.......................... 410
11.5. ..................... 413
12. .......... 415
12.1.
........................................... 415
12.2. 431
12.3. .......... 435
1.
................................................... 443
. 1.1 . 443
. 1.2 ................................ 445
. 1.3. ............................ 452
. 1.4. .............................. 459
2.
....................................... 465
. 2.1. -
............................................................ 465
. 2.2. ................................................... 466
. 2.3. ....................... 467
 7
. 2.4. ................... 469
. 2.5. .................... 472
. 2.6. ..................... 474
. 2.7. ............................. 475
3. ................................. 478
4. ........ 488
. 4.1.
............................. 488
. 4.2. ...... 496
. 4.3. ............................... 504
. 4.4. ....... 515
. 4.5. ..... 520
.................................................................................. 528
............................................................. 529
8

- "", -
-
, .
-
-
.
, -
, -
, , , -
, , .
,
. -
.
, , -
,
. . , . . , . . , . . -
. ,
-
, .
, , , -
. -
, ,
" ",
,
.
 9

-
,
. .
- . -
"".
-
- -

. -
, , -
,
, -
.

-
, , . . , . . ,
. . , . . , . . . -
, , ,
, -
.
.
, , -
.
. . "-
"
-
.
-
.

. .
- ,
.
, 1997
10

-

.
,
: -
. -
, -
,
, .
-
, -
-
. -
,
. -
, ,
, .
,
,
.
-
,
, :
- , ,
( -
x, y z,
);
- -
, , :
, , -
, , , , -
;
 11
-
: , A ;
- , ,
, -

: , a , -
-
, : -
, det A .
-
,
,
. . , . . , . .
. . .

1997 -
, -
, ,
.
-
www.umnov.ru
, .
12

1.1.
,
,
, -
.
m n
1.1.1. ( ) , -
m n .
, ,
( ), ,
, .
, i - j -
, i j 1.
m , n m n -
1.1.2. .
-
. ,
i j ; i = [1, m] ; j = [1, n]
:

1
i j.
 1 . 13

11 12 13 ... 1n 11 12 13 ... 1n

21 22 23 ... 2n 21 22 23 ... 2 n
32 33 ... 3n ; 31 32 33 ... 3n ;
31
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
m2 m3 ... mn m1 m2 m3 ... mn
m1

11 12 13 ... 1n
21 22 23 ... 2n
31 32 33 ... 3n ,
... ... ... ... ...
m1 m2 m3 ... mn

. -
, i j
A .

.

m = n , ,
1.1.3. n .
m 1 m - (
m -) .
1 n n - ( n -)
.

, , -
1 j i1 ,
, -
j i .
14
, , ,
: .

.
,
1.1.4. ij = ji i, j = [1, n] ,
.

, , -
. O .

n
1 0 0 ... 0
0 1 0 ... 0
0 0 1 ... 0
... ... ... ... ...
0 0 0 ... 1
.
E .

A B
1.1.5.
(: A = B ),

,
i j = i j i = [1, m] j = [1, n] .
 1 . 15
C A
1.1.6.
B (: C = A + B ), -
A , B , C
i j = i j + i j i = [1, m] , j = [1, n] ,
i j i = [1, m] , j = [1, n]
C .
C
1.1.7.
A (: C = A ),
A C
i j = i j i = [1, m] , j = [1, n] .

, .
: ( )
, -
, -
,
, , -
, .

,
1.1.8. ,
,
(. 1.1.1).

,
T
A , A .
16

. 1.1.1

T 11 21 ... m1
11 12 13 ... 1n
12 22 ... m 2
21 22 23 ... 2 n
= 13 23 ... m3 ,
... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... ...
m1 m 2 m3 ... mn
1n 2 n ... mn
T
A -

iTj = ji i = [1, m] , j = [1, n] .

, , -
, 1 m
m 1 .

()
2- 3-

-
, ( ) -
 1 . 17
2
det A .
n - 6, -
n = 2 n = 3 .

() -
1.1.9. 11 12
2-
21 22

11 12
det = 11 22 12 21 .
21 22

() -
1.1.10. 11 12 13
3- 21 22 23 -
31 32 33

11 12 13
det 21 22 23 = 11 22 33 + 13 21 32 +
31 32 33
+ 12 23 31 13 22 31 12 21 33 11 23 32 .

:
3-
1.1.1. 2-
:

2

K .
, -
, , .
18
11 12 13
det 21 22 23 =
31 32 33
22 23 21 23
= 11 det 12 det +
32 33 31 33
21 22
+ 13 det ,
31 32

.

.

1.1.9 1.1.10.

. 1. , -
1.1.1, -

, .

. 1.1.2

2. -
3-
:
 1 . 19
1.1.10

, , -
, , -
. 1.1.2
, , -
, ,
.

, 1.1.9
1.1.10
2-
1.1.1. 3- .

.
1.1.2
().
111 + 12 2 = 1 ,

211 + 22 2 = 2
, -
,
11 12
det 0.
21 22

.

{1 , 2 } ,

20

1 (11 22 12 21 ) = (1 22 2 12 ) ;
2 ( 11 22 12 21 ) = ( 2 11 1 21 )

1 = 1 ; 2 = 2 ,
11 12 12
= det , 1 = det 1
21 22 2 22
11 1
2 = det .
21 2
= 0,
1 = 1 ; 2 = 2
1 0
= 0,

2 0.

( )
= 1 = 2 = 0 -
,
{1 , 2 } , ,
111 + 12 2 = 1 .
, 0.

. 0 , -
{ 1 , 2 } , -
11 , 12 , 21 , 22 , 1 , 2
1 2
1 = 2 = .

.
 1 . 21
1.2.

, A
1.2.1. B, , ,

.
, -
, -
.

AB, ,
A , B .
a .
AB a .

AB CD
1.2.2. , -
-
.

, 1.2.2 -
.
a b.

b a (
1.2.3. b , b , -
a ),
22

c ,
a b ,
a b 3.

(. 1.2.1).

. 1.2.1

, :
1)
,
. 1.2.2;
2) -
, -
1.2.3 (. . 1.2.3);
3) a b a b
c ,
a =b+c;
4) -
.

3
,
-
.
 1 . 23

. 1.2.2

. 1.2.3

a a
1.2.4. :
= 0 ,
24

0 , -

a;

a , > 0 ,
-
a , < 0 .

1.3.

, -
1.3.1. 1.2 :
- (. 1.2.2);
- (. 1.2.3);
- (. 1.2.4),
.
-


, , a.

o.

1.3.1. :

1. a+b = b+a.
 1 . 25
2.

a + (b + c ) = (a + b ) + c ;

( a ) = () a .
3.

( a + b ) = a + b ;

( + ) a = a + a

a , b c -
.

a b .
ABCD (. 1.3.1).

. 1.3.1
26
-

, CD = a ; BD = b ,
, , ACD

ABD , AD = b + CD; AD = a + BD ,

a+b = b+a.

1. , -
.
, -
,
.

(
-
, -
-
)

,
-

(
-
-
), -
.
. 1.3.2
 1 . 27
, ( -
1.3.1), , -
. 1.3.2,
500 .
, -
1000 -/ ( -
)
500 2 700 -/. , -
-
, (
1.3.1) .
2. , , -
1.3.1 -
, . , -

. , -
, , , -
; , -
. , -
, -
, ,
.
3. -
,
1.3.1
.
, A , -
,
. -
0 -
A -

r ( 0 ) , r ().
28

r () r ( 0 ) (
) , -
1.3.1.
, ,
. ,
,
, , -
, .
, ,
, -
, ,
.

1.4.

-
.

, ,
1.4.1. .
, -
, .

.
.

1 a1 + 2 a 2 + ... + n a n ,
1.4.2.
i ; i = [1, n] , -

a1 , a 2 , ... , a n .
 1 . 29

1 , 2 , ... , n -
(
1 + 2 + ... + n = 0) , -
.

1 , 2 , ... , n
( 1 + 2 + ... + n > 0 ), -
.

, -
, , -
, -
:
n
F (k ) + F (k + 1) + ... + F (n) = F (i ) ,
i=k

(: F (i ) i k n ), i -
, k , n -
, , F (i )
.

-
1.4.1. :
n
12 + 2 2 + ... + (n 1) 2 + n 2 = i2 =
i =1
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
= ,
6
30
n
13 + 2 3 + ... + (n 1) 3 + n 3 = i 3
=
i =1

n 2 (n + 1) 2 n 2
=
4
= ( i) ,
i =1

1 1 1 n 1
1 i 1
+ + ... + = i(i + 1) = .
1 2 2 3 (n 1)n i =1 i

, -
n
1 a1 + 2 a 2 + ... + n a n i ai .
i =1

-
.

a1 , a 2 , ..., a n -
1.4.3. ,
n n
i ai , , i ai = o .
i =1 i =1

a1 , a 2 , ..., a n -
1.4.4. n
, i ai = o -
i =1
n
i ai ,
i =1
1 = 2 = ... = n = 0 .
 1 . 31

, a1 , a 2 , ..., a n ,
1 , 2 , ..., n , -
n
,
k =1
k a k .

a1 , a 2 , ..., a n
1.4.1. , -
.

.

. a1 , a 2 , ..., a n -
, 1 , 2 , ..., n , -
n
, , k ak = o .
k =1

, 1 0 ,
n
k
a1 = ( ) ak ,
k =2 1
.

.
n n
a1 = k a k , (1 ) a1 + k a k = o ,
k =2 k =2

| 1 | + | 2 | + ... + | n | > 0 .

a1 , a 2 , ..., a n , -
, .

.
32
.
,
1.4.1. .
,
1.4.2. .
,
1.4.3. .

1.4.1 1.4.2 -
. 1.4.3.

.

. a1 , a 2 , a3
, , -
, 1 , 2 , 3 , ,

1 a1 + 2 a 2 + 3 a3 = o .
1.4.1 -
, , , .

, a1 a 2
.

a1 , a 2 , a3 . ,
.

a3 , -

a1 a 2 . b1 b2 , -

, a3 = b1 + b2 (. 1.4.1).
 1 . 33

b1 -

a1 ,

b2 a2 ,
1.4.1 1.4.2
,

b1 = 1 a1 ; b2 = 2 a 2 ,

. 1.4.1

a3 = 1 a1 + 2 a 2 ,

a1 , a 2 , a3 1.4.1 .

a1 a2 .

1. ,
.
2. ,
.
3. ,
.

{a1 , a 2 , ..., a n } -
1.4.4. ,

{a1 , a 2 , ..., a n } .
34
.

, -
k < n ( -
), -
k
1 , 2 , ..., k , , i ai = o .
i =1

{a1 , a 2 , ..., a n } , k
i , i = [1, k ] .
,
n k n
i ai = i ai +
i =1 i =1
0 ai = o .
i = k +1

{a1 , a 2 , ..., a n }
1.4.1.
, {a1 , a 2 , ..., a n } -
.

1.5. .

-
1.5.1. , .
-
, -
.
 1 . 35
-
.

,
1.5.2. ( -
).

-
1.5.3. , -
.

,

g1 , g 2 , g 3 , {g1 , g 2 , g 3 } . -


{e1 , e2 , e3 } .

{g1 , g 2 , g 3 } , x
1.5.1.


x = 1 g 1 + 2 g 2 + 3 g 3 ,
1 , 2 , 3 .
.

1. .

g1 , g 2 , g 3 x O

x ,

O, g1 , g 2 (. 1.5.1).
36

y

z , x = z + y , z

g 3 ,
-

z g 3

z = 3 g 3 .


y O

1.4.3,

y = 1 g1 + 2 g 2
, ,

. 1.5.1
x = 1 g 1 + 2 g 2 + 3 g 3 ,
.

2. .

x = 1 g1 + 2 g 2 + 3 g 3 , -
1 , 2 , 3 , ,

x = 1 g1 + 2 g 2 + 3 g 3 .

,

(1 1 ) g1 + ( 2 2 ) g 2 + ( 3 3 ) g 3 = o ,
 1 . 37


1 1 + 2 2 + 3 3 > 0 .
, -


(1 1 ) g1 + ( 2 2 ) g 2 + ( 3 3 ) g 3

, {g1 , g 2 , g 3 } ,
,
1.5.1.
.

1 , 2 , 3
1.5.4.
x = 1 g1 + 2 g 2 + 3 g 3 -

( ) x

{g1 , g 2 , g 3 } .

x = 1 g1 + 2 g 2 + 3 g 3 :

1. x( 1 , 2 , 3 ), 2. (1 , 2 , 3 ), 3. 1 2 3 ,
1 1

4. 2 , 5. 2 ,
3
3
38
. -

x {g1 , g 2 , g 3 }
1 1

2 x = 2 ,
3 3
g

, ,
1

x = 2 .
3

, x {g1 , g 2 }

x = 1 g1 + 2 g 2 ,
1
x = .
g 2

1.6.


{g1 , g 2 , g 3 } -

1 , 2 , 3 ,
,
.
, -
(), -
,
.
 1 . 39


1.6.1. :
1. -

x = 1 g 1 + 2 g 2 + 3 g 3

y = 1 g1 + 2 g 2 + 3 g 3
, -
:
1 = 1


x = y 2 = 2 .
g g =
3 3

2. -


x = 1 g 1 + 2 g 2 + 3 g 3

y = 1 g1 + 2 g 2 + 3 g 3
-


x+ y = x + y .
g g g

3. - -


x = 1 g 1 + 2 g 2 + 3 g 3
40
-

x:

x = x .
g g

,

.
-
( 1.3.1)

x+ y = (1 g1 + 2 g 2 + 3 g 3 ) + (1 g1 + 2 g 2 + 3 g 3 ) =
g g

= (1 + 1 ) g1 + ( 2 + 2 ) g 2 + ( 3 + 3 ) g 3 =
g

1 + 1 1 1

= 2 + 2 = 2 + 2 = x + y .
3 + 3 3 3
g g

1.6.1.
x + y

x y:
 1 . 41
1 + 1 1 1
2 + 2 = 2 + 2 .
3 + 3 3 3

, -

.

x y
1.6.2. , ,
1
x =
g 2
1
y =
g 2
1 1
det = 0.
2 2

.

x y , -

1.4.1 x = y
1 = 1 ,
-
2 = 2 .
, 1 2 2 1 = 0, ,
1 1
det = 0.
2 2
42

1 1
. det = 0,
2 2
1 2
, = 1 0 ; 2 0 , -
1 2

x y -
, .

1 2 = 0 .

{ x , y, z}
1.6.3.
1 1 1

x = 2 , y = 2 z = 2
3 3 3
g g g

, ,

1 1 1
det 2 2 2 = 0.
3 3 3

.

x , y , z -

, 1 x + 2 y + 3 z = o , -

 1 . 43
1 1 1 0
1 2 + 2 2 + 3 2 = 0 .
3 3 3 0

, ,

11 + 2 1 + 3 1 = 0,

1 2 + 2 2 + 3 2 = 0,
+ + = 0,
1 3 2 3 3 3

( , 6.4.1)
, -
.

, , ,
() . ,

1 1 1
det 2 2 2 0
3 3 3

1 = 2 = 3 = 0,
.

, -

( 2.6).

.
44

1.7.

{g1 , g 2 , g 3 } O, -
1.7.1. , -


() {O, g1 , g 2 , g 3 }.

{O, e1 , e2 , e3 } ,
1.7.2. , -
( ) -
.

{O, g 1 , g 2 , g 3 } ,
M

r , O , -
M .

r = OM -
1.7.3.
M {O, g1 , g 2 , g 3 }.

- M
1.7.4. M

{O, g1 , g 2 , g 3 }.

-
-
.
 1 . 45

1.7.1.
{O , g 1 , g 2 , g 3 } -
M N , -

MN . MN .

. . 1.7.1
.
1 1

OM = 2 ON = 2 .
3 3

OM + MN = ON

MN = ON OM .
1 1

MN = 2 2 .
. 1.7.1
3 3

1.7.2.
{O, g1 , g 2 , g 3 } -
M 1 M 2 ,
1 1

OM 1 = 2 OM 2 = 2 .
3 3

M, , M 1 M = MM 2 .
46
. , , -
1 , M
(. 1.7.2). - M . -
OM 1 M OMM 2

OM1 + M 1 M = OM ; OM + MM 2 = OM 2 ,

M 1 M = MM 2 ,

OM OM 1 = (OM 2 OM )


OM =
1
= OM 1 + OM 2 .
1+ 1+
- M
. 1.7.2
1 + 1
1+
2 + 2
OM = .
1+
3 + 3
1+

: 1.7.2
.
 1 . 47
1.8.

-
,
-
. , -
,
, .
:

{O, g 1 , g 2 , g 3 } {O , g 1 , g 2 , g 3 } (. 1.8.1).

, OO -
. 1.5.1
:

g1 = 11 g1 + 21 g 2 + 31 g 3 ,

g 2 = 12 g1 + 22 g 2 + 32 g 3 , (1.8.1)

g 3 = 13 g1 + 23 g 2 + 33 g 3 ,

OO = 1 g1 + 2 g 2 + 3 g 3 .

1.8.1. -

1 = 111 + 12 2 + 13 3 + 1 ,
2 = 211 + 22 2 + 23 3 + 2 , (1.8.2)
3 = 311 + 32 2 + 33 3 + 3 .
48
.

M
1

{O, g 1 , g 2 , g 3 } 2 ,
3
1

{O , g 1 , g 2 , g 3 } 2 .
3

M .

OM = 1 g 1 + 2 g 2 + 3 g 3

O M = 1 g 1 + 2 g 2 + 3 g 3 =

= 1 (11 g1 + 21 g 2 + 31 g 3 ) +

+ 2 (12 g1 + 22 g 2 + 32 g 3 ) +

+ 3 (13 g 1 + 23 g 2 + 33 g 3 ) .


OM , O M OO

OM = O M + OO

,
. 1.8.1
 1 . 49

1 g1 + 2 g 2 + 3 g 3 = o ,

1 = 1 + 111 + 12 2 + 13 3 + 1 ,
2 = 2 + 211 + 22 2 + 23 3 + 2 ,
3 = 3 + 311 + 32 2 + 33 3 + 3 .

{g1 , g 2 , g 3 } , -

, o , , -
1 = 2 = 3 = 0

1 = 111 + 12 2 + 13 3 + 1 ,
2 = 211 + 22 2 + 23 3 + 2 ,
3 = 311 + 32 2 + 33 3 + 3 .

(1.8.2)

1.8.1.
{O, g 1 , g 2 , g 3 }

{O , g 1 , g 2 , g 3 } .

, (1.8.1) (1.8.2)
.
, (1.8.2),
, -
S ,
50

1
, 2
3
.

11 12 13
S = 21 22 23 -
1.8.2. 31 32 33

{g1 , g 2 , g 3 }

{g1 , g 2 , g 3 } .

1.8.2.
11 12 13
det 21 22 23 0.
31 32 33
.

11 12 13
21 22 23 -
31 32 33
-

{g1 , g 2 , g 3 } {g1 , g 2 , g 3 } .
1.6.3 .

.
 1 . 51
:

1.8.1.
{O, g 1 , g 2 } {O , g 1 , g 2 } (. 1.8.2).
, -
,
1
g1 = O O g 2 = g1 .
2

. -
, -
-
:

g1 = 2 g 2 ,

g 2 = g 1 + 2 g 2 .

0 1 1 1
S = , = .
. 1.8.2 2 2 2 0
,
1 = 2 + 1,

2 = 21 + 2 2 .

{O, e1 , e2 } {O , e1 , e2 } . ,
. 1.8.3.
52


e1 = e1 cos + e2 sin e2 = e1 sin + e2 cos
:
cos sin 1
S = , OO = ,
sin cos 2

1 = 1 cos 2 sin + 1 ,

2 = 1 sin + 2 cos + 2 .

. 1.8.3
-
-

OO O .

,
-
, , .

. 1.8.4.

, e1

e1 , -

. 1.8.4 e2
 1 . 53
, .

1 = 1 cos + 2 sin + 1 ,

2 = 1 sin 2 cos + 2 .

, . 1.8.3 . 1.8.4,
,

a
1.8.3.
b -
, -

a b

.

.

, S , -
, det S = 1 , det S = 1 ,
(
), det S = 1
.
54

2.1.

l
2.1.1.

b .

b -
l.

M ,
2.1.2. l, -
,
. 2.1.1 M l

M , -
-
M .

, -
, -
.

a l -
2.1.3.
Prl a , l, -

 2 . 55

a l,

a.

b , -

b
e=
{e}
|b|
l (. 2.1.1).

-
2.1.4.
a l

Prl a { e} 4.

a b -
2.1.5. , -
.

a l

a . . 2.1.2 ,
l

l a = a cos , a e .

. 2.1.2

4

, : , , , -
..
56

1.1.
:

Prl (a1 + a 2 ) = Prl a1 + Prl a 2 .
. 2.1.3.

. 2.1.3

1.2. , -
:

Prl ( a ) = Prl a .

, 1.1 1.2
:

-
:

Prl ( 1 a1 + 2 a 2 ) = 1 Prl a1 + 2 Prl a 2 .
1.1 1.2 -
-
.
 2 . 57



2.1. l (a1 + a 2 ) = l a1 + l a 2 ;

2.2. l a = l a .
, 2.1 2.2,

l ( 1 a1 + 2 a 2 ) = 1 l a1 + 2 l a 2 .
,
.

2.2.


a
2.2.1.
b ,
.
,
,
.

a b

( a , b ) . , a b :

( a , b ) = | a || b | cos ,
-.
2.1.5, 0 .

, b o ,

( a , b ) = b a .
b
58

1. ( a , b ) = 0 a o b o ,

a b .

2. ( a , b ) = ( b , a ) -
().

3. (a1 + a 2 , b ) = (a1 , b ) + (a 2 , b ) ().
.

b = o , 3 . b o ,

(a1 + a 2 , b ) = b (a1 + a 2 ) =
b

= b a1 + b a 2 = (a1 , b ) + (a 2 , b ).
b b
.

4. ( a , b ) = ( a , b ) .

5. (a, a ) = | a |2 0 a ; | a | = ( a, a )

( , ( a , a ) = 0 a = o -
).

(a, b )
6. a o b o cos =
,
| a || b |

a b.
 2 . 59
2.3.


{g1 , g 2 , g 3 } a b , -


a = 1 g 1 + 2 g 2 + 3 g 3 b = 1 g1 + 2 g 2 + 3 g 3 .
3 4

(a, b ) = ( 1 g1 + 2 g 2 + 3 g 3 , 1 g1 + 2 g 2 + 3 g 3 ) =

= 11 ( g1 , g 1 ) + 1 2 ( g1 , g 2 ) + 13 ( g1 , g 3 ) +

+ 2 1 ( g 2 , g 1 ) + 2 2 ( g 2 , g 2 ) + 2 3 ( g 2 , g 3 ) +

+ 3 1 ( g 3 , g1 ) + 3 2 ( g 3 , g 2 ) + 3 3 ( g 3 , g 3 ) =
3
= ( j 1 ( g j , g1 ) + j 2 ( g j , g 2 ) + j 3 ( g j , g 3 ) ) =
j =1
3 3
= j i ( g j , g i ).
j =1 i =1

{e1 , e2 , e3 } -
,

1, i = j ,
(ei , e j ) = ij =
0, i j ,
ij .
-

(a, b ) = 1 1 + 2 2 + 3 3 ,
60
:

a = 12 + 22 + 32

ao bo
1 1 + 2 2 + 3 3
cos = .
12 + 22 + 32 12 + 22 + 32

,
cos 1 :
i ; i , i = [1, 3]
1 1 + 2 2 + 3 3 12 + 22 + 32 12 + 22 + 32 .
-
2.3.1. , -
.

.
1

{O, e1 , e2 , e3 } - OM 2 = 2
3
1

OM 1 = 2 . ,
3
1.7.1,

M 1 M 2 = (1 1 ) e1 + ( 2 2 ) e2 + ( 3 3 ) e3


| M 1 M 2 | = (1 1 ) 2 + ( 2 2 ) 2 + ( 3 3 ) 2 .
 2 . 61
2.4.

2.4.1.
{a , b , c } , ( -

) a

b c -
.


{a , b , c } .

2.4.2.
a b c , ,

1) | c | = | a | | b | sin , -

a b;

2) c a -

b;

3) {a , b , c } .
, (
, -
),
.

a b

[ a , b ] . 2.4.2 ,
62

1) [ a , b ] ,

a b;

2) a b -
, -
.

1. [ a , b ] = [ b , a ] (, -
2.4.2 sin ).

2. [ a , b ] = [ a , b ] (

, [ a , b ]

[ a , b ] -

a b 0 ).

3. [ a + b , c ] = [ a , c ] + [b , c ] ().

.

a b , -
2.4.1.
l . -

a b

l -

l .
 2 . 63
2.4.1

, l ( a + b ) = , l ( a ) + , l ( b ).
. 2.4.1.

. 2.4.1

e = 1 p o , [ p, e ] -
2.4.2.

p ,

e , e

.
2

,

O p e , e ,

p e.

p , -

e ,
,
(. 2.4.2):
64

[ p, e ] = p e sin = p cos ( ) ,
2

e = 1. ,

[ p, e ] = (Pr e p ) , Pr e ( p) -
,e
2

p , -

e.

. 2.4.2

3.

c = o , 3 . c o ,
2.4.1, 2.4.2 1.1 2.1 -

 2 . 65

c
[a + b, c ] = | c | [a + b,
] = | c | Pr ( a + b ) =
,c
( c
)
|c| 2

= | c | Pr
,c
( c
a + Pr
c
b = )
2

(
= | c | (Pr
,c c
a ) + (Pr
,c c
b) =)
2 2

c c
= | c | ( [ a,
] + [b ,
] ) = [ a , c ] + [ b , c ].
|c| |c |
.

2.5.


{g1 , g 2 , g 3 } ( , -

g1 , g 2 , g 3 ) -

a b

a = 1 g 1 + 2 g 2 + 3 g 3 b = 1 g 1 + 2 g 2 + 3 g 3 .

2 3

[a, b ] = [ 1 g1 + 2 g 2 + 3 g 3 , 1 g1 + 2 g 2 + 3 g 3 ] =

= 11[ g1 , g1 ] + 1 2 [ g1 , g 2 ] + 13 [ g1 , g 3 ] +

+ 2 1[ g 2 , g1 ] + 2 2 [ g 2 , g 2 ] + 2 3 [ g 2 , g 3 ] +
66

+ 3 1[ g 3 , g1 ] + 3 2 [ g 3 , g 2 ] + 3 3 [ g 3 , g 3 ] =
3 3
= j i [ g j , g i ].
j =1 i =1

f1 , f 2 f 3

[ g i , g j ] :

f 1 = [ g 2 , g 3 ] ; f 2 = [ g 3 , g1 ] ; f 3 = [ g 1 , g 2 ] .

[a , b ]
, 2- 3-
(. 1.1.1),

[a, b ] = ( 2 3 3 2 ) f1 (13 3 1 ) f 2 + (1 2 2 1 ) f 3 =
2 3 3 2
= det f 1 det 1 f 2 + det 1 f3 =
2 3 1 3 1 2

f1 f2 f3
= det 1 2 3 .
1 2 3

{e1 , e2 , e3 } , -
, 2.4.2

f 1 = e1 , f 2 = e2 , f 3 = e3 .
 2 . 67
-
:

e1 e2 e3

[a, b ] = det 1 2 3 .
1 2 3

.

a b -
2.5.1. , ,

2 3 3 2
det = det 1 = det 1 =0,
2 3 1 3 1 2

1 2 3
= = .
1 2 3

-
2.5.2.
, a b , -

2 3 3 2
S = det 2 + det 2 1 + det 2 1 ,
2 3 1 3 1 2

1 2
S = det .
1 2
68
2.6.

( -) -
2.6.1.
a , b c ,

( a , b , c ) , ( [ a , b ], c ) .

2.6.1.
( a , b , c ) ,

a , b c .

a , b , c -
, ,
, .

a b , .

a b , -

( a , b , c ) = | [ a , b ] | c ,
[ a,b ]

S = | [ a , b ] | , -

a b ,

| c | = | c | | cos |
[a ,b ]
 2 . 69
-
S,
(. . 2.6.1)

V = (a , b , c ) .

,

(a, b, c ) =

= | [ a , b ] | | c | cos ,

. 2.6.1 -
.
.

:

1. ( a , b , c ) = ( c , a , b ) = (b , c , a ) =

= ( b , a , c ) = ( c , b , a ) = ( a , c , b ) ;

2. ( a , b , c ) = (a , b , c ) ;

3. ( a1 + a 2 , b , c ) = ( a1 , b , c ) + ( a 2 , b , c ) ,

-
2.6.1.
70
, , ,
-
.

2.7.


{g1 , g 2 , g 3 } a , b c ,


a = 1 g1 + 2 g 2 + 3 g 3 , b = 1 g 1 + 2 g 2 + 3 g 3 -

c = 1 g1 + 2 g 2 + 3 g 3 .

2 3 3 2
[a, b ] = det f 1 det 1 f 2 + det 1 f ,
2 3 1 3 1 2 3

f 1 , f 2 , f 3 2.5.


( g , g , g ), k = j ,
, ( g k , f j ) = 1 2 3
0, k j,

( a , b , c )
2 3 3
(a, b, c ) = ([a, b ], c ) = 1 det ( 2 3
2 det 1
1 3
+

1 2 3
1 2
+ 3 det
1 2
) ( g 1 , g 2 , g 3 ) = det 1 2 3 ( g1 , g 2 , g 3 ) ,
1 2 3
 2 . 71
, ,
3- . (. -
1.1.1.)
. 1. 2.6.1 -
1.6.3.
2.

( e1 , e2 , e3 ) = 1 ,
1 2 3

(a, b, c ) = det 1 2 3 .
1 2 3

3. 2.5 f1 , f 2 , f 3 -

{ f 1 , f 2 , f 3 } (-
2.7.1.
{g1 , g 2 , g 3 } ).
.
,

f 1 , f 2 , f 3 .
1 , 2 , 3 , ,

1 f1 + 2 f 2 + 3 f 3 = o .


g j , j = [1, 3] ,

1 ( f1 , g j ) + 2 ( f 2 , g j ) + 3 ( f 3 , g j ) = 0 , j = [1,3] .
(2.7.1)
72

( f i , g j ) , i = [1, 3] , j = [1, 3]
, i = j ,
( fi , g j ) = , 0 . , -
0, i j ,

( f i , g i ) , i = [1, 3] -

g1 , g 2 , g 3 -

. ( f i , g j ) , i j -
, -
.

(2.7.1),
, i = 0 , i = [1, 3] ,

f1 , f 2 , f 3 .

2.8.

a, b
2.8.1.
c [ a , [ b , c ]] .

2.8.1.

[ a , [ b , c ]] = b ( a , c ) c ( a , b ) a, b, c .
 2 . 73
.

, a , b , c ,
, -

, ( a , b ) ( a , c ) .

x = [ a , [ b , c ]]. -

x [ b , c ] , a .
1.

( x , [ b , c ]) = ( x , b , c ) = 0 ,

{ x , b , c } 1.4.1

x = b+ c ,
.

2. ( x , a ) = 0 ,

( b + c , a ) = 0 ( b , a ) + ( c , a ) = 0 .

3. r , -
:

) r ( x ) ,

b c;

) ( r , b ) = 0 ( r , c ) > 0 . (. . 2.8.1.)


( a , r , [ b , c ]) = ( a , [ r , [ b , c ]]) . ,

( r , b ) = 0
74

. 2.8.1

( a , r , [ b , c ]) = ( r ,a , [ b , c ]) = ( r , [ a , [ b , c ]]) = ( r , x ) =

= ( r , b + c ) = ( r , b ) ( r , c ) = ( r , c ).

, [ r , [ b , c ]] b ,

> 0 , [ r , [ b , c ] ] = b .

( a , r , [ b , c ] ) = ( a , b ) .

b = [ r , [ b , c ] ] = r b c sin sin({ r ; [ b , c ]}) =

= r b c cos( ) = ( r , c ) b = (r, c) ,
2
 2 . 75

r [ b , c ] . ,

(a , r , [b , c ] ) = ( a , b ) ( r , c ) .

( a , r , [ b , c ] ) ,

( r , c ) = ( a , b ) ( r , c ) = ( a , b ) .
, , . 2, ,

= (a, c ) .

-
4 (. . 4.5).

2.9.


, ,
. , -
( )

.

a b,
1

{g1 , g 2 , g 3 } 2
3
76

1
2 , -
3
k i ; k , i = 1, 2, 3 , -

11 1 2 1 3
2 1 2 2 2 3 . (2.9.1)
3 1 32 3 3

, -
-
,
.
, -
k i ; k , i = 1,2,3 , ( -
) ,
.
, 2.9.1,
,
.

{e1 , e2 , e3 }
11 12 13

{e1 , e2 , e3 } S = 21 22 23 .
31 32 33
1.8,
3
et = pt e p ; t = 1, 2, 3 , -
p =1
 2 . 77

3 3
s = si i ; s = 1, 2, 3; s = st t ; s = 1, 2, 3.
i =1 t =1

it (. 2.3), -

{e1 , e2 , e3 } {e1 , e2 , e3 }

3 3 3 3
(ei , et ) = it = ( si e s , pt e p ) = si pt (es , e p ) =
s =1 p =1 s =1 p =1
3 3 3
= si pt sp = si st ; t = 1, 2, 3 .
s =1 p =1 s =1

3
,
s =1
si st = it , i, t = 1, 2, 3,

S
.


11 + 2 2 + 3 3 {e1 , e2 , e3 } ,
-
:

3 3 3 3 3 3 3

= (
i i si i )( st t ) = i t si st =
i =1 i =1 s =1 t =1 i =1 t =1 s =1
3 3 3
= i t it = t t .
i =1 t =1 t =1

11 + 2 2 + 3 3
78
,
.

, -
-

2 3 3 2 ,
3 1 13 ,
1 2 2 1 .
, .
 3 . 79

, -

-. -
,
-, -
, .
3 -

. 3, 4 5 -
x , -
y -
z , .

3.1.

{O, g1 , g 2 } -

L, r0 , -

a.

a
3.1.1. L.
80
- L -
3.1.1.
r = r0 + a ,
.
.

r L . a
L ,

r r0 (. 3.1.1) r -

r r0 = a .

r = r0 + a (, + ).
.

. 3.1.1

-
x x0
L . r = , r0 =
g y g y0
ax
a = , .
g ay
 3 . 81
-
3.1.2.
Ax + By + C = 0 , A + B > 0.
.

r r0 a -

x x0 y y0
det =0.
ax ay
a y ( x x 0 ) a x ( y y 0 ) = 0 ,
Ax + By + C = 0 , A + B > 0 ,
A = a y ; B = a x , C = a y x 0 a x y 0 , ,

. ,

A + B >0

a o.
.

3.1.3. Ax + By + C = 0, A + B > 0 ,
-
.
.

Ax + By + C = 0 , A + B > 0 .
x0 y 0 , Ax0 + By 0 + C = 0 .
82
,
A( x x0 ) + B( y y 0 ) = 0 .
x0 B
r0 = a = . -
g y0 g A

3.1.2 , , r0 -

a ,
A( x x0 ) + B( y y 0 ) = 0 .
, .

: 3.1.13.1.3 ,

, , -
, -
-
:
-
?

3.1.4.
A1 x + B1 y + C1 = 0, A1 + B1 > 0
A2 x + B2 y + C 2 = 0, A2 + B2 > 0
, -
, 0 ,
,
A1 = A2 ; B1 = B2 ; C1 = C 2 .
 3 . 83
.

A2 x + B2 y + C2 = 0 .
1 1 1
A2 x + B2 y +C 2 = A1 x + B1 y + C1 =

1
= ( A1 x + B1 y +C1 ) = 0 ,

0 , A1 x + B1 y + C1 = 0 .

A1 x + B1 y + C1 = 0 ,
A2 x + B2 y + C 2 = 0 .

A1 x + B1 y + C1 = 0 A2 x + B2 y + C 2 = 0
-
. -
( 3.1.2) 0 , ,
A1 = A2 ; B1 = B2 .
,
A2 x + B2 y + C1 = 0 A2 x + B2 y + C2 = 0
, , C1 = C 2 .

: -
. -
, (. 4.6)

= P sec( + 0 ) .
 84
3.2.

{O, g1 , g 2 } -
. -
.
1.
, x 2 x1
-
a = r2 r1 = , -
y 2 y1
-

r = r1 + ( r2 r1 )

x1
r1 = r = (1 ) r1 + r2 .
y1
, -

, :
x2
r2 = x x1 y y1
y2 = ; ( x 2 x1 )( y 2 y1 ) 0;
x 2 x1 y 2 y1
y = y1 x, y 2 = y1 ;
x = x1 y, x 2 = x1 .
,

x y 1
det x1 y1 1 = 0.
x2 y2 1

x1 x2
r1 = , r2 =
3.2.1. y1 y2
x3
r3 = ,
y3
 3 . 85
, -

x1 y1 1
det x 2 y2 1 = 0 .
x3 y3 1
2.


(
, -
-


x0
r0 = ,
y0
-
-
-

. 3.2.1
nx
n= )
ny
x x0
a = r r0 = ,
y y0
x
r = -
y
(. 3.2.1). -

n r r0

( n , r r0 ) = 0 ,

( n , r ) = d , d = ( n , r0 ) .
86
-

( n , r ) = d ( n , r r0 ) = 0 -
d
r0 , , r0 = n .
( n, n )

{O, e1 , e2 } -

n x ( x x0 ) + n y ( y y 0 ) = 0,

n x x + n y y = d , d = n x x0 + n y y 0 .

-
Ax + By + C = 0 , -
, -
A
n , n = , -
g B
.

n -
3.2.1. L .

3. - -
-
{O, e1 , e2 }
Ax + By + C = 0, A + B > 0
,
A2 + B 2 .
 3 . 87
A B C
cos = ; sin = ;= ,
A +B
2 2
A +B
2 2
A + B2
2

x cos + y sin + = 0 .
. 3.2.2.

. 3.2.2

,
,
Ax + By + C > 0 , A + B > 0
( ,
x y ),
Ax + By + C = 0 , A + B > 0.
, -

L : ( n , r ) = d P ,
P+ P (. . 3.2.3).
88

. 3.2.3

\
, M -
3.2.2.
R P+ ( P ),
> 0 ( < 0 ), ,

M M = n , M -

M L .

M P+ ,
3.2.1.
( n , R) > d .
 3 . 89
.

M P+ , > 0 ,

M M = n . ( n , R) . M L ,

( n , OM ) = d ,

( n , R) = ( n , OM + M M ) = ( n , OM ) + ( n , M M ) =

= d + ( n , n ) > d
.

.

( n , R ) > d M M = n , ( n , OM ) = d



( n , R) = ( n , OM + M M ) =

= ( n , OM ) + ( n , M M ) = d + ( n , n ) > d .

n o , > 0 , , M P+ .

{O, g1 , g 2 }
3.2.1.
L ( n , r r0 ) = 0 . -
, - -

x1
r1 = .
y1
90

1. MK = n , r = r1 + n (. 3.2.4).

2. K -
,


( n , r1 + n r0 ) = 0 .

( n ,r1 r0 )
= .
2
|n|
3.

MK ,

. 3.2.4 n
| MK | = | (r1 r0 ,
) |.
|n |

4. .
Ax + By + C = 0, A + B > 0 , ,
A
n= .
B
A( x1 x0 ) + B( y1 y0 )
| MK |= .
A2 + B 2

, r0 L , -
, Ax0 + By 0 + C = 0 ,

Ax1 + By1 + C
| MK | = .
A2 + B 2
 3 . 91
-
3.2.3. ,
, .
, ,
3.2.2.
A1 x + B1 y + C1 = 0 A2 x + B2 y + C 2 = 0 .

1) -
, ,
( A1 x + B1 y + C1 ) + ( A2 x + B2 y + C 2 ) = 0
,
2) ,
,
( A1 x + B1 y + C1 ) + ( A2 x + B2 y + C 2 ) = 0
.
.

x
1. r = ,
y
,

= A2 x + B2 y + C 2 , = ( A1 x + B1 y + C1 ) .


, + > 0 , r
. -
,

( A2 x + B2 y + C 2 )( A1 x + B1 y + C1 )
( A1 x + B1 y + C1 )( A2 x + B2 y + C 2 ) = 0


r , ,
, .
92
2. A1 x + B1 y + C1 = 0 A2 x + B2 y + C2 = 0
,
,
( A1 x + B1 y + C1 ) + ( A2 x + B2 y + C 2 ) = 0 .

(A1 + A2 ) x + (B1 + B2 ) y + (C1 + C 2 ) = 0

,

A1 + B1 > 0 , A2 + B2 > 0 + > 0

, A1 + A2 + B1 + B2 > 0 .
, :
A1 + A2 = 0,
(3.2.1)
B1 + B2 = 0.
A1x + B1 y + C1 = 0 A2 x + B2 y + C 2 = 0 -
, , .
, . 3.1.4
, 0 ,
A1 = A2 B1 = B2 .
A1 A2
1.6.2 det = 0.
B1 B2
,
A1 A2
det 0
B1 B2
1.1.2 3.2.1 -
. ,
,
= = 0 ,
+ > 0.
 3 . 93
,

A1 + A2 + B1 + B2 > 0.
.

3.2.4.
( A1 x + B1 y + C1 ) + ( A2 x + B2 y + C 2 ) = 0

-
.

3.3.

{O, g1 , g 2 , g 3 }

S , - r0 -

S p q.

p q -
3.3.1.
S .

- S
3.3.1.
r = r0 + p + q ,
.
.

r S . p , q -
S , (. 3.3.1)

r r0
94
-

p q

r r0 = p + q ,
, , -



r = r0 + p + q ,
(, + )
(, + ).

. . 3.3.1

-
x px

S . r = y , p = py
g g
z pz
qx

q = q y , .
g
qz

-
3.3.2.
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 , A + B + C > 0.
.

r r0 , p q -
1.6.3
 3 . 95
x x0 y y0 z z0
det px py pz = 0.
qx qy qz

A( x x0 ) + B( y y 0 ) + C ( z z 0 ) = 0 , -
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0, A , B C -
1.1.1

py pz p pz
A = det ; B = det x ;
qy qz qx qz
px py
C = det ,
qx qy

D = Ax0 By 0 Cz 0 , , , ,
.
A , B

C p q -
2.5.1.

Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 ,
3.3.3.
A + B + C > 0 -
.
.

,
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 , A + B + C >0
96
C 0
DA DB DC
x+ y+ z+
A + B2 +C2
2
A + B2 + C 2
2
A + B2 + C 2
2

det 0 C B = 0,

C 0 A

C = 0
DA DB
x+ y+ z+0
A + B2
2
A + B2
2

det B A 0 = 0,

0 0 1

p q
0 C

p = C q = 0 C 0 , , C = 0 ,
A
g g
B

B 0

p = A q = 0 .
g g
0 1

, , -

.

.
 3 . 97

{O, g1 , g 2 , g 3 } -
3.3.1. , , -
:
x1 x2 x3

r1 = y1 ; r2 = y 2 ; r3 = y 3 .
z1 z2 z3
. ,

r2 r1 r3 r1 .
, -

r r r1 -
.


{ r r1 , r2 r1 r3 r1 }
,


( r r1 , r2 r1 , r3 r1 ) = 0 ,
( 2.7)

x x1 y y1 z z1
det x 2 x1 y 2 y1 z 2 z1 = 0.
x3 x1 y 3 y1 z 3 z1

{O, g1 , g 2 , g 3 } -
3.3.2. ,

T
r0 = x0 y0 z0 -
T
n = nx ny nz .
98

. - r ,

, r r0 n -

, .. ( r r0 , n ) = 0 .

{O, e1 , e2 , e3 }

n x ( x x0 ) + n y ( y y 0 ) + nz ( z z0 ) = 0

, A = n x ; B = n y ; C = n z -
D = n x x0 n y y 0 n z z 0 ,
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 .

-
3.3.1.
{O, e1 , e2 , e3 }

Ax + By + Cz + D = 0, A + B + C > 0,
A

n = B .
C

n -
3.3.2.
( r r0 , n ) = 0 .

T
A B C -
3.3.3.

Ax + By + Cz + D = 0, A + B + C > 0.
 3 . 99
-
.

3.3.3.
{O, e1 , e2 , e3 } M -

x

- r = y ( r r0 , n ) = 0 .

. 1. K M


, MK = n r = r + n .
(. 3.3.2.)
2. K ,

( n , r + n r0 ) = 0 , ,
,

( n , r r0 )
= ,
2
|n|



| MK | =


n
= | ( r r0 ,
)|.
|n | . 3.3.2
. -
.
100

n = A B C
T

Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 .

| A( x x0 ) + B( y y 0 ) + C ( z z 0 ) |
| MK | = ,
A2 + B 2 + C 2

r0 ,
Ax0 + By 0 + Cz 0 + D = 0 ,
, A + B + C > 0 , -

| Ax + By + Cz + D |
| MK | = .
A2 + B 2 + C 2

A1 + B1 + C1 > 0 A2 + B2 + C2 > 0 ,
3.3.4.

A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 = 0,
A2 x + B2 y + C 2 z + D 2 = 0
,
.
.

. ,
0 ,
A1 = A2 ; B1 = B2 ; C1 = C 2 ,

A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 = 0,

A2 x + B2 y + C 2 z + D2 = 0
 3 . 101

A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 = 0,

A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D2 = 0.
D1 D2 ,
D1 = D2 ,
.

.
A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 = 0
A2 x + B2 y + C2 z + D2 = 0
. -
.
-
, x = 0 z = 0 .
, -
,

x = 0, x = 0,

B1 y + C1 z + D1 = 0 B2 y + C2 z + D2 = 0.
0
, B1 = B2 ; C1 = C 2 .

z = 0 ,

z = 0, z = 0,

A1 x + B1 y + D1 = 0 A2 x + B2 y + D2 = 0,
B1 = B2
, A1 = A2 .

.
102

3.3.2.
A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 = 0, A1 + B1 + C1 > 0
A2 x + B2 y + C 2 z + D2 = 0, A2 + B2 + C 2 > 0
, -
, -
0, ,
A1 = A2 ; B1 = B2 ; C1 = C 2 ; D1 = D2 .

-
3.3.4. ,
.

,
3.3.5. , -

A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 = 0,
A1 + B1 + C1 > 0

A2 x + B2 y + C 2 z + D2 = 0,
A2 + B2 + C 2 > 0,

( A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 ) +
+ ( A2 x + B2 y + C 2 z + D2 ) = 0,
+ > 0.

-
3.3.6. ,
.
 3 . 103
P ,
3.3.7.
A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 = 0,
A1 + B1 + C1 > 0,
A2 x + B2 y + C 2 z + D2 = 0,

A2 + B2 + C 2 > 0
A3 x + B3 y + C 3 z + D3 = 0,
A3 + B3 + C 3 > 0,
,
( A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 ) +
+ ( A2 x + B2 y + C 2 z + D2 ) +
+ ( A3 x + B3 y + C 3 z + D3 ) = 0,
+ + >0
, -
P .
-
, 3.2.1 .

3.4.


{O, g1 , g 2 , g 3 } .
1. -
-
T
- r = x y z

, -

 104

ax x0

a = a y r0 = y 0 , -
az z0

a r r0 ,


r = r0 + a .

2.

- r = r0 + a

x = x 0 + a x ,

y = y 0 + a y ,
z = z + a ,
0 z
-

x x0 y y 0 z z 0
= = ,
ax ay az
.
a x a y a z = 0
, 3.2 (1).

3. - a
-
, -
x 2 x1


r2 r1 = y 2 y1 ,
z 2 z1
 3 . 105
-


x1 r = r1 + (r2 r1 )

r1 = y1

z1 r = (1 ) r1 + r2 .
x2


r2 = y 2
x x1 y y1 z z1
z2 = = ,
x 2 x1 y 2 y1 z 2 z1

( x2 x1 )( y2 y1 )( z 2 z1 ) 0 .

4.
1-

(n1 , r ) = d 1 (n2 , r ) = d 2 ,

n1 n2 ,
, d1 d 2 .

, r0 , -
, -
-
:

(n1 , r r0 ) = 0,

(n2 , r r0 ) = 0.

A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 = 0,

A2 x + B2 y + C 2 z + D2 = 0.
106
5. -

2- - a

r r0 ,

[ a , r r0 ] = o


[ a , r ] = b , b = [ a , r0 ] .

,

{O, e1 , e2 , e3 } -

e1 e2 e3 a y z a z y = b x ,

det a x ay a z = b a z x a x z = b y ,
x y z a y a x = b .
x y z

,
, -
.
, a x , a y
a z , -
0 = 0 , a x , a y a z
,

bx = a y z 0 a z y 0 ,

b y = a z x 0 a x z 0 ,
b = a y a x .
z x 0 y 0
 3 . 107
, d -


- R

r = r0 + a , -
, S
, -
, -

. . 3.4.1 -
. 3.4.1

[ R r0 , a ]
S
d=
=
.
a a

3.5.



.
, ,
, , -
,
/ -
.

( r r01 , n1 ) = 0
3.5.1.
( r r02 , n2 ) = 0 -

n1 n2 .
108

( r r0 , n ) = 0
3.5.2.
r = r0 + a ,
2

n a.
3.5.13.5.3

.

3.5.1

-

1. 0 , ,

r = r01 + a1 a1 = a 2 .

r = r02 + a 2 . 2. [a1 , a2 ] = o .

(a1 , a 2 ) = 0.

r = r01 + a1

r = r02 + a 2 .

1. 0 , ,

r = r0 + a a = [n1 , n2 ] .

(n1 , r ) = d1 ,
2. [ a , [n1 , n2 ]] = o .
(n2 , r ) = d 2 .
 3 . 109

( a , n1 , n2 ) = 0.

r = r0 + a

(n1 , r ) = d1 ,

(n2 , r ) = d 2 .

1. 0 0,

r = r01 + a1 , a1 = a2

r = r02 + a 2 . r01 r02 = a1 .

2. [ a1 , a 2 ] = o

[r01 r02 , a1 ] = o .

[ a1 , a 2 ] o


r = r01 + a1 (r01 r02 , a1 , a 2 ) = 0.

r = r02 + a 2 .

- [ a1 , a 2 ] o


r = r01 + a1 (r01 r02 , a1 , a 2 ) 0 .

r = r02 + a 2 .
110
3.5.2

-
- 1.
r = r01 + p1 + q1
r = r02 + p 2 + q 2 .
0, ,
[ p1 , q1 ] = [ p 2 , q 2 ]
(r01 r02 , p1 , q1 ) 0 .
2. [[ p1 , q1 ],[ p2 , q 2 ]] = o
(r01 r02 , p1 , q1 ) 0.

1. 0, ,


r = r01 + p1 + q1 [ p1 , q1 ] = [ p 2 , q 2 ]

r = r02 + p 2 + q 2 . (r01 r02 , p1 , q1 ) = 0 .

2. [[ p1 , q1 ],[ p2 , q 2 ]] = o


r = r01 + p1 + q1 (r01 r02 , p1 , q1 ) = 0 .

r = r02 + p 2 + q 2 .

- ( [ p1 , q1 ], [ p 2 , q 2 ]) = 0 .

r = r01 + p1 + q1

r = r02 + p 2 + q 2 .
 3 . 111

- ( p , n ) = 0
( n , r0 ) d .
r = r0 + p + q ( q , n ) = 0

( n, r ) = d .

( p , n ) = 0
( n , r0 ) = d .
r = r0 + p + q ( q , n ) = 0

( n, r ) = d .

- 1. 0, ,

r = r0 + p + q [ p, q ] = n .

( n, r ) = d . 2. [[ p, q ], n ] = o .

3.5.3

-

1. ; ; + > 0,

r = r01 + a ,

a = p+ q

r = r02 + p + q . (r01 r02 , p, q ) 0 .
112

( a , p, q) = 0,
2.
(r01 r02 , p, q) = 0.

1. 0, ,

r = r01 + a a = [ p, q] .

r = r02 + p + q . 2. [ a ,[ p , q ]] = o .

( a , n) = 0

r = r01 + a ( n , r0 ) d .

( n, r ) = d .

( a , n) = 0,

r = r01 + a (r0 , n) = d .

( n, r ) = d .
1. 0, ,

r = r01 + a a =n.

( n, r ) = d . 2. [a, n] = o .
1.
; ; + > 0, ,
(n1 , r ) = d1 ,

(n2 , r ) = d 2 n = n1 + n2 .


( n, r ) = d . 2. [ n ,[ n1 , n2 ]] = o .
 3 . 113
, 3.5.13.5.3
.

-
5. , , ,


(n1 , r ) = d1 ,

(n2 , r ) = d 2 ,

r = r0 + a .

, -

a = [ n1 , n2 ] , - r0

n1 n2 .

, r0 = n1 + n2 ,

(n1 , r0 ) = d1 ,
= = ,
(n2 , r0 ) = d 2

(n1 , n1 ) (n1 , n2 ) d1 (n1 , n2 )
= det , = det
(n2 , n1 ) (n2 , n2 ) d2 (n2 , n2 )

5
, -
,
, , . (., ,
3.5.2.)
114

(n1 , n1 ) d1
= det (. 1.1.2).
(n2 , n1 ) d 2
, -

n1 n2 0 .

.

r = r0 + a ,

, r0 a . -
, -

, n1 = [ a , r0 ] n2 = [ a , n1 ] . ,
(. 2.8),

2
n2 = [ a , n1 ] = [ a , [ a , r0 ]] = ( a , r0 ) a ( a , a ) r0 = ( a , r0 ) a a r0 .

d 1 d 2 , , d1 = (n1 , r0 )

d 2 = (n2 , r0 ) . r0 a
.

( n , r ) = d 0 -
3.5.1.
r = r0 + a . - -
.
 3 . 115

. 1. , ( n , a ) = 0 , ,
.

, (n, a ) 0 .

2. r = r0 + n , r
-
-
,
-
(. 3.5.1).

-
, -
. 3.5.1


( n , r0 + a ) = d 0 .

d ( n, r0 ) d ( n , r0 )
=
, , r = r0 +
a.
( n, a ) ( n, a )

- R
3.5.2.
r = r0 + a .
, -
.

. 1. - R
, (. 3.5.2). -

rx - -
.

= | R rx | .
116

2. rx


( a , R rx ) = 0

rx = r0 + a , , -
, -
,

( R r0 , a )

rx = r0 +
a
. 3.5.2 2
|a|

( R r , a ) ( R r0 , a )
= ( R r0 0 a ,R r0 a) =
2 2
|a| |a|

( R r0 , a ) 2
= | R r0 |
2

.
| a |2
,
2 2 2
p q = ( p, q ) 2 + [ p, q ] -

[ R r0 , a ]
3.4 =
.
|a|

r = r01 + a1
3.5.3.
r = r02 + a 2 .
 3 . 117

. 1. a1 a 2 ,
. 3.4.1 -


S | [r02 r01 , a1 ] |
=
=
.
| a1 | | a1 |

2. a1 a 2 -
,
,
, -

r01 , -

r02 (. 3.5.3).

, -

a1 , a 2

r02 r01 , , -
,
. 3.5.3 ,
, -

(r02 r01 , a1 , a 2 )

. ,

| (r02 r01 , a1 , a 2 ) |
=
.
| [a1 , a 2 ] |
118

( n , r ) = [ p, r ] = q .
3.5.4.
R - .

.

n , [ n ,[ p, r ]] = [ n , q ] . -

R 2.8,


p ( n , R) R ( n , p ) = [ n , q ] .

R ,

( n , R) = ,

( n , p ) 0

p [ n, q ]
R=
.
( n , p)
 4 . 119

4.1.

{O, g1 , g 2 } -
, (, -
).

, L -
4.1.1.
- r = F () (

Fx ()
r = ,
g F y ( )
Fx (), Fy () ,
, ),

1) r = F () -
L;

2) r0 , L, -
0 , ,

r0 = F ( 0 ) .
120

G ( x , y ) = 0 , -
x = Fx ()
, .
y = Fy ()
1. -
4.1.1.
r = r0 + a , a , r0
. -

x = x 0 + a x ,
(,+ ) ,
y = y 0 + a y ,
Fx () = x0 + a x ,
(, + ) ,
F y ( ) = y 0 + a y ,
Ax + By + C = 0 , A + B > 0 ,
G ( x , y ) = Ax + By + C .
2. -
x0
R
y0

x = x0 + R cos ,
[0,2) ,
y = y 0 + R sin ,
Fx () = x0 + R cos ,
[0,2) ,
Fy () = y 0 + R sin ,

( x x0 ) 2 + ( y y0 ) 2 = R 2 ,
G ( x , y ) = ( x x 0 ) + ( y y 0 ) R .
2 2 2
 4 . 121
,
4.1.2.
m
pk qk

k =0
k x y = 0 , p k q k -

, k -
.

N = max { pk + q k }
4.1.3. k =[ 0 , m ]
, -
4.1.2, k ,
k 0 . -
, -
,
.
x + 3y + 2 = 0 ( N = 1)
4.1.2
(-
). - y x2 = 0 ( N = 2)

xy 1 = 0 ( N = 2)

x 3 + y 3 xy = 0 ( N = 3)

4.1.1. .
.

L

{O, g1 , g 2 } G ( x , y ) = 0 N .

{O, g1 , g 2 } . , -
(1.8.2),
122

x = 11 x + 12 y + 1 ,

y = 21 x + 22 y + 2 ,
L -

G (11 x + 12 y + 1 , 21 x + 22 y + 2 ) = 0.
4.1.2, N N ,
-
.


{O, g1 , g 2 } {O, g1 , g 2 } , N N
N = N .

: , -
.

1. -
4.1.4.
x 0,

y 0, -
x + y 3 0

,
3.

2. -
x + y 4 0 2
2 2

. -

{O, g1 , g 2 , g 3 } .
 4 . 123
, L
4.1.4.
- r = F () (

x Fx ()
y = Fy () ,
z Fz ()
Fx ( ), Fy ( ), Fz ( ) ,
, ),

1) r = F () -
L,

2) r0 , L, -
0 , ,

r0 = F ( 0 ) .

G ( x, y, z ) = 0,

H ( x, y, z ) = 0,

x = Fx (),

y = Fy (), ,
z = F (),
z
, ,
G 2 ( x, y , z ) + H 2 ( x, y , z ) = 0 .
1.
4.1.3. x 2 + y 2 = 0 z .
124
2.
R 2a
:
x = R cos ,

y = R sin , (,+) ,
z = a

z
x = R cos a ,

z
y = R sin .
a

4.2.


{O, g1 , g 2 , g 3 } , ,
: , .

, S
4.2.1. -

r = F (, ) (
Fx (, )

r = Fy (, ) ,
g
Fz (, )
Fx (, ), Fy (, ), Fz (, )
, , -
, ),
 4 . 125

1)

, r = F (, ) S,

2) r0 , S, -

0 , 0 , , -

r0 = F ( 0 , 0 ) .

G ( x , y , z ) = 0 ,

x = Fx (, ),

y = Fy (, ), , .
z = F (, ).
z

4.2.1. x0
R y0
z0

x = x0 + R cos sin ,
0 < 2,
y = y 0 + R sin sin ,
z = z + R cos , 0 ,
0

( x x0 ) 2 + ( y y0 ) 2 + ( z z0 ) 2 = R 2 .
126

,
4.2.2.
m
pk q rk

k =0
k x y kz = 0 , p k , q k rk

, k
.

N = max { pk + q k + rk } -
4.2.3. k =[ 0 ,m ]
, ( -
4.2.2), k,
k 0 . -
, -
, -
.

4.2.2 x2 + y2 1 = 0 ( N = 2)
(-
-
). x2 + y2 + z2 R2 = 0 ( N = 2)

4.2.1. .

4.1.1.

: , -
.
 4 . 127
4.3.

{O, g1 , g 2 , g 3 }

r = F () , , -
.
, , -

a.

,
4.3.1. , -
.

.

r = F () + KM (. . 4.3.1),


KM = a ,
, , -


r (, ) = F () + a , , (, + ).

Fx () ax

F () = Fy () a = ay ,
Fz ()
g g
az

x Fx () y Fy () z Fz ()
= = .
ax ay az
128

, -
4.3.1.
- 3, -
, -
, ,

- , -
, c

x = 3 cos , 3 cos 0

y = 3 sin , F () = 3 sin ; a = 0 .
z = , 0 1

,
, x + y = 9
2 2

z , ,
N =2.

. 4.3.1 . 4.3.2
 4 . 129
(-
), -
, , A ( -

) - r0 .

,
4.3.2. ,
.

.

r = F () + KM ,
(. . 4.3.2)

KM = (r0 F ()) ,
, ,


r (, ) = (1 ) F () + r0 , , (, + ).
x0

r0 = y 0 , -
g
z0

x Fx () y Fy () z Fz ()
= = .
x0 Fx () y 0 Fy () z 0 Fz ()

,
4.3.2.
- 3, -
, -
, ,
130
- ,

r0 = 0 0 1 ,
T

(. 4.3.1):
x 3 cos y 3 sin z
= = , [0,2) .
3 cos 3 sin 1
,
x2 y2
, + ( z + 1) 2 = 0 ,
9 9
N = 2.

4.4.


{O, e1 , e2 } L .

4.1.2 4.1.3
4.4.1. , L -
, -

Ax 2 + 2 Bxy + Cy 2 + 2 Dx + 2 Ey + F = 0, (4.4.1)
A , B C ,
x y - , -
L .

4.4.1 -
,

 4 . 131

{O , e1 , e2 } ,
.
-
4.4.1. ,
(
a b > 0, p > 0 ) (-
) :
4 .4 .1
- - -

>0 <0 =0
x 2 y 2
+ = 1
y 2 = a 2

a2 b2 x

x 2 y 2
+ 2 =0
a2 b

y2 = 0

x

x 2 y 2 y2 = a 2
= 0
a2 b2 x

x 2 y 2 x2 y2 y 2 = 2 px
+ 2 =1 =1
a2 b a2 b2
132

A B
= det = AC B 2 .
B C
.

1. , -
: B 0 A C .
, B < 0 , -
4.4.1. A < C , ,
,

e1 = e2 ; e2 = e1 ; OO = o , -
,
x = y ; y = x 1.8. ,
,
C B A B
det = det =.
B A B C
2. B = 0 , 4 . 135.
B > 0 , -

{O, e1 , e2 } ,
O 0 < / 4, ,
x y
. . -
(. 1.8):

e1 = e1 cos + e 2 sin ,

e2 = e1 sin + e2 cos ,

OO = o,


{O, e1 , e2 } {O, e1 , e2 }

 4 . 133
x = x cos y sin ,

y = x sin + y cos .
, -
4.4.1
A( x cos y sin ) 2 +
+ 2 B( x cos y sin )( x sin + y cos ) +
+ C ( x sin + y cos ) 2 + 2 D( x cos y sin ) +
+ 2 E ( x sin + y cos ) + F = 0,

A x 2 + 2 B x y + C y 2 + 2 D x + 2 E y + F = 0 .
,
A = A cos 2 + 2 B cos sin + C sin 2 ,
2 B = 2 A sin cos + 2 B cos 2
2 B sin 2 + 2C sin cos ,
C = A sin 2 2 B sin cos + C cos 2 .

B = 0 ,
2 B cos 2 ( A C ) sin 2 = 0,

2B 1 2B
tg 2 = ; = arctg , A > C ,
AC 2 AC

= A = C , . -
4
,

AC
tg 2 + tg 1 = 0, B 0,
B
B = 0 , .
134
3. ,
A + C . ,
AC 2 1
1 + ctg 2 2 = 1 + ( ) =
2B sin 2 2

0<
4
2B AC
sin 2 = ; cos 2 = .
4B 2 + ( A C ) 2 4B 2 + ( A C ) 2
A C
1 + cos 2 1 cos 2
A = A + B sin 2 + C =
2 2
A+C AC A+C
= + cos 2 + B sin 2 = +
2 2 2
AC AC 2B
+ +B =
2 4B 2 + ( A C) 2 4B 2 + ( A C ) 2
A+C 1
= + 4B 2 + ( A C ) 2 .
2 2
,
A+C 1
C = 4B 2 + ( A C ) 2 .
2 2

A 0
= det =
0 C
A+C1
= AC = ( (4 B 2 + ( A C ) 2 ) =
) 2

2 4
A B
= AC B 2 = det = ,
B C
 4 . 135
-
. ,
A + C = A + C .
4. , B = 0 , -
0 = 0
Ax 2 + Cy 2 + 2 Dx + 2 Ey + F = 0 .
0 . , A 0 C 0

D 2 E 2 D2 E 2
A x+
( +C y+
) = ( + F.)
A C A C
D2 E 2
P = + F , , -
A C



e = e1, D
1
x = x ,

e2 = e2 ,
A
E
D E y = y ,
OO = e1 e2 , C
A C
Ax + Cy = P , ,
2 2

x2 y2
= 1 ; P 0,
P P
( | |
A
) (
2
| |
C
) 2

x 2
y2
= 0; P = 0,
| C |2 | A |2

, ,
:
136

x2 y 2 x2 y2 x 2 y 2
+ 2 = 0; + 2 = 1; + 2 = 1 > 0,
a2 b a2 b a2 b
x 2
y2 x 2
y2 x 2
y2
2 = 0; = 1; = 1 < 0.
a2 b a2 b2 a2 b2

-
(. 4.4.1),
1 -
x y .

5. = 0 . , AC = 0 , A = 0 ,
C = 0 ( !). A = 0 ( ,
x y ), -
Cy 2 + 2 Dx + 2 Ey + F = 0

E E2
C y+
( ) 2
= F 2 Dx, C 0.
C C

D = 0
E E2
C y+
( ) 2
= F,
C C

y 2 = a 2 ; y 2 = 0; y 2 = a 2 .

D 0 ,
E 2 2D 1 E2
(y+ =
) x F ,
( ( ))
C C 2D C
, , y = 2 px , y = 2 px ,
2 2

p > 0.
 4 . 137

(. 4.4.1), :

e1 =
1, e
x = x ,
e2 = e2 ,
y = y .
O O = o ,

.

. 1. 4.1.1 , -
, -
4.4.1 , -
.
2. , -



,
4.4.1, . ,
(. 5.4),
-
,
4.4.1, -
.
3.
,
-
.
4. 4.4.1 -

, -
,
,
.
138

1.

4.5.


{O, e1 , e2 , e3 } .

4.2.2 4.2.3
4.5.1. , S
,

A11 x 2 + A22 y 2 + A33 z 2 +

+ 2 A12 xy + 2 A13 xz + 2 A23 yz + (4.5.1)
+ 2 A14 x + 2 A24 y + 2 A34 z + A44 = 0,

A11 ; A22 ; A33 ; A12 ; A13 ; A23

, x, y z -
- , S.

, (4.5.1)
,
-
, -
.

-
4.5.1.

{O , e1 , e2 , e3 } , -
-
:
 4 . 139

x2 y 2 x 2 y 2 x2 y2
+ 2 + + 2 + + 2 =1
a2 b a2 b a2 b
z2 z2 z
+ 2 = 1 + 2 =0
b b


x2 y2 x2 y2 x2 y 2
+ 2 = 1 + 2 =0 =1
a2 b a2 b a2 b2
z z z

-

x 2 = a 2 x2 y 2 y 2 = 2 px
=0
y , z a2 b2 z
z

-

x 2 = a 2 y , z x 2 y 2
+ 2
x 2 = 0 y , z a2 b
z 2
2 =0
c
140

- -

x 2 y 2 z 2 x 2 y 2 x 2 y 2 z 2
+ + =1 + = 2 z + =1
a2 b2 c2 a 2 b2 a2 b2 c2
- -

x 2 y 2 x 2 y 2 z 2
= 2 z =1
a 2 b2 a 2 b2 c2

a >0, b>0, c>0, p > 0.

, ,

4.4.1,
, -
4.5.1 , -
12.2.

2.
 4 . 141
4.6.

, .

-
.



{, } ,

= OM , = ( OM , OP ) ,

0, 0 < 2 .
O ,
OP .
. 4.6.1
(. 4.6.1). -
.

:

= x2 + y2 ;
x = cos ,
cos = x
; sin =
y
y = sin ,
.
x2 + y2 x2 + y2

, .
142
, -
, -
x 2 + y 2 = 1 ,
= 1 .
, 1 , -
, -

(1 cos ) p = 0 , > 0 p > 0 ,
-
, -
p :
0 < < 1 , = 1 > 1 . -
4.6.2.

. 4.6.2.

 4 . 143
, -
(1 cos ) p = 0 -
. ,
x
= x 2 + y 2 cos = ,
x +y
2 2

x
x 2 + y 2 (1 ) p = 0,
x + y2
2

>0
p > 0 (1 ) x + y = 2 px + p .
2 2 2 2

= 1 , . 1,
:
p 2 1 p2
(x ) + y 2
= .
1 2 1 2 (1 2 ) 2
, 4 4.4.1,
, 0 < < 1 -
, > 1 -
.

(1 cos ) p = 0 , ( -
) , -
, -
, 4.4.1.
, = 0 p 0 , = 0
p = 0 , p = 0 cos = 1
.
144

. 4.6.3.

, -
4.6.1.
(1 cos ) p = 0 p 0 , 0,
.

, ,
, -
, 4.6.3.

, -
,
.
 4 . 145
-
{, , } (. 4.6.4),


= OM , = (Ox, OP) , = (OM , Oz ) ,

0 ; 0 < 2 ; 0 .

-

-
-
-
,

. ,
-

-

= 1 .

-
-
. 4.6.4
:

x = cos sin ,

y = sin sin ,
z = cos ,


146

x y
= x + y + z ; cos = ; sin =
2 2 2
;
x 2
+ y 2
x + y2
2

z
cos = .
x + y2 + z2
2

, -
-
-
,

.
-

-
{, , h}
(. 4.6.5),

= OM , = (Ox, OP) ,
. 4.6.5

0 ; 0 < 2 ; h (, + ).

:

x = cos , = x2 + y2 ;

y = sin , cos = x
; sin =
y
; h = z.
z = h, x2 + y2 x2 + y2

 5 . 147

5.1.

C m n
5.1.1.
ji i = [1, n] , j = [1, m]
A
m l
jk j = [1, m] , k = [1, l ]
B l n
ki k = [1, l ] , i = [1, n] ,
l
ji = jk ki i = [1, n] , j = [1, m] .
k =1

C -
m n l ,
C = A B .

. 5.1.1.
, -
5.1.1. .
1. A 2 2 , B
2 1 , C 2 1 .
148

C = A B =
11 12 11 1111 + 12 21
= = .
21 22 21 2111 + 22 21

11 12 ... 1i ... 1n
11 12 ... ... ... ... ... 1l 21 22 ... 2i ... 2n
21 22 ... ... ... ... ... 2l ... ... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
=
j1 j2 ... ... ... ... ... jl ... ... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

m1 m2 ... ... ... ... ... ml ... ... ... ... ... ...

l1 l 2 ... li ... ln
11 12 ... 1i ... 1n
21 22 ... 2i ... 2n
... ... ... ... ... ...
=
j1 j2 ji jn l
ji =jk ki
... ...

... ... ... ... ... ...

m1 m2 mi mn
k=1
... ...

. 5.1.1

2. A 2 2 , B 1 2 ,
C 1 2 .
11 12
C = B A = 11 12 =
21 22
= 1111 + 2112 12 11 + 22 12 .
 5 . 149

3. , A B 2 2 ,
C 2 2.

,
:
1) , -
A B B A ,
2)

A ( B C )=( A B ) C ,
3) -
A ( B + C )= A B + A C .

, -
,
.

, ( , )
A E
(. 1.1) A .
1
A
5.1.2.
A ,
1 1
A A = A A = E .
150

. , A ,
, det A 0 6.
A , det A = 0 ,
5.1.3.
, , det A 0 ,
.

, -
5.1.1. .

, A -
1 1
: A 1
A 2
.
1 1
A A 1
= E A A 2
= E
,
1 1
A A 1
A A 2
= E E = O .
1
A 1
, -

1 1 1 1
A 1
A ( A 1
A 2
)= A 1
O = O
1
, , A 1
A = E ,
1 1
A 1
A 2
= O .

6
n -
6.
 5 . 151
11 12
, A =
21 22
1
det A 0 , A

1 1 22 12
A = . (5.1.1)
det A 21 11
n 7 -
:
det ( A B ) = det ( A ) det ( B ) ;
1 1
det A = , det A 0 .
det A

, -
5.1.2.
111 + 12 2 = 1 ,

211 + 22 2 = 2

A x = b ,
1 1 11 12
x = ; b = ; A = ,
2 2 21 22
1
( A )
1
x = A b .

-
5.1.3. (1.8.2) -

7
n = 2 -
1.1.9, n 6.
152

g1 g1 1 1 1
T
g2 = S g2 ; 2 = S 2 + 2 ,

g3 g3 3 3 3

S .

5.1.1. T
( A B )T = B A T
.

, A B ,
, ,
.
ik , kj , i j A , B
C = A B . , -
5.1.1,
l
ij = ik kj .
k =1
, , 1.1.8 -

l l l
iTj = j i = j k k i = Tk j iTk = iTk Tk j ,
k =1 k =1 k =1

, 5.1.1,
.

.
 5 . 153
,

g1 g1
T
g2 = S g2

g3 g3

g1 g 2 g 3 = g 1 g2 g3 S .

-
.

Q
5.1.2.
n - x
n - ,
Q .
.

11 12 ... 1n
21 22 ... 2 n
Q = . x
... ... ... ...
n1 n2 ... nn
0
...
1 , i.
...
0
154

0 1i 0
... ... ...
Q 1 = ii = 0 i -
... ... ...
0 ni 0
.

-
5.1.2.
A B
1
( A B ) 1 = B A 1
.

1. ( A B ) 1 -
n- x c . -
( A B ) 1 x = c , ,

x = A B c (. 5.1.1 5.1.2).

2. , ,
1
A x = B c
1 1
B A x = c .

3.
1 1
( A B ) 1 x = c B A x = c ,
 5 . 155
-

1 1
(( A B ) 1 B A ) x = o ,
5.1.2
x ,
1 1
( A B ) 1 B A
.

1 T
( A ) = ( A T ) 1 .
5.1.1.

Q , -
5.1.4. 1 T
Q = Q , .

, -
, .

Q -
5.1.3.
det Q = 1 .
.
1 T
Q = Q

Q , 5.1.2 -
T T
Q Q = Q Q = E . ,
det 2 Q = 1 ,
156
-
-
;

- -
;

- det E = 1 .

Q ,
5.1.4.
det Q = 1 ,
cos sin
, , -
sin cos
det Q = 1
cos sin
.
sin cos
.

11 12
Q = ,
21 22

11 12 11 21
= = E
T
Q Q
21 22 12 22
, ,
11
2
+ 12
2
11 21 + 12 22 1 0
= .
11 21 + 12 22 21 + 22
2 2
0 1
 5 . 157

11
2
+ 12
2
=1,

11 21 + 12 22 = 0 ,
2 + 2 = 1 ,
21 22

,
5.1.3, , det Q = 1 .
det Q = 1 .

11 22 12 21 = 1 ,

(11
2
+ 12
2
) + ( 221 + 222 ) 2(11 22 12 21 ) = 0

(11 22 ) 2 + (12 + 21 ) 2 = 0 , ,
11 = 22 ,

12 = 21 .
, 11
2
+ 122
= 1 ; 221 + 222 = 1
0 11 1 ; 0 21 1 ,
2 2

11 = cos
,
21 = sin
Q ,
, 11
2
+ 221 = 1 .

det Q = 1 .

.
158

5.1.1. .
.

1.8 , S
-
:

cos sin cos sin

,
sin cos sin cos
.
S 5.1.4.

5.2. .

(
, ,
, ,
)
,
.

, A , -
5.2.1. -
, ,

.
 5 . 159
A :
y = A x, x , y . y
x , x y .

5.2.2. , ,
.

, : -
, y = ( x ), x .

1. x -
5.2.1.
y , -

x l ,
,

y = Pr l x -
l .

, A = Pr l .

2. [, ]
f () -
f () ,

d
f () = f () ,
d
d
A = .
d
160

3. x -

x
. ,
, .
4. [, ] f ()

f ()d ,

( f ) = f ()d

, [, ] .

A , (
5.2.3. ) P
Q, ,
P
Q .

:
A : P Q . M P M

Q, M = A M ( -
M = A ( M ) ), M -
M , M M .
A : P Q -
5.2.4.
, Q -
.
 5 . 161
A P
5.2.5. P.

5.2.6.
M = A M M = B M
( )
.

M = B A M.
, ,
.
,
5.2.7. A : P P ,
1
A : P P , , M
P
A 1 ( A M ) = M .

P ,
5.2.8.
A ,
A . P ,
A , A .

P , A -
, -
A .

5.3.


{O, g1 , g 2 } M -

M , 5.2.6
162

M = A
M . -
-
x x
rM = rM =
, x y
g y g y
x = Fx ( x , y )
x y , -
y = Fy ( x , y )
x Fx ( x , y )
=
y Fy ( x , y )

rM = A rM {O, g1 , g 2 } .

, -
Fx ( x , y ) Fy ( x, y ) .

rM = A$ rM -
5.3.1.
,

{O, g1 , g 2 }
x = 11 x + 12 y + 1 ,

y = 21 x + 22 y + 2 .

x x
= A + 1 ,
y g y 2
11 12
A =
g 21 22
 5 . 163
A$ ( -

A$ ) {O, g1 , g 2 } .

rM = A$ rM -
5.3.2.
, -
5.3.1 , , 1 = 2 = 0.
1 + 2 > 0 , A
.

:
5.3.1.
- A $ ,
- -

,
, , -
1 0
A = ,
g 0 2
1 2 ;
- -
- -
,
;

-
.

A$ -
5.3.1. :
164

1. A (r1 + r2 ) = A r1 + A r2 r1 , r2 .

2. A ( r ) = A r r , .
.

-
, . -
, 1
12 x1 x2
A (r1 + r2 ) = 11 ( + )=
21 22 y1 y2
11 12 x1 11 12 x2
= + = A r1 + A r2 .
21 22 y1 21 22 y2
.

A$ -
5.3.2.

1. A (r1 + r2 ) = A r1 + A r2 r1 , r2 ,

$ ( r ) = A$ r r , ,
2. A
.
.


r = x g1 + y g 2 A
$ r = x g + y g -
1 2
,

x g1 + y g 2 = A$ ( x g1 + y g 2 ) = x A$ g1 + y A$ g 2 .
1.5.1 11 , 12 , 21 , 22 ,


A g1 = 11 g1 + 21 g 2 A g 2 = 12 g1 + 22 g 2 .
 5 . 165


x g 1 + y g 2 = x A g 1 + y A g 2 =

= (11 x + 12 y ) g1 + ( 21 x + 22 y ) g 2 .

g1 g 2
x = 11 x + 12 y x 12 x
, = 11 .
y = 21 x + 22 y y
21 22 y

ax
, a , a = -
g ay

{g1 , g 2 } , A a

a x 11 12 ax
A a =
= .
g a y 21 22 ay

5.3.1 5.3.2 .

-
5.3.1.
A$ {g1 , g 2 }

A$ g1 A$ g 2 .
-
5.3.2. -
-
, -

.
166
, ,
5.3.1. -
:
1. -
-
: A B g
= A g
B g
.

2. A$ 1 ,
A$ ,
1
A$ 1 = A$ . g g

,
.

{O, g1 , g 2 }
5.3.3.

A$ g
. {O, g1 , g 2 }

1
A$ g
= S A$ g
S ,

S .
.

-

A$ r = A r , -
g
g g


r = A r , S
g
g g

{O, g1 , g 2 } {O, g1 , g 2 } , ,
 5 . 167

r = S r r = S r .
g g g g

1.8.2 -
1
S ( S ), -
,

S r = A S r r = S 1
A g
S r .
g
g g g g

,

r = A r , r (
g
g g g

5.1.2)
1
A = S A S .
g g

det A .
5.3.3. g

.
-
, 5.3.3
S
1
det A g
= det ( S A g
S )=
1
= det S det A g
det S =
1
= det A g
det S = det A g
.
det S
.
168
-
5.3.2. , -
-
x + 3y 2 = 0 .

. -
M -
x0
r0 = ,
y0

M
M -
-

x0
r0 = .
y 0 . 5.3.1

. 5.3.1 , M
x + 3y 2 = 0 , -
M.
x + 3y 2 = 0
,

x x 1
= 0 + .
y y0 3
, -
M
x0 = x 0 + , 9 3 1
x0 = x0 y 0 + ,
10 10 5
y 0 = y 0 + 3,
3 1 3
x + 3 y 2 = 0 y 0 = x0 + y 0 + .
0 0 10 10 5
 5 . 169
,
,

9 3 1
x0 x0

= 10 10 + 5 ,
y0 3 1 y0 3

10 10 5

9 3

A = 10 10 .
e 3 1

10 10

5.4.
, (
A $ : P P )
, -
.

x x
= A + 1 , -
5.4.1. y g y 2
P ,
11 12
A = ,
g 21 22
11 12
det 0 , -
21 22
.
170

5.4.1
( det A$ g
0
).
,
.

5.3.3 -
, -
, det A$ g
0 -
.

5.4.2. , .

.
1
det A g
0 , A ,
g
(. 5.1), -
1.1.2

x x
A = 1
g
y y 2
x

y
x
. ,
y
 5 . 171

, A -
,

x 1 x 1 1 1
1
= A + , = A .
y 2 2 2
g g
y

,
5.4.1. 5.3.2, .
, -
,
?

-
5.4.3. ,
,
.
.

x = 11 x + 12 y + 1 ,

y = 21 x + 22 y + 2 ,


g 1 = 11 g 1 + 21 g 2 ; g 2 = 12 g1 + 22 g 2 .

11 12
det A = det 0,
21 22
172


g1 g 2 ( 1.6.2)
.

1.8.2 5.3.1, ,

, {g1 , g 2 }

{g1 , g 2 } A , -

{g1 , g 2 } {g1 , g 2 }
S = A . g
-
, , ,
, ,
.

,
-
.

-
5.4.4. .
.

x = x0 + p
, p q
y = y0 + q
, -
x x
= A + 1 .
y y 2
 5 . 173
-

x = (11 x0 + 12 y 0 + 1 ) + (11 p + 12 q) ,

y = ( 21 x0 + 22 y 0 + 2 ) + ( 21 p + 22 q) .
, 11 p + 12 q + 21 p + 22 q > 0 ,
. ,

11 p + 12 q = 0,

21 p + 22 q = 0,
11 12
det 0
21 22
1.1.2 () p = q = 0 -
, .

-
5.4.5. ,
-
.
.
, -

.
, . -
, -
-
-.
, - . , -
.
174
- ,


.

5.4.6. .
.

xi
M , i = 1, 2, 3,
yi
i

(. 5.4.1) M i , i = 1, 2, 3

. 5.4.1

xi x2 x1
. , =
yi x3 x 2
y 2 y1
= , 1 , ,
y3 y 2
 5 . 175
x 2 x1 y 2 y1
= = .
x3 x 2 y3 y 2

x = 11 x + 12 y + 1 ,

y = 21 x + 22 y + 2 ,

x 2 x1 11 ( x 2 x1 ) + 12 ( y 2 y1 )
= =
x3 x 2 11 ( x3 x 2 ) + 12 ( y 3 y 2 )
11 ( x3 x 2 ) + 12 ( y3 y 2 )
= = .
11 ( x3 x 2 ) + 12 ( y3 y 2 )
y 2 y1
, = .
y 3 y 2
, -
,
.
:

M 1 M 2
( x 2 x1 ) 2 + ( y 2 y1 ) 2

= =
( x 3 x 2 ) 2 + ( y 3 y 2 ) 2
M M3 2

( x 3 x 2 ) 2 + ( y 3 y 2 ) 2 ( x3 x 2 ) 2 + ( y 3 y 2 ) 2
= = = =
( x 3 x 2 ) 2 + ( y 3 y 2 ) 2 ( x3 x 2 ) 2 + ( y 3 y 2 ) 2

M 1M 2
( x 2 x1 ) + ( y 2 y1 )
2 2

= =
.
( x3 x 2 ) 2 + ( y 3 y 2 ) 2 M 2M 3

.
176
, 5.4.6 ,
-
.

-
5.4.7. , ,
.

.

M 1M 2
,

= . M 3 M 3 ,
M 3M 4

M 4 M 2 . -
,
5.4.6 M 4 M 2 M 3 M 3 M 4 M 2 M 3 M 3 -
(. 5.4.2). ,

M 2 M 4

= M 3 M 3

.

. 5.4.2
 5 . 177
, 5.4.7

M 1 M 2 M 1 M 2 M 1M 2 M 1M 2

=
=
=
= .
M M
3

4 M M
3

2
M 3 M 2 M 3M 4

-
5.4.8. -
, -

.
.

. 5.4.3

{g1 , g 2 } O . 5.4.3
.
O , -

{O , g1 , g 2 } .
178
- M
x y , -

M x y (. 5.4.3),
5.4.6

OM 1 O M 1
x =
=
= x ;

g1 g1

OM 2 O M 2
y =
=
= y .

g2 g 2

-
.

.


1.8.3 , -
.

n -
5.4.2. P , .

a b -
, > 0 ( -
,

< 0 ) , [ a , b ] = n .
 5 . 179


1. S
5.4.9.
S -
-

11 12
S = det S .
21 22
2.
-
,
11 12
det >0,
21 22
,
11 12
det < 0.
21 22

-
. , -

g1 g 2 ,
A

g 1 = A g 1 = 11 g 1 + 21 g 2 g 2 = A g 2 = 12 g1 + 22 g 2 ,
11 , 12 , 21 22
, 5.3.2,
A $ ,
11 12
A = .
g 21 22
180
(. 2.4) -

, g1 g2 ,

S = [ g1 , g 2 ] , , -


, S = [ g , g ] .
1 2

[ g1 , g 2 ] = [11 g1 + 21 g 2 , 12 g1 + 22 g 2 ] =

= (11 22 12 21 )[ g1 , g 2 ] = det A [ g1 , g 2 ] ,
g

S = det A g
S , ( 5.4.2)

{g1 , g2 }
det A$ g
>0

det A$ g
<0.

, , -
, , -
.

, -
5.4.10. 4.4.1:
-
;
- , -
-
.
 5 . 181
.

.
1. 5.4.6 5.4.8
, , ,
. -
,
. ,
,
.
2. -
,
, , ,
.

.
5.4.5.
3. -
. ,

.
4. ,
, -
5.4.4 5.4.5 , -
.
.
4.4.1 5.4.1 ,
,

:

x 2 + y 2 = 1 ; x 2 y 2 = 1;
(5.4.1)
x 2 y 2 = 0 ; y 2 1 = 0 ; y 2 2 x = 0 ; y 2 = 0.
182

,
, -
-
(5.4.1),
-
-
.

:

" ". -
9.4 ( 9.4.1).

5.4.11. ,

.
.

.


p q -


p = q = .
e e

, ( )

11 12 + 12
p = = 11 ,
21 22 21 + 22
e
 5 . 183

11 12 12
q = = 11
21 22 21 22
e
.

p q

{e1 , e2 }
(11 + 12 )(11 12 ) +
+ ( 21 + 22 )( 21 22 ) = 0

(1112 + 21 22 ) 2 + (11
2
12
2
+ 221 222 ) +
+ (1112 + 21 22 ) 2 = 0,

U 2 + 2V + U 2 = 0 .
:
1) U = V = 0 ,
-
.
2) U = 0 V 0 , = 0 ,
.
3) , U 0 ,

p q
2V
( ) 2 U ( ) 1 = 0 ,
V V2
( )1,2 U U 2 + 1 -
=
U.

.
184
5.5.

P -
5.5.1.
Q$
x*
x
= Q + 1 ,
y* e y 2
11 12
Q =
e 21 22

.
,
, 5.1.3
det Q$ e
= 1 , det Q$ e
= 1 . -
5.4 ,
. -
.
, -
,
-
5.5.1. ,
.
.

P

{e1 , e2 } {e1 , e2 } S . -
5.1.1, -
1
= S
T
S , Q$ -
1
= Q
T
{e1 , e2 }, Q e e
.
 5 . 185

{e1 , e2 } ,
Q$ , 5.3.3,
1
Q e
= S Q e
S .
1
Q e
. 5.1.1 5.1.2, -

S Q$ e ,

1 1 1 1 1 1
Q e
=( S Q e
S ) 1 = S Q e
( S ) =
1 1 T
= S S = S Q e ( S ) T =
T T
Q e
1 T
=( S S )T = ( S S ) T = Q e .
T
Q e
Q e

1
= Q
T
Q e e
,

Q {e1 , e2 } .

-
5.5.2. :
1) ;
2) -
;
3) .
.

1. Q
Q
e
186

{O, e1 , e2 } . , 2.3, -

a b
1 1
a = b = -
e 2 e 2
:
1 T
( a , b ) = 11 + 2 2 = 1 2 = a b .
2 e e

a b,
Q e , -

T
(Q a , Q b ) = Q a Q b =
e e

= ( Q a ) T Q e b =
e
e e

T T
= a Q Q b =
e e
e e

T 1
= a Q Q b =
e
e e

T T
= a E b = a b = ( a , b ).
e e e e

(Q a , Q b ) = ( a , b ) a , b ,
-
.
 5 . 187
2.

,

Q a = (Q a , Q a ) = ( a , a ) = a a.

3. 2
,
.

, -
, -
.

-
5.5.3. -

.
.

1. 5.3.2,
5.3.1 5.3.1 ,
-

{e1 , e2 }

-
.

2. 5.4.11 (, -

, ) {1 , 2 } ,
188

A -

{e1 , e2 } . -
1 2 , ,


e1 = 1 ; e2 = 2 ; 1 = 1 ; 2 = 2 ,
1 2

{e1 , e2 } .

3. , Q ,

{e1 , e2 } -

{e1 , e2 } , , -
Q e .


1 0 e1 e1 T e1 1 T e1
= 1 ; = Q ; = A ,
2 0 2 e2 e2
e
e2 2
e
e2


1 0
( A
T
e

0 2
Q
T
e
) e1

o .
=
e2 o

T 1 0 T
{e1 , e2 } A = Q
e 0 2 e

 5 . 189
1 0
A = Q .
e e 0 2
, -

" " (. 5.3.1).

5.6.
G
5.6.1. ,
x y -
, -
xy , -
:
1) x ( yz ) = ( xy ) z ;
2) e , ,
xG xe = ex = x ;

3) x x 1 , -
,
x 1 x = e .

, , xy = yx x, y G , -
, .

, :
5.6.1. 1) -
,
e 0 ;
190
2)
,
e 1;
3)
-
;
4) -
.
 6 . 191

6.1.
,
1, 2, 3, ... , n . (
)
{k1 , k 2 , k 3 ,..., k n } . ,
n! .

, k i k j -
6.1.1.
( , -
), i < j k i > k j .

{k1 , k 2 , k 3 ,..., k n }
( k1 , k 2 ,..., k n ) . , (3, 1, 4, 2) = 3 .

11 12 13 ... 1n
21 22 23 ... 2n
A = 31 32 33 ... 3n = ij ; i, j = [1, n].
... ... ... ... ...
n1 n2 n3 ... nn
192

( )
6.1.2.
A n n
det A ,

det A = (1) ( k1 , k 2 , k 3 ,...,k n )

1k1 2 k 2 ... nk n ,
{ k1 , k 2 , k3 ,...,k n }

{k1 , k 2 , k 3 ,..., k n }
,
A .
,
, -
n!.
6.1.2 , -
-
.

6.1.2
6.1.1.
1.1.9 1.1.10.

6.2.

6.2.1. .
.
-
B = A
T

( m1 , m2 ,...,mn )
( 1) 1m 2 m ... nm ,
1 2 n
 6 . 193
, , k mk = mk k ,

= (1) m11 m2 2 ... mn n .

T ( m1 , m2 ,...,mn )
det A
{ m1 , m2 ,...,mn }

,
(1) ( m1 , m2 ,...,mn ) 1k1 2 k 2 ... nk n , 1, 2, 3, ... , n
, k1 , k 2 , k 3 ,..., k n .
, -
: k m = i i
i
-

( m1 , m2 ,..., mn ) = (k1 , k 2 ,..., k n ) .
, mi m j ,
mi > m j i < j ,
k mi k m j ,
i : k mi = i ,
, , k mi = i < j = k m j
mi > m j . , .

= (1) 1k1 2 k 2 ... nk n = det A .

T ( k1 , k 2 ,...,k n )
det A
{k1 , k 2 ,...,k n }

6.2.1 -
6.2.1. .
A , -
6.1.2, -
194
,
.
6.2.1. 11 12 13 K 1n
, 21 22 23 K 2n
iki 31 32 33 K 3n
jk j - K K K K K
, - n1 n2 n3 K nn
-

, -
. 6.2.1


.
, -

, -
6.1.2, , , -
.

, -
6.2.1. , ,
.

6.2.2. .
.
,
.

(1)
{ k1 , k 2 ,...,k n }
( k1 , k 2 ,...,k n )
1k1 2 k 2 ... nk n ,

,
.
 6 . 195

{k1 , k 2 , ... k i , k i +1 , k i + 2 ... , k n } .
ki ki+1, -
, {k1 , k 2 ,...k i 1 , k i + 2 ,..., k n } , -
,
ki ki +1 .
, -
, , -
.
, ,
l ,
l + l + 1 = 2l + 1 , -
2 l +1
( 1) = 1 ,
.
.

, -
6.2.2. , .
.

-
, , , , ,
. -
.

k -
6.2.3 "" ,
(

- , k - -
). "-
" .
196
.

A
k -
ik = ik + ik , i = 1, 2, K , n . -

(1) ( k1 ,k 2 ,...,k n ) 1k1 2 k 2 ... ik ... nk n =
= (1) ( k1 , k 2 ,...,k n ) 1k1 2 k 2 ...( ik + ik )... nk n =
= (1) ( k1 , k 2 ,...,k n ) 1k1 2 k 2 ... ik ... nk n +
+ (1) ( k1 ,k 2 ,...,k n ) 1k1 2 k 2 ... ik ... nk n .
n!
det A
k - -

, det A
= det A
+ det A
, k e
A
A

ik ik , i = 1, 2, K , n .
.

6.2.3. .

6.2.4. ,
.
.
, , -
, ( 6.2.3) -

, -
. 6.2.2.
.
 6 . 197
nn
6.2.4. ,
det ( A B ) = det A det B .
.

1. C = A B . A , B

C ij , kl pq .
n
5.1.1 pq = pj jq ,
j =1

det C =
1111 + 12 21 + ... + 1n n1 ... 111n + ... + 1n nn
2111 + 22 21 + ... + 2 n n1 ... 211n + ... + 2 n nn
= det .
... ... ...
n111 + n 2 21 + ... + nn n1 ... n11n + ... + nn nn
-
1, 2, 3, ... , n , -
. -
[i1 , i 2 , i3 ,..., i n ] .
( 6.2.3)

det C =
1i1 1i2 ... 1in
2i1 2 i2 ... 2in
= i2 2 ... in n det
i1 1 =
[ i1 ,i2 ,...,in ] ... ... ... ...
ni1 ni2 ... nin

= i1 1 i2 2 ... in n det A .
[ i1 ,i2 ,...,in ]
[ i1 ,i2 ,...,in ]
198

[i1 , i 2 , i3 ,..., i n ] (
{i1 , i 2 ,..., i n } ) ,
n
n , -
6.2.2 n! .

2. , A
{i1 ,i2 ,...,in }

, A , -
, 6.2.2
.

A ,
{i1 ,i2 ,...,in }

,
ik ; k = [1, n]
.
,
,
{i1 , i2 ,..., in } , , ,
A
{i1 ,i2 ,...,in }

det A = ( 1) ( i1 ,i2 ,...,in ) det A .

{i1 ,i2 ,...,in }

3. det C , -

det C = det A (1) ( i1 ,i2 ,...,in )

i11 i2 2 ... in n =
{i1 ,i2 ,...,in }

= det A det B ,
T
 6 . 199
6.2.1
det ( A B ) = det A det B .
.

6.3.

n - A -
i1 , i 2 ,..., i k j1 , j 2 ,..., j k ,
1 k n.

k , -
6.3.1. ,
i1 , i 2 ,..., i k j1 , j 2 ,..., j k , -
k -
j , j2 ,..., jk
M i 1, i ,..., ik
.
1 2

n k ,
6.3.2. , -
i1 , i 2 ,..., i k
j1 , j 2 ,..., j k , , -
M i j1, i, j,...,
2 ,..., j k
i
,
1 2 k
j , j ,..., j
M i 1,i 2,...,i k .
1 2 k

A i - j - , -
ij . A
, A+
(n 1) (n 1) .
200

A+ -
6.3.3.
j
M i ij .

6.1.2 A
(n 1)! , ij ,
.

det A = ij Dij + K .

Dij
6.3.4.
ij .

, 6.1.2
n n
det A = ij Dij = kj Dkj j = [1, n] , i = [1, n], (6.3.1)
j =1 k =1
-
, -
,

Dij = (1) i + j M i .
j

6.3.1.
.

1. 6.1.2

det A = 11 (1) (1, k 2 , k 3 ,...,k n )

2 k 2 ... nk n + K ,
{1, k 2 , k3 ,...,k n }

D11 = (1) ( k 2 ,...,k n )

2 k 2 3k3 ... nk n ,
{ k 2 ,...,k n }

, (1, k 2 , k 3 ,..., k n ) = (k 2 , k 3 ,..., k n ) ,

 6 . 201
D11 -
n 1 , A -
. ,
1
D11 = M 1 .

2. A , ij -
A , i-
, i 1 , -
j- , j 1 -

. A

det A = ( 1) i 1+ j 1 det A = ( 1) i + j det A .
( 6.2.3)

, , (6.3.1)
Dij . -

Dij = (1)i + j D11

.

3. , , ij -
ij A ,
j 1
M i = M 1 .

4.
j 1
M i = M 1 = D11 = (1) i + j Dij ,
j
Dij = (1) i + j M i .

.
202
i -
6.3.1. n
det A = (1) k +i ki M k
i

k =1

n
det A = (1) k +i M ki M k .
i

k =1

A
6.3.2.

n

i =1
ij Dis = js ,

1 , j = s,
= det A js = -
0 , j s
(. 2.2).

6.3.4
det A = 1 j D1 j + 2 j D2 j + K + nj Dnj , -
j = s .

j s .
1 j D1s + 2 j D2 s + ... + nj Dns
s- -
, s- j- -
. 6.2.2.

.
 6 . 203
A ,
6.3.2.
1
A

(1) i + j M j
i

ij = ; i, j = [1, n] .

.

A B ,
i j i j ; i, j = [1, n] . pq
A B , , 5.1.1
6.3.2,
(1) j + q M q 1 n
n n j

pq = pj jq = pj = pj Dqj =
j =1 j =1 j =1
1
= pq = pq ; i, j = [1, n] .


B A 1.1.4
A B = B A = E ,
, 5.1.2 5.1.1,
1
B = A .

.
(5.1.1).

I = i1 + i2 + ... + ik J = j1 + j 2 + ... + j k ,
6.3.1
204
j1 , j2 ,..., jk
6.3.3
().
I +J j1 , j2 ,..., jk
det A = (1) M i1j1,i,2j,...,
2 ,..., j k
ik M i1 ,i2 ,...,ik .
{i1 ,i2 ,...,ik }

, -
i1 , i 2 ,..., i k .

n- :
6.3.1.
x a a ... a
a x a ... a
n = det a a x ... a .
... ... ... ... ...
a a a ... x
. 1. ,
x + a ( n 1) . -
,
,
(.
6.2.4 6.2.3):

1 1 1 ... 1
a x a ... a
n = ( x + a (n 1)) det a a x ... a .
... ... ... ... ...
a a a ... x

2. , , -
, a ,
 6 . 205
1 1 1 ... 1
0 xa 0 ... 0
n = ( x + a (n 1)) det 0 0 x a ... 0 .
... ... ... ... ...
0 0 0 ... x a

3. n 1
6.3.1
,
n = ( x + a (n 1))( x a ) n 1 .

6.4.
n n -
:
11 1 + 12 2 + ... + 1n n = 1 ,
+ + ... + = ,
21 1 22 2 2n n 2
(6.4.1)
...............................................
n1 1 + n 2 2 + ... + nn n = n
n
ji i = j ; j = [1, n] -
i =1

A x = b , A

ji , x b i j .

{ 1 , 2 ,..., n }
6.4.1.
,
-
.
206

(6.4.1)
6.4.1 , -
(
).
, = det A 0 , -

i
i = ; i = 1,2,..., n ,

i , -
A i - -
b :

11 12 ... 1 ... 1n
22 ... 2 ... 2 n
i = det 21 .
... ... ... ... ... ...
n1 n2 ... n ... nn

i -
.

1. ,
1
2
(6.4.1) x = , -
...
n

n

i =1
ji i = j ; j = [1, n] .
 6 . 207
j = [1, n]
D jk -
j ,
n n n

D jk ( ji i ) = j D jk
j =1 i =1 j =1
k = [1, n].

( -
) :
n n n

(
i =1 j =1
ji D jk ) i = j D jk .
j =1

ik (
6.3.2), , ,
n n

j D jk = k ik i = k k ,
j =1 i =1

k = k , k = [1, n] .
k
k = k = [1, n] . (6.4.2)

, ,
k = k , k = [1, n]
0 , ,
(6.4.2), .

2. ,
k
{ i = , i = [1, n] }

. -
, i
(6.4.1):
208
n
i 1 n n
1 n n

ji
i =1
= ji ( k Dki ) = k ( ji Dki ) =
i =1 k =1 k =1 i =1
n
1
= k kj = j , j = [1, n].
k =1
-
6.3.2.

6.5.

A m n .
1 k min{m, n} .
A k ,
k .
k k - ,
, k ,
( k + 1) - -
k (c. 6.3.1).

,
6.5.1.
A , -
rg A .

,
6.5.2. , .

() , -
6.5.3. , .
 6 . 209
n m -
11 12 1n

a1 = 21 ; a2 = 22 ; ... ; an = 2 n
... ... ...
m1 m2 mn

1 0
2 0
b = ; o = .
... ...
m 0
( )
, , -
, b

a1 , a 2 , ... , a n , 1, 2 , ... , n ,
n
, b = i ai .
i =1

()
6.5.1 () -
( .
).
.

1. r .
,
A .
i -
j - -
.
210
11 ... 1r 1 j
... ... ... ...
= det ,
r1 ... rr rj
i1 ... ir ij
r + 1
r.

2. ,
i1 D1 + i 2 D2 + ... + ir Dr + ij M = 0 ,
M 0 , D1 ,..., Dr
, i . -
, ij = 1 i1 + 2 i 2 + ... + r ir ,
Ds
s = , s = [1, r ] i .
M
.

a1 , a 2 ,..., a n -
6.5.4.
,
1 , 2 ,..., n , ,
n n

i =1
i ai = o , ( i > 0 ).
i =1

() -
6.5.1. , ,
.
. 1.4.1.

6.5.2. , -
.
 6 . 211
.

, k -
, -
, :

11 12 1k 0
2k 0
1 21 + 2 22 + ... + k = .
... ... ... ...
m1 m2 mk 0

11 1k 1, k +1 1n
21 2k 2, k +1
1 + ... + k +0 + ... + 0 2 n
... ... ... ...
m1 mk m,k +1 mn
.

, -
6.5.2. , () -
.
.

,
n .

6.5.2 .
.
212
.

. 6.5.1
.
n 1
, a n = i ai . -
i =1
( i = 1, 2, K , n 1 ) i -
i .
an ,
, -
.

6.5.3 -
( .
).
.

1. ,
.
r > 0 . , -
r .
r - , , -
.

2. k > r ,
. -
A . R r , A -

A .
 6 . 213

, R r < k A ,
, ,
A 6.5.2.

6.6. m
n

m n

11 1 + 12 2 +... + 1n n = 1 ,
+ +...+ = ,
21 1 22 2 2n n 2
(6.6.1)

..............................................
m1 1 + m 2 2 +... + mn n = m ,

i =1
ji i = j , j = [1, m] ,

A x = b , A -
m n ji , x b -
i , i = [1, n] , j , j = [1, m] .

{10 , 02 ,..., 0n }
6.6.1.

(6.6.1),
.
214


10
02
x =
0
.
...
0n
(6.6.1)
(6.6.1).

(6.6.1)
6.6.2. , , -
.

6.6.3.
11 12 ... 1n
21 22 ... 2 n
A =
... ... ... ...
m1 m2 ... mn
(6.6.1),

11 12 ... 1n 1
22 ... 2 n 2
A b = 21
... ... ... ... K
m1 m2 ... mn m
.

(6.6.1) ,
6.6.4. j = 0 j = [1, m] ,
-
.
 6 . 215
(6.6.1) ,
6.6.1 ,
( .
).
.

(6.6.1) {1 , 2 ,..., n } ,
-
:
1 a1 + 2 a 2 + ... + n a n = b ,
T
a i = 1i 2i L mi , i = [1, n] .
-
, -
, -
. , -
6.5.3 ( ) rg A = rg A b .

-
r . ,
-
, 6.5.1 (
r
) b = i a i ,
i =1

r n
b = i ai + 0 a i .
i =1 i = r +1

, (6.6.1) -
{1 , 2 ,..., r ,0,...,0} , .

.
216
.
6.6.1.

Ai x + Bi y + Ci = 0 , i = [1, n]
,
,
A1 B1 A1 B1 C1
A2 B2 A2 B2 C2
rg = rg .
... ... ... ... ...
An Bn An Bn Cn

6.7.

6.6 ,
(6.6.1) , -
. , (6.6.1)
.
(6.6.1)
.

-
6.7.1. (6.6.1)
.
.

1i
i
xi = 2 , i = [1, k ]
...
in
, A xi = o i = [1, k ] .
 6 . 217
k
y = i x i .
i =1

n i
n
A y = A i x = i ( A xi ) = o .
i =1 i =1
.

-
6.7.2. (6.6.1) -
-
(6.6.1).
.

x , y
,
A x = o , A y = b .
-

A ( x + y )= A x + A y = o + b = b .
.

-
6.7.3. (6.6.1)
(6.6.1).
.

x y ,
A x = b , A y = b .

A ( x y )= A x A y = b b = o .
.
218
1. 6.7.16.7.3. ,
-

,


.
2. -
, , ,
, , , -
.
3. -
, ,
,
, 6.7.1, -

-
6.5.4.

(6.6.1) n rg A
6.7.1.
.

1. (6.6.1)
111 + 12 2 +...+ 1n n = 1
+ +...+ =
21 1 22 2 2n n 2

...............................................

m1 1 + m 2 2 +... + mn n = m
,
A | b , r min{m, n + 1} , -
.
 6 . 219
6.5.1 ( ) m r -
r -
, , , , -
r -
.
,
r +1 , r + 2 ,..., n .

1 ,..., r (, -
, ), r +1 ,..., n -
(, , ).

111 + 12 2 + ... + 1r r = 1 1r +1 r +1 ... 1n n ,

+ + ... + = ... ,
21 1 22 2 2r r 2 2 r +1 r +1 2n n

......................................................................................
r11 + r 2 2 + ... + rr r = r r ,r +1 r +1 ... r , n n .

-
r +1 = 1 ,..., n = n r -
( 6.4.1)
:
j -

nr
11 ... 1 1, r + k k ... 1r
k =1
(6.7.1)
1
j = det ... ... ... ... ... ,
M nr
r1 ... r r , r + k k ... rr
k =1

j = [1, r ] , M .
220
2. , (6.7.1),
k = 0 ; k = [1, n r ] ,
(6.6.1).

. -
( 6.2.3)
:

nr
j = jk k , j = [1, r ] ;
k =1 (6.7.2)
r +i = i , i = [1, n r ] ,

11 ... 1,r + k ... 1r

1
jk = det ... ... ... ... ... ,
M
r1 ... r ,r + k ... rr
j = [1, r ] , k = [1, n r ] .

j -

, (6.7.2)

1 11 12 L 1,n r r +1
2 21 22 L 2, n r r + 2
= (6.7.3)
L L L L L L
r r1 r2 L r ,n r n
 6 . 221
1 11 12 L 1,n r
2 21 22 L 2, n r
L L L L L 1
r r2 L r ,n r 2
= r1 .
r +1 1 0 L 0 L
r +2 0 1 L 0 nr
L L L L L
n 0 0 L 1

3. 1 = 1 , 2 = 3 = ... = n r = 0 ,
{11 , 12 , ... , 1r , 1, 0, ... , 0} .
1 = 0 , 2 = 1, 3 = ... = n r = 0
{1 , 2 , ... , r , 0 , 1, ... , 0} . , -
2 2 2

,
1 = 2 = 3 = ... = n r 1 = 0, n r = 1
{1n r , 2n r , ... , rn r , 0, 0, ... , 1} .
-
.

4. , n r
(6.6.1) -
. , ,

11 12 ... 1r 1 0 ... 0
12 22 ... r2 0 1 ... 0
. (6.7.4)
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
1n r n2 r ... rn r 0 0 ... 1
222
, , , ,
n r , -
, , , ,
, n r ,
n r, -
.

6.7.1. (6.6.1)
n rg A ,
(6.6.1), n
(6.6.1), A
. (6.7.4) -
.

(6.6.1)
6.7.2. -
, -
.
.

{1 , 2 ,..., n }
(6.6.1). ( n r + 1) n

1 2 ... r r +1 r +2 ... n
11 12 ... 1r 1 0 ... 0
12 22 ... r2 0 1 ... 0 , (6.7.5)
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
1n r n2 r ... rn r 0 0 ... 1
 6 . 223
, , , ,
n r . , r
( -
(6.7.3)) n r . ,
,
, (6.7.5), -
r -
n r . ,
n r , , , n r .

, 6.5.1 , -
r ,
(6.7.5) -
, , ,
(6.6.1)

1 11 12 1n r
2 12 22 n2 r
... ... ... ...
r 1r 2r nr r ,
= 1 + 2 + ... + n r
r +1 1 0 0
r +2 0 1 0
... ... ... ...
n 0 0 1

i i = [1, n r ] .

(6.6.1)
6.7.1.
224
1 11 12 1n r 10
2 1
2 2
2 nr
2 02
... ... ... ... ...
r 1r r2 rn r 0r
= 1 + 2 + ... + n r + ,
r +1 1 0 0 0r +1
r +2 0 1 0 0r + 2
... ... ... ... ...
n 0 0 1 0n
10
02
...
r
0

0r +1
0r + 2
...
0n
-
(6.6.1), i i = [1, n r ]
.

x 0 (, , ) -
(6.6.1), x -
. 6.6.3 -
(6.6.1) y
y = x x 0 . x = y + x 0 .

.
 6 . 225
6.7.1 6.7.2
(6.6.1) n < m
6.7.2. , ,
-
rg A < n .
, -
(6.6.1) ,

det A = 0 .

(6.6.1) ,
6.7.3 , -
(). T
y = 1 2 ... m

111 + 21 2 + ... + m1 m = 0,
+ + ... + = 0,
12 1 22 2 m2 m

...............................................
1n 1 + 2 n 2 + ... + mn m = 0
T
( A y = o ) -
m

i =1
i i = 0 ( -
T
b y = 0 ).
.

(6.6.1) , -
x b = A x .
226
T
b y ,
T
A y = o .
T T T T
b y = ( A x )T y = x A y = x o = 0.

.
T
b y = 0
T
A y = o . -
T
A y = o
A T
y = o ,

y =0
T
b
, -
. , 6.7.1
6.7.2,

T T
A A
m rg A = m rg = rg
T T
rg A ,
b b

-
, rg A = rg A | b ,
6.6.1
A x = b .

10 (. 10.6.4 10.6.5).
 6 . 227
6.8. .
6.7.3 6.7.4 ,
, , , .

( -
) .
,
(6.6.1),
, .
-
-
,
.

(.. , ij = 0
i > j ), -

.
m n ( n > m) ,

a11 a12 a13 ... a1, m 2 a1, m 1 a1, m a1, m +1 ... a1n
0 a 22 a 23 ... a 2, m 2 a 2, m 1 a 2, m a 2, m +1 ... a 2n
0 0 a 33 ... a 3, m 2 a 3, m 1 a 3, m a 3, m +1 ... a 3n
.
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
0 0 0 ... 0 a m 1, m 1 a m 1, m a m 1, m +1 ... a m 1,n
0 0 0 ... 0 0 a mm a m, m +1 ... a mn

:
- ( );
- (-
);
228
- ( , -

);
- (
);
-

(
, -
).
(
) -
.
,

. :
- i j
A m n -
S 1 n n ,
n -
E i -
j - ;

- i - A
0 A
S 2 , -
m m E -
i - ( -
) ;
 6 . 229
- i j A -

S 3 m n , -
m E -
, i -
j - , ( -
i - -
A ).

(. 8.4.3) , -
S -
S A ,
rg ( S A ) = rg A .
det S 1
= 1 , det S 2
= 0 det S 3
= 1 ,
A .

, -
.
-
6.8.1. , -
, -
.

A
6.8.2.
S
A , A
T
S
A , .
230



. , , S ,
A .

S
1
E A , E = S A -
A

1 1 1
E A = S A A A = S E .
, -
1
A B
A | B ( ,
B A ),
A .
B .

:
6.8.1.
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 7,
3 + 2 2 + 3 + 4 3 5 = 2,
1

2 + 2 3 + 2 4 + 6 5 = 23,
51 + 4 2 + 3 3 + 3 4 5 = 12.
 6 . 231
.
1.

1 1 1 1 1 7
3 2 1 1 3 2
.
0 1 2 2 6 23
5 4 3 3 1 12

2. .
) ,
, . , -
, -
, , -
, ( 3 ),
. -
: -
( 5 ) 1 .
, , : -
. -

1 1 1 1 1 7
0 1 2 2 6 23
;
0 1 2 2 6 23
0 1 2 2 6 23
)
, .

, . -

232
1 1 1 1 1 7
0 1 2 2 6 23
;
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
) , -
,
,
.

3.
, .
. ,
) , -
2 ( 6.6.1 -
);
)
6.7.1 n rg A = 5 2 = 3 -
.

4.
,

- -
.
,
, ,
:

1 + 2 = 7 3 4 5 ,
(6.8.1)
2 = 23 2 3 2 4 6 5 .
 6 . 233
(1 ) ,

.
(6.8.1) -
16
23
, 0 .
0
0
-

1 + 2 = 7,

2 = 23.

1 + 2 = 0 3 4 5 ,

2 = 0 2 3 2 4 6 5
-
, 6.7.1.
1
2
1
0
0

1 + 2 = 1,

2 = 2.
 234

1 5
2 6
0 0 -
1 0
0 1
.

-
:

1 1 1 5 16
2 2 2 6 23
3 = 1 1 + 2 0 + 3 0 + 0 1 , 2 , 3 .
4 0 1 0 0
5 0 0 1 0

:
, -
, -
,
, , .
 7 . 235

7.1.

, x, y , z ,K ,
7.1.1. 8, -
,
1. x, y

, -
x + y , , -

) x + y = y + x ;
) x + ( y + z ) = ( x + y ) + z ;
) o , -
, x
x + o = x ;
) x -
( x ) , -
, x + ( x ) = o .

8
x y
( x = y) x y ( x y) -
.
236
2. x -
,
x -
, :
) 1x = x ;
) ( ) x = ( x ) .
3.
-
:
) ( + ) x = x + x ;
) ( x + y ) = x + y x, y ;
, .

. 1.

.
2. -
, -
(. 5.6).

9:
7.1.1.
1. .
2. .
3. n - .
4. ,
n .
5. m n .

9
, -
.
 7 . 237
6. C[, ] ,
[, ] .

7. m
n .

, -
7.1.1.
, ( n , r ) = ,
. ,

.

, ,
7.1.2. , .

-
7.1.3. R+ ?
.
-
.
1. .

,
.
2. -
,
-
, -
-
,
1.
238

7.1.1. .
.

o1 o2 .
, 1() 7.1.1
,
o1 + o2 = o1 o2 + o1 = o2 .

o1 = o2 .

x
7.1.2. 0 x = o .
.

x = 1x = (0 + 1) x = 0 x + 1x = 0 x + x.
x = 0 x + x y ,
x , , 0x = o .

-
7.1.3. .
.

x -
y1 y 2 . , 1() -
,
x + y1 = o x + y 2 = o .
y 2 ,
 7 . 239
y 2 + ( x + y1 ) = y 2
-
. , ,
y 2 + ( x + y1 ) = ( y 2 + x ) + y1 = o + y1 = y 1 ,
y 2 = y1 .
.

x
7.1.4. ( 1) x .
.

7.1.2
7.1.3
o = 0 x = (1 1) x = 1x + (1) x = x + (1) x .
, x
( 1) x .

7.2 ,

n

7.2.1.
1.
i =1
i xi

x1, x2 ,..., x n -
.
2. x1 , x 2 , ... , x n -
,
1 , 2 ,..., n , -
n
, ,
i =1
i xi = o .
240
3. x1 , x 2 , ... , x n -
, -
n

i =1
i xi = o ,

1 = 2 = ... = n = 0 .

-
7.2.1. , -
,
.
.
1.4.1, -
.

7.2.2. x1 , x 2 , ... , x n ,
x1 , x 2 , ... , x n .
.

,
k < n
x1 , x 2 , ... , x n .
k
1 , 2 ,..., k , , i xi = o .
i =1

k n

i xi +
i =1
0x
i = k +1
i =o,

x1 , x 2 , ... , x n .

.
 7 . 241
-
7.2.2. n ,
1) ;
2) ,
n + 1 , n -
, .

n-
, , -
7.2.3. n

n . n -
n -
dim( n ) .

7.2.1. -
.
.

n

{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } x . -
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n , x} -
7.2.1 x
g1 , g 2 ,..., g n . -
, , .

. ,

n n
x = i gi x = i gi .
i =1 i =1
,
n

(
i =1
i i )gi = o ,
242
,
g1 , g 2 ,..., g n .
.

.
, , , -
. 7.2.1
.

7 .2 .1

- -

2
- .

3 ,
.

n n c
n -- 1 0 0 0

0 1 0 0
0 ; 0 ; 1 ; ... 0 .
... ... ... ...
0 0 0 1
 7 . 243

n +1 n + 1
-
- P1 () = 1 ; P2 () = ;

,
P3 () = 2 ; P4 () = 3 ;
n ... ;
Pn () = n1 ; Pn+1 () = n .

nm n m
m n ,
m n , , 1.

10.
,

[, ]

nr
- .
-
m -


n -

-
,
r

10
( 7.2.2)
n ,
n + 1 . ,
{ 1, , 2 , K, n } .
244
7.3.

,
7.3.1. , -
,
x , y
1) x + y ,
2) x .

: 7.3.1 ,
, ,
, -
.

1. - , -
7.3.1. ,
,
- -
.
2. ,
n , -
C[, ] .
3. n -

n r
n r .
4.
:
) ;
) ,
.
 7 . 245
1 2
7.3.2.
.

1. 1 2 -
x , ,
x 1 x 2 . -
1 2
1 2 .

2. 1 2 -
x , -
1 2 . -
1 2 -
1 2 .

3. 1 2
x1 + x 2
, x1 1 x 2 2 .
1 2
1 + 2 .

4. 1 2 -

x1 + x 2 , x1 1
x2 2 1 2 = {o} .
1 2 .

,
246
, 1
7.3.1.
2 .

1 2
7.3.2.

dim(1 + 2 ) =
= dim(1 ) + dim( 2 ) dim(1 2 ).

1. 1 2
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g k } k. -
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g l }
1 {g1, g 2 ,..., g m
} 2 .
x 1 + 2

{g1, g 2 ,..., g k , g1 , g 2 ,..., g l , g1, g 2 ,..., g m
}.

2. ,
{g1, g 2 ,..., g k , g1 , g 2 ,..., g l , g1, g 2 ,..., g m } -
.
, , -
:
l k m
x = i g i + j g j + p g p = o .
~ (7.3.1)
i =1 j =1 p =1

m
, g
p =1
p p 2,
 7 . 247
, ,
m l k

p g p = ( i g i + j g j ) 1 .
p =1 i =1 j =1

, ~ x 1 2 , , -
(7.3.1)
i = 0 , i = [1, l ] ; p = 0 , p = [1, m] .
{g1, g 2 ,..., g k } 1 2 ,
j = 0, j = [1, k ] , ,
(7.3.1), . ,
{g1, g 2 ,..., g k , g1 , g 2 ,..., g l , g1, g 2 ,..., g m }
.

3. 2 ,
{g1, g 2 ,..., g k , g1 , g 2 ,..., g l , g1, g 2 ,..., g m }
1 + 2 .
1 + 2
dim(1 + 2 ) = l + k + m = (k + l ) + (k + m) k =
= dim(1 ) + dim( 2 ) dim(1 2 ).

7.3.1.
dim(1 2 ) = dim(1 ) + dim( 2 )
x (1 2 )
x1 + x2 , x1 1 x 2 2 ,
,
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g l , g1, g 2,..., g m }
1 2 .
248

7.3.3. { x1, x 2 ,..., xk } -
-

L {x1 , x 2 ,..., x k } .

, n, -
7.3.2.
{1, , 2 ,..., n } -
C[, ] .

{x1 , x 2 ,..., x k } ,
L{x1, x2 ,..., xk } , -
k
x = i xi
i =1

,
7.3.3. L{x1, x 2 ,..., xk } , -
m , m

{x1, x2 ,..., xk } .
.

1. , -
k
x = i xi ( ,
i =1

i )
 7 . 249
7.1.1, -
.

2.
{x1 , x2 ,..., xk } m k .
,
x1, x2 ,..., xm .
m
x j = ji xi ; j = [m + 1, k ]
i =1
-
x1 , x 2 ,..., x m .

3. , l ( l > m )
.
l y1 , y 2 ,..., y l ,
, -
x1 , x 2 ,..., x m ,
m
y j = ji xi ; j = [1, l ].
i =1

y1 , y 2 ,..., y l :
l l m m l

j y j = j ji xi = ( ji j ) xi = o .
j =1 j =1 i =1 i =1 j =1

x1 , x2 ,..., xm ,
i -

l

j =1
ji j = 0 , i = [1, m].

r.
250
( 6.7.1)
lr lm >0
, , -
, r m . , l m
,
l m 1,

y1 , y 2 , ..., y l , o.

,
7.3.4. x + x0 , x0
, x
, -
( -
) .

. 1.
.

2. dim() = k , k - -
.

, x y
7.3.1. , -

z = x + (1 ) y ,
.
 7 . 251
7.4.

1 , 2 ,..., n
7.4.1. n
x = i gi
i =1
( ) -
x n
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } .

, 7.2.1 x -
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }
n

n - , -
x {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } :
1

x g= 2 .
...
n

-
n

n -
.

n : {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }
n n
x : x = i g i x = i g i .
i =1 i =1
252
, , -
:
n
g j = ij g i ; j = [1, n]. (7.4.1)
i =1

S , j - (j = [1, n])
7.4.2.
ij -
-
,
{g1, g 2 ,..., g n } {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } .

,
1.8.2

1 , 2 ,..., n 1 , 2 ,..., n -
7.4.1. n
i = ij j i = [1, n] , -
j =1

, ij
S .

(7.4.1)
n n n n n n

i g i = x = j g j = j ij g i = ( ij j ) g i
i =1 j =1 j =1 i =1 i =1 j =1
n n
(
i ij j ) g i = o .
i =1 j =1
 7 . 253
(
) ,
. ,
n
i = ij j i = [1, n] .
j =1

,

T
S , -
-
.

, x g x g -
,
n
i1 = ij j1 i = [1, n] ,
j =1

x g = S x g (. 5.1).

, (7.4.1) -

g1 g1
g 2 T g2
= S
... ...
g n gn

g1 g 2 ... g n = g1 g2 ... g n S .

,
.
254
n n
x = i g i y = i g i ,
i =1 i =1

:

1. : n
n n
,
i =1
i gi = x = y = i gi ,
i =1

x= y x g
= y g
.

n
2. : x + y = ( i + i ) g i ,
i =1

x+ y g
= x g
+ y g.

3. :
n n
x = i g i = ( i ) g i ,
i =1 i =1

x g
= x g
.

, -
(-
), -
.

7.5.
:
P2 () , 2,
.
 7 . 255
-
:
(1 + 1 + 1 2 ) + ( 2 + 2 + 2 2 ) =
= (1 + 2 ) + (1 + 2 ) + ( 1 + 2 ) 2 ,
( + + 2 ) = ( ) + () + () 2 .

1 2 1 + 2
1 + 2 = 1 + 2 ; = .
1 2 1 + 2

, ,
, , -
,
.

-
.

1 2
7.5.1. ,
F : 1 2 , ,
x, y 1 ,
F ( x + y ) = Fx + Fy ;
1.
2. F ( x ) = F x.
F$ -
1 2 .
256

, F$
(),
) 1 2 ( F$
);
) 2 -
1 ( F$ ).

7.5.1 1
( -
). 2 ,
.
.

dim( 1 ) = dim( 2 ) . ,
x 1 -
2 , , -

, 1 2 .

, n = dim( 1 ) > dim( 2 ) = m , 1 2

. n
1 n 2 ,
. -
,
-
n 1 .

n < m
, , , n = m .

.
 7 . 257
-
7.1.2. +
R R ( ,
7.1.3) -

x = ln( y ) y = e x ; x R; y R + .

7.5.1 -
n -
n

n - , -
, 6.56.7 n .
,

7.5.2. -
n

,
.
.

-
n

n- ,
6.5.3 ( ).

k n -
7.5.1. , , -

, , min{n , k } .

,
7.5.2.
det S 0 .
.
, det S = 0 , rg S < n
.
258
g1 , g 2 ,..., g n ,
, {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } .

, -
, -
S -

x g = y g S x g = S y g x g = x g .

1
T = S , -
7.5.3.
S ,
.

g1 g1
g2 T g 2
= T x g
= T x g
,
... ...
gn g n
g1 g 2 K g n = g1 g2 K gn S , x g
= S x g

7.4.1.

n {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } ,
n
x = i g i .
i =1

 7 . 259
m
7.5.4. n
n

i =1
ji i = 0 , j = [1, m]

n .
.

,
6.7.2 -

n

ji i = 0 , j = [1, m] , n -
i =1
n-
T
1 2 ... n .

,
n
,
-
.

7.5.5. m n
n

i =1
ji i = j , j = [1, m]

n .
.
, 7.5.4.
260
, g1 , g 2 , g3
7.5.1.

3
x
, :
1 1 2 3
x = 3 , g1 = 1 , g 2 = 1 g3 = 0 .
1 1 0 1

. 1. g1 , g 2 , g3 -
,
3

( 7.2.2), -
. 7.5.1 -
3
1 2 3
rg 1 1 0 3 ,
1 0 1
,
1 2 3
det 1 1 0 = 4 0 .
1 0 1
2. x
1 , 2 , 3 . x = 1 g1 + 2 g 2 + 3 g 3 ,

1 1 2 3
3 = 1 1 + 2 1 + 3 0 .
1 1 0 1
 7 . 261
3.
,

1 + 2 2 + 3 3 = 1,

1 + 2 = 3,
+ 3 = 1,
1
(,
6.4.1 6.8),
1 = 2, 2 = 1, 3 = 1 . , -
x { g1 , g 2 , g 3 },

2
x g
= 1 .
1

,
3

7.5.2. {g1 , g 2 , g 3 } , {g1, g 2, g 3} ,

:

1 2 3 7
g1 = 1 , g 2 = 1 , g 3 = 0 , g1 = 3 ,
1 0 1 3
16 22
g 2 = 5 g 3 = 7 .
9 8
262

. 1. x , x x -
x : -
, {g1, g 2 , g 3 } {g1, g 2, g 3} .
( 7.4.2 7.4.1)

x = G x x = F x ,
G F -
g1, g 2 , g3
g1, g 2, g3 ,

1 2 3 7 16 22
G = 1 1 0 F = 3 5 7 .
1 0 1 3 9 8

S
{g1 , g 2 , g 3 } {g1, g 2, g 3} ,
x = S x . x = G x
x = F x ,
1
x = G F x ,
G , , -
.
1
S x = G F x

x , 5.1.2 ,

1
S = G F .
 7 . 263
2.
1
1 2 3 7 16 22
1 1 0 3 5 7 ,
1 0 1 3 9 8
, , , 6.8,
1
G F ,

2 3 4
S = 1 2 3 .
1 3 4

,
7.5.3. 3, -
:
x1 () = 1 + 2 + 2 + 3 3 ,
x 2 () = 1 + 8 6 2 + 5 3 ,
x 3 ( ) = 10 5 2 + 8 3

y1 () = 1 + 4 2 + 5 3 ,
y 2 () = 3 2 + 6 2 + 3 3 ,
y 3 ( ) = 4 + 2 + 5 2 + 8 3 .

. 1. 7.4.1 -
. 1 -

x = 1 x1 + 2 x2 + 3 x3 ,
264
2
y = 1 y1 + 2 y 2 + 3 y3 .
,
(. 7.5.4).

1
2
1 2 3 4 = 0.
3
4
, 1

1 1 1 0
2 2 8 10
= 1 + 2 + 3 ,
3 1 6 5
4 3 5 8

1 , 2 , 3 , -

1
2
1 2 3 4 =
3
4
1 1 0
2 8 10
= 1 2 3 4 ( 1 + 2 + 3 )=0,
1 6 5
3 5 8
 7 . 265
1 , 2 , 3 ,
1 , 2 , 3 , 4 -
:
1 + 2 2 + 3 + 3 4 = 0,

1 + 8 2 6 3 + 5 4 = 0,
10 2 5 3 + 8 4 = 0.

, , ,
6.8,
1 4 7
2 1 4
= 1 + 2 1 , 2
3 2 0
4 0 5
,
1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , , -
, ,
1
4 1 + 2 + 2 3 = 0,

7 1 4 2 + 5 4 = 0.

, 2 :
221 + 9 2 +14 3 = 0,

111 6 2 + 7 4 = 0.

, 1 2 -

266

41 + 2 + 2 3 = 0,
7 4 + 5 4 = 0,
1 2

221 +9 2 +14 3 = 0,
111 6 2 + 7 4 = 0,

1 2
2 6 ,
= 1
3 7
4 2
, , 1 2
dim( 1 2 ) = 1 ,
2
6 .
7
2
 8 . 267

8.1.
x
8.1.1.
y . ,
,

,
y = A x .
y
x , x y .
5.2, ,

, , . , -
, ,
, , -
.

y = Ax $ ,
8.1.2.
x, x1 , x2

1. A$ ( x1 + x 2 ) = Ax
$ + Ax
1
$
2
( x) = A x .
2. A
268
1. 2- -
8.1.1.

1 a a12 1
= 11 ,
2 a 21 a22 2

1
- x= -
2
1
y= .
2

2.

, -

.

3. Pn () -

.

, 1, 2 3 -
8.1.1. .

$ ,
A
8.1.2. x -
a ?

. a = o , A$ , -
.
 8 . 269
8.2.

$ B$ ,
A
8.2.1.
x : A x = B x .
= B .
A

$ B$
A
$ + B$ , -
C$ , A
x -
$
Ax + Bx
$ .

8.2.1. .
.

x, y ; , C$ = A$ + B$ ,
C ( x + y ) = A( x + y ) + B ( x + y ) =
= A x + A y + B x + B y =
= ( A x + B x) + ( A y + B y ) =
= ( A + B ) x + ( A + B ) y = C x + C y.

O $ , -
8.2.2. x
-
.
270

, A$ , -
8.2.3.
, A , -
x -
( Ax
).
,
.
-
:
A + B = B + A ;
( A + B ) + C = A + ( B + C ) ;
A + O = A ; A + ( A ) = O .

A$
, A ,
8.2.4.

x
( A
x) .

8.2.2. ,

( A ) = () A ; 1A = A ;
(+ ) A = A + A ;
( A + B ) = A + B .
.
. ,

x : ( + ) A x =
= A (( + ) x) = A (x + x) = A x + A x .
 8 . 271
,
8.2.1. , -
.
.
7.1.1, 8.2.18.2.4 8.2.1, 8.2.2.

A$ B$ -
8.2.5.
, A B , -
x -
( B x ) .
A

-
8.2.2. , -

A ( B C ) = ( A B )C ; A ( B + C ) = A B + A C ;
( A + B )C = A C + B C .
.
-
. , x, y ,
A B ( x + y ) = A ( B x + B y ) =
= A ( B x) + A ( B y ) = ( A B ) x + ( A B ) y.
-
.
( A ( B C )) x = A ( B C x) = A ( B (C x)) ,
, ,
(( A B )C ) x = A B (C x) = A ( B (C x)) ,
.
.
.
272
:
(, -
, ),
A$ B$ B$ A$ .

A$ B$ B$ A$
8.2.6.
A$ B$ .

8.2.1. n
Pn () = k k :
k =0

A$ , -
, B$
.

. A$ B$ B$ A$ . Pn ( )

d d n n
A Pn () = Pn () = ( k k ) = k k k 1 ,
d d k = 0 k =1
n n
B Pn () = ( k k ) = k k +1 .
k =0 k =0

n n n
B ( A Pn ()) = ( k k k 1 ) = k k k = k k k
k =1 k =1 k =0
n n
d
A( B Pn ()) = ( k k +1 ) = (k + 1) k k ,
d k = 0 k =0
 8 . 273
n n
( A B B A ) Pn () = ( (k + 1) k k ) ( k k k ) =
k =0 k =0
n
= k k = Pn ().
k =0

, -
.

8.2.1 , -
A B B A -
. -
.

E$ ( -
8.2.7. ) , x -

,
Ex = x x .
:
A E = E A = A A , E.

B$ A$
8.2.8. $ 1 , AB
A $ $ = BA
$ $ = E$ .

f ( ) ,
8.2.1.
[, ]
f ( k ) () = 0 ; k = 0,1, 2, ... , -

df
Af = B f = f () d
d
274

.
,

d
A B f = f ()d = f () = E f
d

df
B A f = d = f () f (a) = f () = E f .

d

. 1.
. ,
O$ . ,
O x = o x , B$

( B O ) x = B (O x) = o x ,
, , B O = E -
B$ .

2. , ,
. ( , -
5.1.1.)

3. -
A B = E
B A = E ,
, , -

n
Pn () = k k
k =0
$ B$ , B$ -
A
-
 8 . 275
n
, A$
k =0
k k
n
k k 1 .
k =1

8.3.

n {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }
A$ m { f 1 , f 2 ,..., f m } .
7.2 , x n
1
n 2
x = i g i , x g = . m
i =1 ...
n
y = A x , -
A
n n
y = A x = A ( i g i ) = i A g i .
i =1 i =1

m -
m
A g i = k i f k i = [1, n] , , ,
k =1
m n
y = ( k i i ) f k .
k =1 i =1
276

1

, y f
= 2 -
...
m
m
, y = k f k . , -
k =1


n
k = k i i ; k = [1, m] .
i =1

-

. ,
A : n m
m n k i .

m n , -
8.3.1.
Ag i :
11 12 ... 1n
22 ... 2 n
A = 21 ,
fg ... ... ... ...
m1 m2 ... mn
A$ -

{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } n { f 1 , f 2 ,..., f m } m .
 8 . 277
n
k = k i i ; k = [1, m]
i =1

y f
= A fg
x g
, (8.3.1)

,
:
n
k 1 = k i i1 ; k = [1, m] .
i =1

8.3.1. A : n m
m n .
.

,
A :
n m

8.3.1 m n .
,

1 11 12 ... 1n 1
2 22 ... 2 n 2
= 21
... ... ... ... ... ...
m m1 m2 ... mn n
-
: , -
A
n m

.
.
278
1. c -
8.3.1. ,
-
Oxy .

A g1 = 1 g 1 + 0 g 2 + 0 g 3 1 0 0

A g 2 = 0 g1 + 1 g 2 + 0 g 3 , A$ g
= 0 1 0 .

A g = 0 g + 0 g + 0 g
3 1 2 3
0 0 0

A : n n ,
,
n

{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } , , n . -
1.1 5.1 -

.

1. : A = B A = B .
g g

8.2.1 A = B ,
x n : A x = B x ,
A x = B g
x x n . g
g g

5.1.2 A B ,
g g

, A = B
A = B .
g g
 8 . 279

2. : A$ + B$ g
= A$ g
+ B$ g
.

n n
, A g i = ki g k B g i = ki g k
k =1 k =1
,
( A + B ) g i = A g i + B g i =
n n n
= ki g k + ki g k = ( ki + ki ) g k .
k =1 k =1 k =1

3. : A g
= A g
.

n
A g i = ki g k ,
k =1
n
(A ) g i = A (g i ) = ( ki ) g k .
k =1

4. : $$
AB g
= A$ g
B$ g
.

n
( A B ) g i = A ( B g i ) = A ( ki g k ) =
k =1
n n n n
= ki A g k = ki jk g j = ji g j ,
k =1 k =1 j =1 j =1
n
j i = jk k i , -
k =1
5.1.1.
280
1
5. : A$ 1 g
= A$ g
.
, .
8.2.8 ,

A$ 1 A$ = A$ A$ 1 = E$ ,
3, ,
A$ 1 g
A$ 1 -

A$ 1 g
A$ g
= A$ g
A$ 1 g
= E$ g
,

A$ g
.

-
8.3.1. m n .
n m

8.3.1
-
-
n m

m n . 7.5.1 (
) .

, A fg

A : n m . n
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } ,
 8 . 281
G , m
{ f 1 , f 2 ,..., f m } { f 1, f 2,..., f m }
F . ,
A fg
A f g
.

A f g

8.3.2.
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } { f 1, f 2,..., f m }
A fg
{g1, g 2 ,..., g n }
{ f 1 , f 2 ,..., f m }
1
A
fg
= F A fg
G .

7.3.1 {g1, g 2 ,..., g n } -

{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } x , y
A , -
x g
= G x g
y f = F y f ,

1 1
2 2
x g= ; x g
= ,
... ...
n n
282

1 1

y f
= 2 ; y f = 2 .
... ...
m m

y f
= A fg
x g
y f
= A f g
x g
,

, -

1 1
y f
= F y f
= F A fg
x g
=
1
= F A fg
G x g
.

,
1
( A F A G ) x g
= o ,
f g fg

x g

5.1.2 .

8.3.2. {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } n

1
A g
= S A g
S .
 8 . 283

8.3.3.
n .
.

8.3.2
1
det A g
= det ( S A g
S ),

1 1
det ( S A g
S ) = (det S )(det A g )(det S )
1 1
det S = ,
det S
det S 0 , ,
det A g
= det A g .

, , 8.3.2 -
,
.

8.4.
, -
, -
-
.
A $
x ,
$ . ,
Ax
.
284
: -
?

A$ , -
8.4.1.
.

1. Ax x -
.
2. , , = n
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } ,

rg A g
.

$
Ax
y1 , y 2 . x1 x 2 , ,
$ = y Ax
Ax $ = y .
1 1 2 2
A$
y1 + y 2 = A x1 + A x 2 = A ( x1 + x 2 ) .
y = A x = A ( x)
.

= n {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } .
x
, -
A$ -
A g , A g ,..., A g ,
1 2 n

{ Ag , Ag ,..., A g }.
1 2 n
 8 . 285
{ A g1 , A g 2 ,..., A g n }
,
k.
, 7.4.1, ,
* k, 7.5.2 ,
rg A$ g
=k.

A $ n
8.4.1. .
A$ rg A .

rg A = rg A n -
8.4.1. g
.

-
8.4.2.
A$ , -
, -
dim( ) .
.

-
, 8.4.1.

A $ B$
8.4.2. .
286
.

$ $ .
AB
8.4.2
, B$ .
, $ $ -
AB
A$ , , , -
$ $ -
AB
A$ .

A ,
8.4.3.
B

rg ( A B ) = rg ( B A ) = rg B .

A B
$ B$ -
A
.
1
det A 0 , A

8.4.2 , , rg ( A B ) rg B ,
1
rg B = rg ( A A B ) rg ( A B ).
rg( A B ) = rg( B A ) = rg B .

.
 8 . 287

. 1. B ,

A B B A ,
det A 0

rg ( A B ) = rg B
rg ( B A ) = rg B .
, B -

B ,

B -

, A B

B A , ,

rg B = rg B .
2. -
. :
1 0 0 0 0 0
= .
0 0 0 1 0 0

-
,
ker A .

A$
8.4.2.
x , , Ax
$ = o.
288

= n rg A = r , ker A$ -
8.4.4.
) = n r .
dim( ker A
.

, ker A$
7.4.1.

{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } A
A g
= ij . 8.4.1 rg A $ = r
g
.
1

x n x g
= 2
...
n
n
A$
j =1
ij j = 0 ; i = [1, n].

, -

n

j =1
ij j = 0 ; i = [1, n]

A$ ,

, , 6.7.1,
n rg A$ g
= nr.

.
 8 . 289

8.1, ,
,
.
7.5 -
, . -
-
. .

y = A x , x , y
8.4.3.
( -
), A x1 = A x 2
x1 = x2 , x1 , x2 .

y = A x , x , y .

y = A x , x , y
8.4.4.
(
), -
.

-
, , , . 8.4.1
.
, , A$ -
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } ,
n n

, -
n

8.3.1.
290
8.4.1

A g
n , -
8.4.5.

A g1 , A g 2 ,..., A g n
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } , -
A $ {g , g ,..., g }.
1 2 n

, -
A : n m = m ,
= { o } . , -
ker A

 8 . 291
,
8.4.5. , ,

.
.

1. {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } { f 1 , f 2 ,..., f m } -

A : m
n
A fg
,

rg A fg
= m .

A fg
x g
= y f
6.6.1 ()

y f
m ,

rg A y = m . , A$
A$ .

2. rg A fg
= n . , 6.4.1 (), -

A fg
x g
= o f

, . -
A$ .
.

, ,
, , (. -
5.2.4).
, , -
, -
. -
,
292
7.5.1 ( ), -
, -
-
.

1. Pr ,
8.4.1. -
-
, , ,
, , ,
3 1

-
.
, ,

, -
.
, -

{O, e1 , e2 , e3 } , -
, -

e1 = 1 1 1 .
T

e

, - r -
x

r = y
e
z


( r , e )
r = e ,
2

e
 8 . 293
x+ y+z

x 3
x + y + z , -
y =
3
z x+ y+z
3
1 1 1
1
Pr Pr = 1 1 1 .
e 3
1 1 1

, , e1
1 , , 8.4.5,

Pr
1
Pr = 1 1 1 .
e e 3

2. A
11 12
-
21 22
11 + 12
.
21 + 22

, -
-

11 + 12 0
.
21 + 22 0
294

A : 3 3
8.4.1.
1 2 3
A = 2 3 4 .
3 5 7
. , -
.

1 1
. 1. x = 2 y = 2 -
3 3

y = A x . x , ,
A x = o ,

1 + 2 2 + 3 3 = 0,

A x = o 21 + 3 2 + 4 3 = 0,
3 + 5 + 7 = 0,
1 2 3

1 1
2 = 2 .
3 1
, A
1
2 ,
1
,
.
 8 . 295
, -
,
1 2 3 1 2 3
rg 2 3 4 = rg 0 1 2 = 2 < 3
3 5 7 0 0 0
.

2. A
y , , y = Ax x . -

y -


1 2 3 1 1
2 3 4 2 = 2 ,
3 5 7 3 3
, ,
1 , 2 , 3 -
. , , -
6.6.1 (), -
. -

1 2 3 1
rg 2 3 4 2 =
3 5 7 3
1 2 3 1 1 2 3
= rg 0 1 2 21 2 = rg 2 3 4 = 2
0 0 0 1 2 + 3 3 5 7
296
, ,
1 + 2 3 = 0 , , , ,

A$ -

1 1 1
2 = 1 1 + 2 0 1 , 2 ,
3 0 1

1 + 2 3 = 0 .
, ,
y = 3 = 3 , -
.

8.5.

8.5.1.
A$ ,
x : A x .

1. -
8.5.1. -

Oxy ,

,
-
- . 8.5.1

 8 . 297
-
Oz (. . 8.5.1).

2. -
f () ,
(, ) , n - -


1 2 n
{e ,e , ... , e },
1 , 2 ,..., n ,
.

A$ , -
8.5.1.
n {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } ,

11 ... 1r 1,r +1 ... 1n

... ... ... ... ... ...
r1 ... rr r ,r +1 ... rn
,
0 ... 0 r +1,r +1 ... r +1,n
... ... ... ... ... ...
0 ... 0 n,r +1 ... nn

{g1 , g 2 ,..., g r } -
A$ .
298
.

. A $
.
{g1, g 2 ,..., g r } -
, -
8.3.1 -

.
r
, k g k ,
k =1
r
A ( k g k ) =
k =1
r r r
= k ( A g k ) = k ik g i =
k =1 k =1 i =1
r r r
= ( ik k ) g i = i g i .
i =1 k =1 i =1

7.4.1 , . -
.
. -
$ , -
A
{g1, g 2 ,..., g r } . -
, , , -

, . -
,
r n
A g k = ik g i + 0g i ; k = [1, r ]
i =1 i = r +1
8.4.5 .

.
 8 . 299
,
8.5.1. $
A

A$ 1 .

. x ,
A $ , y = A x .
A$ , -
A$ 1 x, y
x = A $ 1 y , -

A$ 1 .

"-
", -
.

f
8.5.2.
A $ ,
, , A f = f .
A $ , -
f.

f -
, , ,
E ,
A
f ker( A E ) .
300

, A$ ,
n , n
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } ,

A g1 = 1 g1 ; A g 2 = 2 g 2 ; ... ; A g n = n g n .
, -

:

A g k = 0 g1 + 0 g 2 + K + k g k + K + 0 g n ; k = [1, n] .
, 7.2.1, , ,
8.3.1, , -
A$ :
1 0 ... 0
0 2 ... 0
A = ,
f ... ... ... ...
0 0 ... n
-
.

, A$ -
8.5.2.
f -
, f

A$ 2 = AA
$$
2 .
 8 . 301
. A f = f , -
A
A 2 f = A ( A f ) = A (f ) = 2 f .

n {g1, g 2 ,..., g n }, -
n
f n f = i g i ,
i =1

A$ A g
= k j .

A f = f n
A g
f g
= f g
,

111 + 12 2 + ... + 1n n = 1 ,
+ + ... + = ,
21 1 22 2 2n n 2

...................................................
n11 + n 2 2 + ... + nn n = n ,

(11 )1 + 12 2 + ... + 1n n = 0,
+ ( ) + ... + = 0,
21 1 22 2 2n n
(8.5.1)
........................................................
n11 + n 2 2 + ... + ( nn ) n = 0.
302
-
,
(8.5.1), ,
6.7.2,
(8.5.1). , ,

: det kj kj = 0
11 12 ... 1n
21 22 ... 2n
det = 0. (8.5.2)
... ... ... ...
n1 n2 ... nn

det A E g
= 0 -
8.5.3.
,
det A E g

A$ , n .

8.5.2. n .
.

, A E , ,
A E . ,
8.3.3, .
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } :
det A E g
= det A E g
.

.
 8 . 303
-
n - , -
6.1.2 (8.5.2).
,
n

-
:

(8.5.2), -
(8.5.1) -
, -
,
.

8.6.1 8.6.2. ,
, -
. -
, ,
, -

f () = e ( ) -
, -
df
=f .
d

8.6.

8.6.1.
.
304
.
-
n - , -
11
, ,
.
.

8.6.1 -
. , Oxy -
k -
. ,
(. 5.5):

cos sin
det = 0 2 2cos + 1 = 0 ,
sin cos
= cos i sin . , k -
.

8.6.2. -
, -
.
.
,
(8.5.1) .
-
= + i, , (8.5.1), -

f = u + w i , u w n , -
n - .

11
, , .
 8 . 305
, u w . :
u = w . A f = f ,
A (( + i ) w) = ( + i )w , A w = w , -
, -
.
-
: A f = f .
A (u + wi ) = ( + i )(u + w i ) ,
$
A

( A u ) + ( A w) i = (u w) + (u + w) i,
,
A u = u w,

Aw = u + w.
, A $ -
,
u w,

A (u + w) = A u + A w = (u w) + (u + w) =
= ( + )u + ( ) w.

8.6.1. $ , -
A

1 2 2
2 1 2 .
3 2 3
306
:
1. , A $ -
.
(8.5.1) (8.5.2). -
(.
1.1.1),

1 2 2
det 2 1 2 =
3 2 3
= (1 + )( 1) 2 + 2(2 6 + 6) + 2(4 3 3 ) =
= 3 + 2 + 1 = (2 + 1)( 1).
, 1 = 1
2 = i 2 = i -
12.

2. . = 1 = 1 , ,
(8.5.2)
2 2 2 1 0
2 2 2 2 = 0 .
3 2 2 3 0
-
, 1 , 2 3
1 0
1 1 1
2 = 0 .
1 0 0
3 0

12
. 3.
 8 . 307
, f 1 , -
1 = 1 ,

1 0
2 = 1 0 .
3 1

3. = 2 = i ,
(8.5.1)

1 i 2 2 1 0
2 1 i 2 2 = 0
3 2 3i 3 0

, 13
1 + i . ,
1 1+ i 1 i 1 0
2 1 i 2 2 = 0
3 2 3i 3 0

.

,
1 0
1 1+ i 1 i
2 = 0 .
0 1 + 3 i 2i
3 0

13
3.
308
,
( i )
1 0
1 1+ i 1 i
2 = 0 .
0 3+i 2
3 0

3 = 3 + i ,
:
1 2
f2 = 2 = 2 0 .
3 3+i
4. , , -
, 3 = i ,

1 2
f3 = 2 = 2 0.
3 3i
( , f 2
f 3 , 2 3 ,
f 2
f 3 .)
$ -
5. A
$ -
, 8.6.2 A
0
1 , 1 = 1 ,
1
 8 . 309
, -
2 0
u = 2 w = 0 , -
3 1

1 2 0
2 = 1 2 + 2 0 ; 1 , 2 .
3 3 1
, -

1 1 + 2 2 + 3 3 = 0
(., , 8.4.1).

,
8.6.3. -
$ ,
A
, -
$.
A
.

A f 1 = f 1 A f 2 = f 2 . , -
:
A ( f 1 + f 2 ) =
= A f 1 + A f 2 = f 1 + f 2 = ( f1 + f 2 ),
.

.
310
, -
8.6.1. , ,
, -
( )
$.
A

8.6.4.
A -
B ,
A B .
.

-

A , A f = f f .
f = B (f ) , -
B A
$ B$
A

A ( B f ) = ( B f ) f .
, B f f ,

B$ .

, -
8.6.5. ,
.
.

.
m
f 1 , f 2 , ... , f m A$ , -
.
 8 . 311
,
m + 1 f 1 , f 2 , ... , f m , f m+1 ,
.
:
-
f 1 , f 2 , ... , f m , f m +1 :
1 f 1 + 2 f 2 + ... + m f m + m +1 f m+1 = o , (8.6.1)
, -
m +1 0.

A (8.6.1):
A ( 1 f1 + 2 f 2 + ... + m f m + m+1 f m+1 ) =
= 1 1 f1 + 2 2 f 2 + ... + m m f m + m+1 m+1 f m+1 = o.
(8.6.2)
, (8.6.1)
m+1 -
(8.6.2),
1 ( 1 m+1 ) f 1 + 2 ( 2 m+1 ) f 2 + ...
K + m ( m m +1 ) f m = o .
,
f1 , f 2 ,..., f m ,
1 = 2 = ... = m = 0.
(8.6.1) m+1 = 0 , -
, -

f1 , f 2 , ... , f m
f 1 , f 2 , ... , f m , f m+1 .

.
312

A$ n

8.6.1. ( -
) n , -
.

A $ , , n

8.6.6. n , -
, -
A$ , -
,
$.
A
.
8.6.5 -
8.5.

-
8.6.7. $ ,
A
0 k.

1 dim( ) k .
.

n {g1, g 2 ,..., g m , g m +1,..., g n } ,

m = dim( ) .

A g i = 0 g i ; i = [1, m] ,
A E g , -
(. 8.5),

 8 . 313
A E g
=

0 0 ... 0 1,m +1 ... 1n

0 0 ... 0 2, m+1 ... 2n
... ... ... ... ... ... ...
= .
0 0 ... 0 m, m+1 ... mn
... ... ... ... ... ... ...
0 0 ... 0 n ,m +1 ... nn
,

det A E g
= ( 0 ) m Pnm ( ).
( 0 )
Pnm ( ) , m k , k
0 det A E g .

1 m , -
( ).

, -
, 0
k , k ,

8.6.2. ,
1 1
.
0 1
314
. :

1 1
det = (1 ) 2 = 0,
0 1
1, 2 = 1
k = 2 . :
0 1 1 0 1
= x= 0 .
0 0 2 0 0
, ,
-

( m = dim( ) = 1 ), -
=1 2.

8.6.2, 8.6.5 8.6.6 ,

, -

, -
.

$
A n -
8.6.8.
$
, A
.
.

A $ , -
n

, , -
, det A$ = 0 .
-
n

 8 . 315
1 11 12 ... 1n 1
2 22 ... 2 n 2
= 21 .
... ... ... ... ... ...
n n1 n2 ... nn n
6.4.1 () , -
- -
,
-, (-
),
6.7.1 (-
).

Q
8.6.2.
k 2 k -
Q . ,
1 0
Q = Q Q = E .

A $ - n

8.6.9 .
(
).
.

,
A n { f 1 , f 2 ,..., f n } .
A -
n
A
f

k =0
k k = 0 .
316

A f , -
, (. 8.5.2)
n n
k k
( k A f
) f = k ( A f
f )=
k =0 k =0
n
= k ( A f
( A f
...( A f
f )...) ) =
k =0
n n
= k (k f ) = ( k k ) f = 0 f = o .
k =0 k =0

,
x .
n

5.1.2 ,
n
k

k =0
k A f
= O f .

,
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } ,
n n
k 1
k A
k =0
g
= k ( S
k =0
A f
S )k =
n
1 1 1
= k ( S A f
S S A f
S ... S A f
S )=
k =0

n n
1 k 1 k
= k ( S A f
S )= S ( k A f
) S =
k =0 k =0
1
= S O f
S = O g .

.
 8 . 317
:
,
.

8.7.
,
,
. -
, , 5.2,
.

x
8.7.1. -
, f ( x ) . ,
f ( x) .
1. n-
8.7.1.
1
2
, -
...
n
n
i i , i , i = [1, n] -
i =1
.

2. -
,

f ( x) = | x |.

3. x ( ) ,
[1,1] , f ( x) = x(0)
318
-, ( x) ,
x ( )
.
4. x ( ) ,
[, ] , -

, f ( x) = p() x()d , p () -

[, ] .
5.
11 12

21 22
11 12
det = 11 22 12 21 .
21 22

f ( x ) -
8.7.2. ( ),
x, y :
1. f ( x + y ) = f ( x ) + f ( y ).
2. f ( x ) = f ( x ).

, 1, 3 4 -
8.7.1. , 2 5
.

n {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } -
n
x = i gi .
i =1
 8 . 319

n n n
f ( x) = f ( i g i ) = i f ( g i ) = i i ,
i =1 i =1 i =1

i = f ( g i ) , i = [1, n] , -
.

f ( x ) n -
8.7.1.
{g1, g 2 ,..., g n } -

f g
= 1 2 K n , -
1 2 K n

n
f ( x) = i i
i =1

f ( x) = f g
x g
.

( !) -
n

8.4.5,
n -
.
n 1

-
.
n n

{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } , -

n
S = ij , g j = ij g i j = [1, n] .
i =1
320
x
n n
x = i g i = i g i , -
i =1 i =1
f ( x ) -

n n
f ( x) = i i = i i .
i =1 i =1

i i . -
,
n n n
i = f ( g i ) = f ( ki g k ) = ki f ( g k ) = k ki ,
k =1 k =1 k =1
.

n {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } -

8.7.2.

f g
= 1 , 2 , ... , n

f g
= 1 , 2 , ... , n
n
k = i ik ; k = [1, n] , ik
i =1

S
.

f g
= f g
S , , -
, -
n

(. 7.3).
 8 . 321
() .
()

-
, -
, .

, {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } -
n

8.7.2. -
p( x ) q ( x )

p+q g
= 1 + 1 2 + 2 ... n + n

p g
= 1 2 ... n ,

p g
= K 1 2 ... n
q g
= 1 2 ... n .

, 8.2,

,
8.7.3. , -
.

, -
8.7.3. , ( -
) + .
8.7.1
n-
, n- -
322
. , -
-
n

n- , -
n n+ .

n+ , n ,
8.7.4. n .

n- , n+
.
n+
{r1 , r2 ,..., rn }; ri i = [1, n] . f n+

n
, f = r ,
i i n
i =1
f ,

1

f r
= 2 .
L
n

-
f {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } n {r1 , r2 ,..., rn } n +
, n , rg
, -

ij = ri ( g j ) ; i, j = [1, n] -
ri g j .
 8 . 323
, {r1 , r2 ,..., rn } n+ ,
8.7.3.
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } n ,
=( ) 1 f = f
T T T
f r rg g
f g r rg
.

rg
= E ,
8.7.4.
1, i = j ,
ij = ij = i, j = [1, n] ,
0, i j
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } {r1 , r2 ,..., rn } -
().

, {r1 , r2 ,..., rn } n+
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } n , -
f ( x) n n+ -
=
T
f r
f g
.

( )

n+ n - ,
, , -
n

n+ + , n+ . n+ + -
.
n

n+ n+ +
, ,
n
n-
, , . -
n+ +

n
,
-
.
324

x n , X ( f )
n+ , , X ( f ) = f ( x) f n + .
n+
, X ( f ) ,
n+ +
. ,
X ( 1 f 1 + 2 f 2 ) = 1 f 1 ( x ) + 2 f 2 ( x ) =
= 1 X ( f1 ) + 2 X ( f 2 ) 1 , 2 ; f1 , f 2 n + .
, X ( f ) f n + , ,
8.4.1, n+ + .
X ( x) : n ,
y = X ( f ( x )) x ; y . ,
n

() X ( f )
f ( x) , , , , . -
, y = X ( f ( x )) , -
n ,
7.5.1 dim() = dim ( ) = n .
n

, ,
dim (n++ ) = n = dim() n+ +
n++
.
, ,
y = X ( f ( x)) x n ; y n + +

-
n n+ + , -

n

n+
, ,
n

x( f ) = f ( x) ; x n ; f n + .
 9 . 325

9.1.

-
9.1.1. x y -
B ( x, y ) ,
1) B( x1 + x 2 , y ) = B( x1 , y ) + B( x 2 , y )
x1 , x 2 , y ; , ,
2) B( x, y1 + y 2 ) = B( x, y1 ) + B( x, y 2 )
x, y1 , y 2 ; , ,
,
( ).
1. F (x )
9.1.1.
G ( y ) , ,
B ( x, y ) = F ( x )G ( y )
.
2.
B( x, y ) = K (, ) x() y ()dd =

= x ( ) ( K (, ) y()d)d,

K (, )
326

: ,


[, ] .
3.
-
.

n .

n {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } -
B ( x , y ) .
.
n
, x = i gi
i =1
n
y = j g j , , 9.1.1, -
j =1

n n n n
B ( x, y ) = B ( i g i , j g j ) = i B ( g i , j g j ) =
i =1 j =1 i =1 j =1
n n n n
= i j B( g i , g j ) = ij i j .
i =1 j =1 i =1 j =1

ij = B ( g i , g j )
9.1.2.
B ( x , y )
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } , B g
= ij
.
 9 . 327

n {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }

n n n n n n
( x, y ) = ki k i = k1 ki i1 = 1Tk ki i1 =
k =1 i =1 k =1 i =1 k =1 i =1

11 12 ... 1n 1
21 22 ... 2 n 2
= 1 2 ... n =
... ... ... ... ...
n1 n 2 ... nn n
= x
T
g
B g
y g
,

x g
y g

x y .

S
9.1.1.
{g1, g 2 ,..., g n } {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } ,
T
B g
= S B g
S .

n (. 7.3)
n
g k = ik g i , k = [1, n] ,
i =1
328

n n
kl = B( g k , g l ) = B( ik g i , jl g j ) =
i =1 j =1
n n
= ik jl B ( g i , g j ) =
i =1 j =1
n n n n
= ik jl ij = Tki ij jl
i =1 j =1 i =1 j =1

k , l = [1, n] .

det B g
= det B g
det 2 S .
9.1.1.
.
9.1.1, (-
6.2.1 6.2.4).

, -

.

9.1.2. .
.
8.4.3 -
S .

B ( x , y ) -
9.1.3. ,
x y
B( x, y ) = B( y, x ) .
 9 . 329

9.1.2.
n , -
.
.

ij = B( g i , g j ) = B( g j , g i ) = ji
i, j = [1, n].
. ,

ij = ji i, j = [1, n] ,
n n n n
B( y, x) = ji j i = ji i j =
j =1 i =1 j =1 i =1
n n
= ij i j = B( x, y ).
i =1 j =1

9.2.

-
9.2.1. x
( x) = B( x, x) , B( x, y ) -
, ,
(
).
-

, -
.
330
, (x)
B ( x, y ), -
x y

( x + y ) = B( x + y, x + y ) =
= B ( x, x ) + B ( x, y ) + B ( y , x ) + B ( y , y ) =
= ( x) + 2 B( x, y ) + ( y ) ,
( x + y ) ( x) ( y )
B ( x, y ) = .
2
n -
9.2.2. 1
( ( x + y ) ( x) ( y ))
2
(x).
{g1, g 2 ,..., g n } , -
n

n n
( x) = ki k i =
k =1 i =1

11 12 ... 1n 1
21 22 ... 2 n 2
= 1 2 ... n =
... ... ... ... ...
n1 n2 ... nn n
= x
T
g
g
x g
,
n
x g
x = i g i
i =1
. , ,
= S
T
g
g
S , -
9.1.1.
 9 . 331
, -
(x ) , -
. , -
B ( x , y )
1
( B( x , y ) + B( y , x )) , -
2
(x ) , B ( x , y ) ..
,
ij + ji ji + ij
ij = = = ji i, j = [1, n] ,
2 2
.

3
9.2.1.
B1 ( x, y ) = 11 + 3 2 2 2 1
31 2 + 2 3 1 2 3 3 2 =
1 3 0 1
= 1 2 3 1 3 1 2 ,
2 1 0 3

1 3 0
1 3 1
2 1 0
9.1.2 .
3

1 ( x) = 12 + 3 22 41 2 + 21 3 2 2 3 .

332
B2 ( x, y ) = 11 + 3 2 2 21 2 2 2 1 +
+ 13 + 3 1 2 3 3 2 =
1 2 1 1
= 1 2 3 2 3 1 2 ,
1 1 0 3

1 2 1
2 3 1 ,
1 1 0
3
2 ( x) = 12 + 3 22 41 2 + 21 3 2 2 3 ,

1 ( x)
1 2 1
2 3 1 .
1 1 0

-
,
.

(x) -
9.2.3.
{g1 , g 2 , ..., g n } n ,

n
( x) = i i2 ,
i =1

i i = [1, n] .
 9 . 333

, , i , i = [1, n]
0 1, , -

.

9.2.1
(
n ,
). .
.

.
1. 11 = 0 ,
n = 1 (x ) = 11 12 .
, 11 0 , , -

1 = 11 1 , .
2. , -
, n 1 ,
n .
, 11 0 . -
,
ii , i = [ 2, n] .
ii , i = [1, n] , -
, 12 0 . , -

1 = 1 + 2 , 2 = 1 2 , 3 = 3 , ..., n = n ,


334

(x) = 212 1 2 2 21 22 + F (1 , 2 , 3 ,..., n ) ,

F (1 , 2 , 3 ,..., n ) 1 2 .

3. ,
1 :
n n
( x) = ik i k =
i =1 k =1
n
1i n n
= 11 (12 + 2 1 i ) + ik i k ,
i=2 11 i=2 k =2

,
n n n n n

k =1 i =1
k i = ( k )( i ) = ( k ) 2 =
k =1 i =1 k =1
n n n
= (1 + k ) 2 = 12 + 2 1 k + ( k ) 2 =
k =2 k =2 k =2
n n n
= 12 + 2 1 k + k i .
k =2 k =2 i = 2

n
1i n n

( x) = 11 (12 + 2 1 i + 1i 2 1k i k ) +
i=2 11 i = 2 k = 2 11
n n
1i 1k
+ ( ik ) i k
i =2 k = 2 11

n
1i 2 n n
( x) = 11 (1 + i ) + ( ik 1i 1k ) i k .
i =2 11 i =2 k = 2 11
 9 . 335

,
, 1 -
, , -

n
k = ki i , k = [2, n] .
i=2

4.
(x)
n
1i

1 = ( + i ) ,
i = 2 11
11 1

n
(9.2.1)
k = ki i ; k = [2, n] ,
i =2
.
11 0 -

12 1n
11 11 ... 11
11 11
T = 0 22 ... 2n
... ... ... ...
0 n2 ... nn

, , (9.2.1) -
. T :
1
S = T (. 7.5.3), -
.

.
336
: , -
, , -

n .
(
) . -
( -
) -
.

, {g1, g 2 ,..., g n }
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } S -

= S
T
g
g
S .
S -

g
(. 6.8).

S , g
, -
6.8.2 g
. -

, S -
,
. , g
-
,
, , -

,
 9 . 337

g
, x g
= S x g

{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } , -
.
.

3
9.2.1.
( x) = 212 22 4 32 81 2 + 21 3 8 2 3 .
. ( x)
2 4 1
4 1 4 .
1 4 4

1.
:
-
;
- -
,

2 5 1
5 3 0 .
1 0 4

,
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
338

1 0 0
, 0 1 0 .
0 1 1

2. -
, , -
5. -
. -
:

93 0 3 3 0 0
0 3 0 5 1 0 .
3 0 4 5 1 1

3. ,
, 31.
, -

93 0 0 3 0 3
0 3 0 5 1 5 .
0 0 3751 5 1 26

3 0 3
5 ; 1 ; 5
5 1 26

 9 . 339

1 = 31 + 33 ,

2 = 51 + 2 + 53 ,
= 5 + 26 ,
3 1 2 3

:
( x) = 931 2 + 322 3751 32 .

9.3.


,
, ( ) -
. -
n

9.3.1.
( x) rg .

n -
9.3.1. .
.

9.1.2
.
-
.
, 8.4.3 9.1.1
-
.
.
340

.

1. -
9.3.2. () -
( x )
n

-
rg + .
2. -
() -
( x )
n

-
rg .
3. -

( x) n -

sgn = rg + rg .

9.3.2 , -
(
( x) n -
). , -
()
.
.

1. ( x)
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }
n n
( x) = ij i j
i =1 j =1
 9 . 341

{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }
{g1, g 2 ,..., g n} , ( x) :
k m
( x) = i i2 i i2 ; m n , i > 0 i = [1, m]
i =1 i = k +1

p q
( x) = i 2
i i
2
i ; q n , i > 0 i = [1, q] .
i =1 i = p +1
-
ij ij -
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }

{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } {g1, g 2 ,..., g n }

,
n n
s = sj j ; s = [1, n] s = sj j ; s = [1, n] . (9.3.1)
j =1 j =1

2. ( x)
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } {g1, g 2 ,..., g n}

n n n
x = k g k = i g i = j g j ,
k =1 i =1 j =1
k m p q

i i2
i =1
i i2 = i i2
i = k +1 i =1

i = p +1
i
2
i

k q p m
i i2 + i i2 = i i2 + i i2 . (9.3.2)
i =1 i = p +1 i =1 i = k +1
342
3. . , k < p
, x -

i = 0 i = [1, k ] ;
i = 0 i = [ p + 1, n] .
, n , k < p .
(9.3.1),

{1 , 2 ,..., n } .
,
, 6.7.1 -
, , , x
.
, (9.3.2), -
i ; i = [1, m] i ; i = [1, q ] ,

i = 0 i = [1, k ] ; i = 0 i = [ p + 1, n]

, i = 0 ; i = [1, p ].
(9.3.1) n -
n
s = sj j ; s = [1, n] n -
j =1
, -
, x -
.
, k < p .

4. ,
k > p . ,
k = p.

5. 9.3.1 m = q , k m = p q .

.
 9 . 343

.
1. ( x ) -
9.3.3.
+ , ( x) > 0
x + .

2. ( x ) -

, ( x) < 0
x .
+
3. ( ) , -
, ( x ) -
() .

4. ( x ) 0 ( ( x ) 0 ) x ,
, -
() -
.

9.3.3.
n ,
() , -
()
.
.
9.3.2 -
()
-
+ ( ).
344


.

-
9.3.4
(
n -
). , -
,

11 12 ... 1k
22 ... 2 k
det 21 ; k = [1, n] ,
... ... ... ...
k1 k 2 ... kk

.
.

1. .
k = 1 . , -

k = n 1

n 1
n 1
( x) = i2 .
i =1
2. ,
, n -
. , -
n , , n :
 9 . 345
n 1 n 1 n 1
( x) = ki k i + 2 kn k n + nn 2n .
k =1 i =1 k =1
-

( x ) , n 1 ,

( x) n 1 , , -
, . , -

( x ) ,

n 1
k = ki i ; k = [1, n 1] ,
i =1
n 1
( x) = i2 .
i =1

( x)
:
n 1 n 1
( x) = i2 + 2 in i n + nn 2n
i =1 i =1
:
n 1
( x) = (i2 + 2in i n + in2 2n ) +
i =1
n 1 n 1
+ ( nn in2 ) 2n = i2 + nn
2n ,
i =1 i =1

n 1
nn
= nn in2 ; i = i + in n ; i = [1, n 1] .
i =1


346

1 1 0 L 0 1,n 1
2 0 1 L 0 2, n 2
L = L L L L L L ,
n1 0 0 0 1 n 1,n n 1
n 0 0 0 0 1 n
,
.
3. , 9.1.1 -
.

, -

11 12 ... 1n
22 ... 2 n
det 21
... ... ... ...
n1 n2 ... nn
n . -
( x ) , -
( x) nn
.
nn
> 0
n = n nn
, -
n
( x) = i2 .
i =1
, ( x ) -
n , , -
, .

.
 9 . 347
-
-
10.3.
-
, -
.

-
9.3.1.
n -
, -
-
, .
.

( x) -
, ( x) , , -
.
,
k - , , -

11 12 ... 1k
21 22 ... 2 k
det =
... ... ... ...
k1 k 2 ... kk
11 12 ... 1k
21 22 ... 2 k
= (1) k det > 0 k = [1, n] .
... ... ... ...
k1 k 2 ... kk

.
348
9.4.

-

,
4.4.1.
Oxy
{g1 , g 2 } O.
4.4.1
Ax + 2 Bxy + Cy + 2 Dx + 2 Ey + F = 0 , A, B, C, D, F
2 2

E , A, B C
( A + B + C > 0 ).
, -
A, B C , -
(. 9.1.1).
, Ax 2 + 2 Bxy + Cy 2 -

( x, y ) = Ax 2 + 2 Bxy + Cy 2
A B
{g1 , g 2 } .
B C

rg
9.2.2 9.3.1 ,
sgn ( x, y )
, , rg sgn
. -
,
-
, , , -
.
 9 . 349
-
D, F E, ,
,
A, B, C, D, F E.
3
( x, y, z ) = Ax 2 + 2 Bxy + Cy 2 + 2 Dxz + 2 Eyz + Fz 2

A B D
B C E {g1 , g 2 , g 3 } .
D E F

, 3 ,
( x, y,1) = 0 , ,
z = 1 . -
3

, z = 1 -
. -
( x, y , z ) .

S {g1, g 2 , g 3 }
9.4.1.
{g1 , g 2 , g 3 } , z = 1
,
11 12 13
S = 21 22 23 .
0 0 1
.

Oxy -

x = 11 x + 12 y + 13 ,

y = 21 x + 22 y + 23 ,
350
z = 1 z = 1 ,
x 11 12 13 x
y = 21 22 23 y .
1 0 0 1 1

S -
11 12
det 0.
21 22

-
, ,
z = 1 . rg sgn
, rg sgn
. , -

-
9.4.1.
Oxy rg , rg , sgn
sgn
.

rg , rg , sgn sgn
,
4.4.1, 9.4.1
,
, ,

.
 9 . 351
9.4.1

rg sgn rg sgn

x2 y2
1 + 2 =1 3 1 2 2
a2 b
2 x2 y2
+ 2 = 1 3 3 2 2
a2 b
x 2
y2
3 + =0 2 2 2 2
a2 b2
x2 y2
4 2 =1 3 1 2 0
a2 b
5 . x 2 y2

=0 2 0 2 0
a2 b2

6 y 2 = 2 px 3 1 1 1

7 -
y2 = a2 2 0 1 1

8 -
- y 2 = a 2 2 2 1 1

9 -
y2 = 0 1 1 1 1

,
1.
-
352
.
( x, y, z ) , -
z = 1 , , -
0 0
, 0 1 0 .
0 0
-
1 0 1
S = 0 1 0 , , -
1 0 1

z = 1 , , -
, . ,

= S S =
T
g g

1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
= 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 =
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
2 0 0
= 0 1 0 .
0 0 2

2. -
, , -
A B
I 1 = A + C I 2 = det . -
B C
4.4.
 9 . 353
3. , ,
-
.

9.5.

9.2.1 ,
n

( x ) . -
, {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } ,
n
( x) = i i 2 1 2 ... n 1 n .
i =1

( x) n
9.5.1.
1 = minn ( x)
x

n = maxn ( x) , x
x
n

i =1
i
2
= 1.

.
n
( x) = i i 2 ,
i =1

1 2 ... n 1 n

n n n n

i i 2 n i 2 1 i 2 i i 2 .
i =1 i =1 i =1 i =1
354
n

i =1
i
2
= 1 ,

n n

i i 2 n 1 i i 2 .
i =1 i =1

x = 0, 0, ...,1
T
,

x = 1, 0, ..., 0
T
.

9.6.
,
,
, ,
.

-
9.6.1. k { x1 , x 2 ,..., xk }
Q ( x1, x 2 ,..., xk )
, j = [1, k ]
Q( x1 ,..., x j + x j ,..., x k ) =
= Q( x1 ,..., x j ,..., x k ) + Q( x1 ,..., x j ,..., x k )
x , x , ,
, -
, , k - .
 9 . 355

1. k -
9.6.1.
F1 ( x ), F2 ( x ), K , Fk ( x ) ,
Q( x1 , x 2 , K, x k ) = F1 ( x1 ) F2 ( x 2 ) K Fk ( x k ) ,
k - .

2. -
-
.

3. n -
n , -
n

.
 356

10

10.1.

, , -
. ,
, -
.
-
10.1.1. x y -
( x, y ), -
, ,
:
1) ( x, y ) = ( y, x );
2) (x, y ) = ( x, y );
3) ( x1 + x 2 , y ) = ( x1, y ) + ( x 2 , y );
4) ( x, x ) 0 ,
( x, x ) = 0 x = o ,
, E.
: 14 ,
( 2
3) ( 1) ,
, , -
( 4) -
. , -
, -
.
 1 0 . 357
1. -
10.1.1. ,
2.2, .
2. n-
1 1
2
x= 2 ; y=
... ...
n n
,
n
( x, y ) = i i , -
i =1
.
3.
[, ]

( x, y ) = x() y ()d .

-
10.1.1.
?
. , , 3 -
10.1.1.

E
10.1.2.
1) ( ) x
x = ( x, x) ;
2) x y
x y .
358
: -
... - -
,
-
, , ,
,

.

x, y E
10.1.1
( ( x, y) x y .

).
.

x, y E x y E .
4 10.1.1
0 ( x y, x y ) = ( x, x) 2( x, y ) + ( y, y ) 2 =
= x 2( x, y ) + y 2 .
2 2

, ,
( x, y ) 2 x y 0 .
2 2

, -
10.1.2. ,
x y .

x, y E
10.1.1
( x+y x + y .
).
 1 0 . 359
.

x+ y
2
= ( x + y , x + y ) = ( x , x ) + 2( x , y ) + ( y , y )
x +2 x y + y = ( x + y )2 ,
2 2

x + y x + y -
.

,
10.1.1 (2)

n n n

i i
i =1
2j
j =1

k =1
2
k i ,i , i = [1, n] ;

n n n

(
i =1
i + i ) 2 j =1
2
j +
k =1
2
k i ,i , i = [1, n] ,

10.1.1 (3) -
:

| x() y()d | x ()d y ()d ;

2 2

( x() + y()) d x ()d + y ()d .

2 2 2

360
E
10.1.3. x y
[0, ] ,
( x, y )
cos = .
x y
( 10.1.1) ,
E .
E x y -
10.1.4.
, ( x , y ) = 0 .

, -
.

10.2. .

n
E -
10.2.1. {e1 , e2 ,..., en } ,
(ei , e j ) = ij i, j = [1, n].

E n
10.2.1 .
(
).
.

1. E n , ,
{g1, g 2 ,..., g n } .
{e1 , e 2 ,..., e n } . -
-
.
 1 0 . 361
e1 = g1 . e2
e2 = g 2 + 21 e1 , 21 .
21 , (e1 , e2 ) = 0 , ,
(e1 , e2 ) = (e1 , g 2 + 21e1 ) =
(e1 , g 2 )
= (e1 , g 2 ) + 21 (e1 , e1 ) = 0 ; 21 = .
(e1 , e1 )
, e2 o . ,
o = e2 = g 2 + 21 e1 = g 2 + 21 g1
g1 g 2 ,
(.
7.2.2).

2. , k 1
, e k
k 1
ek = g k + k j ej .
j =1

, (ek , ei ) = 0 i = [1, k 1] ,
(ej , ei ) = 0 ; j = [1, k 1]

k 1
(ei , ek ) = (ei , g k + kj ej ) = (ei , g k ) + ki (ei , ei ) = 0 ;
j =1

(ei , g k )
ki = ; i = [1, k 1] .
(ei , ei )

, e k o . -
k 1
: ek = g k + k j ej = o . -
j =1
362
ei , i = [1, k 1] -
g i ;i = [1, k 1] , -
g i ; i = [1, k ] , -
. , ek o .

3. -
g i ; i = [1, n] , -
ei ; i = [1, n] ,
{e1 , e2 ,..., en } ,
ek
ek = ; k = [1, n] .
ek

, , -
. ,
, -
.

10.3.


{ f 1 , f 2 ,..., f k } -
.

E -
10.3.1.
{ f 1 , f 2 ,..., f k } -

 1 0 . 363
( f 1 , f 1 ) ( f1 , f 2 ) L ( f1 , f k )
( f 2 , f1 ) ( f 2 , f 2 ) L ( f2 , fk )
f
= .
L L L L
( f k , f1 ) ( f k , f 2 ) L ( fk , fk )

E n {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } .
n n
x = i g i y = j g j ,
i =1 j =1
10.1.1,
n n n n n n
( x, y ) = ( i g i , j g j ) = i j ( g i , g j ) = ij i j ,
i =1 j =1 i =1 j =1 i =1 j =1

i j = ( g i , g j ) i, j = [1, n] g
, -
.

, , -
(. 1 . 10.1.1),
, -
. ( . 9.1.2) -
-
:

( x, y ) = x =
T
g g
y g

( g 1 , g1 ) ( g 1 , g 2 ) ... ( g1 , g n ) 1
( g 2 , g1 ) ( g 2 , g 2 ) ... ( g 2 , g n ) 2
= 1 2 ... n ,
... ... ... ... ...
( g n , g1 ) ( g n , g 2 ) ... ( g n , g n ) n
364

x g
y g
() -

x y {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } . , -
2.3 9.2.
, , e
= E ,
, ,
n
T
( x, y ) = x g
y g
= i i .
i =1

g

10.3.1.
det g
> 0.
.

10.1.1 ,
, , -
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } (

S ) 9.1.1

= S S ; det = det
T
g g g g
(det S ) 2 ,

det S 0 .
, sgn ( det g
) ,
. , ,
det e = 1 , -
, det g
> 0.

.
 1 0 . 365
{ f1 , f 2 ,..., f k } E n -
10.3.1.
,
.
.

{ f1 , f 2 ,..., f k } , -
. ,

1 , 2 ,..., k , ,

1 f 1 + 2 f 2 + ... + k f k = o .

f i i = [1, k ] , -

1 ( f i , f 1 ) + 2 ( f i , f 2 ) + ... + k ( f i , f k ) = 0 i = [1, k ] .
, (. 1.1),
,
,
1 , 2 ,..., k ,
, ,
(. 6.5.2
6.5.2).
, { f 1 , f 2 ,..., f k }
,
10.3.1.

9.3.4.

-
9.3.4 n ,
366
( ,
).

11 12 ... 1k
22 ... 2 k
det 21 ; k = [1, n] ,
... ... ... ...
k1 k 2 ... kk

.
.

1. 10.1 , -
-
, -
-
. , -
,
,
.

2. ,
( ) -
. , -
-
n

,
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }
.

-
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g k } ; k = [1, n] .
( ), -
10.3.1 -
,
 1 0 . 367

11 12 ... 1k
21 22 ... 2 k
det =
... ... ... ...
k1 k 2 ... kk
( g 1 , g1 ) ( g 1 , g 2 ) ... ( g 1 , g k )
( g 2 , g 1 ) ( g 2 , g 2 ) ... ( g 2 , g k )
= det >0;
... ... ... ...
( g k , g 1 ) ( g k , g 2 ) ... ( g k , g k )
k = [1, n].

x x -
10.3.2. n
E {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }

1
x g
= g
b g
,

( x , g1 )
( x, g2 )
, b = .
g g ...
( x, gn )
.
n
x = i g i g k ,
i =1
k = [1, n] .
n

(g , g
i =1
i i k ) = ( x, g k ) , k = [1, n] ,
368
. -
10.3.1 ,
1
x g
= g
b g.

{e1 , e2 ,..., en } -
10.3.2. n
E
n
x = i ei E n
i =1

i = ( x, ei ) , i = [1, n] .

: i = ( x, ei ) , i = [1, n] -
, -
x -
. -
-
-
-
(. 12.3).

10.4.

5.1.4 Q , -
T 1
Q = Q , ,

T T
Q Q = Q Q = E det Q = 1 .
, -
.
 1 0 . 369
n
( ) E
10.4.1. -
.
.

{e1 , e2 ,..., en } {e1 , e2 ,..., en } E S
n

.
T
, e
= S e
S

T T
= S S , E = S S .
S , -
1 T
S = S .

T
E = S S
n
kl = Tki il ; k , l = [1, n] , n = 3
i =1
2.9.

, -
10.4.2. n
E ,
.
.

A g
f g = f g ,
T
f T
g A g
= f T
g.
370
,
T
f T
g A g
A g
f g = 2 f T
g f g .
T
A A A = E ,
g g g

f T
g f g = 2 f T
g f g , , , 2 = 1 , -
f .

-
, , ,

A ,
10.4.3.
A = Q R , Q -
, R -
,
.
.

, 14
A = Q1 R1 = Q2 R2 .
A R1

R2 , Q1 Q2 , ,
.

14

. -
.
 1 0 . 371

T 1
Q2 Q1 = R2 R1 ,
1
R1 .
1
, R2 R1 . -
, ,
. ,
1
R2 R1 ,
( -
T 1
Q2 Q1 ) -
.
,
, -
. R1 R2
,
1
R2 R1 = E , -
.

, 10.4.3 -
A x = b -
A
R Q ,

T
R x = Q b .
372
10.5.

E E1 .
E 2 E x , E1 .

E -
10.5.1.
x , , ( x , y ) = 0 y E 1 E -
E1 .

k - -
10.5.1.
E1 E -
n

n k .
.

E1 E n
E 2 -
E1 .
E1 {g1 , g 2 ,..., g k } . -
x E 2 -
E1 , (. 7.4.1),

( x , gi ) = 0 ; i = [1, n]
:

111 + 21 2 + ... + n1 n = 0,
+ + ... + = 0,
12 1 22 2 n2 n

..........................................
1k 1 + 2 k 2 + ... + nk n = 0,
 1 0 . 373
1i 1
2i 2
g i e = ; i = [1, k ] x e= .
... ...
ni n
(
x ), -
E 2 , k
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g k } .
6.7.1 n k , -
E 2 .
.

.
E 2 -
10.5.2.
E1 E , E1 -
E 2 .
.
x E 2 -
( y , x ) = 0 ; y E1 . ,
y E1 ( x, y ) = 0 ; x E 2 , E1
E 2 E .
.

E y
10.5.2. x -
E ,

1. y E ;
2. ( x y, z ) = 0 z E .
374

E E k - -
10.5.3. , y x E
E .
.

E {g1 , g 2 ,..., g k } ,
k
y E y = i g i .
i =1

( x y, z ) = 0 z E -
x y
E , ( x y, g j ) = 0 j = [1, k ] , , ,
i , i = [1, k ]

k
( x i g i , g j ) = 0 j = [1, k ]
i =1

k

(g , g i j ) i = ( x, g j ) j = [1, k ] .
i =1
(
g1 , g 2 ,..., g k , .
10.3.1) , 6.4.1 (-
) .

, {e1 , e2 ,..., ek } E
, x E
k
y = ( x, ei )ei .
i =1
 1 0 . 375
4
E -
10.5.1. -

1 + 2 3 4 = 0,

21 + 2 =0

E . -
-
E 4 E .
.

1. E
g1 g 2 , -
{e1 , e2 , e3 , e4 } -
, E,
,
1 1
2 2
g = ; g = .
1 e 1 2 e 0
0 1

2. dim E = 2, -

E 10.5.1 2.
g 3
g 4 , ,
1 2
1 1
g3 = ; g4 = ,
e 1 e 0
1 0
376


E , -
-
.

3. g1 , g 2 , g 3 g 4 -
4 4
E , E

{g1 , g 2 , g 3 , g 4 } .

A$ -
E 4 E , ,
A g 1 = g1 ; A g 2 = g 2 ; A g 3 = o; A g 4 = o,
{g1 , g 2 , g 3 , g 4 }
:

1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
A = .
g 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0

4. , {e1 , e2 , e3 , e4 }
{g1 , g 2 , g 3 , g 4 }

1 1 1 2
2 2 1 1
S = ,
1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0
 1 0 . 377
1
A g
= S A e
S , ,
1
A e
= S A g
S , , 5.1
6.8, ,

A =
e
1
1 1 1 2 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 2
2 2 1 1 0 1 0 0 2 2 1 1
= =
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
2 4 1 1
1 4 8 2 2
= .
11 1 2 6 5
1 2 5 6

: -
, -
. , E
[, ] -

( x, y ) = x() y ()d ,


E
n
Pn () = k k , n , -
k =0

x() E E
[, ]
x() .
12.3.
378
10.6.

-
, 8
,
.
-
, .
+
$ ,
A
10.6.1. E , -
A$ , x , y E -
$ , y ) = ( x , A$ + y ) .
( Ax

,
10.6.1. , -
, -
+
( x, y ) = x() y()d

d
A = () -
d
+ d
A = .
d
, -

+
dx()
( A x, y ) = y ( ) d =

d
+ +
dy ()
= x ( ) y ( ) x ( ) d =

d
 1 0 . 379
+
dy ()
= x()( )d = ( x, A + y ) .

d

n
E
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } -

A$ A$ + , ,
. A $ A$ + -
A $ A $ + ,
g g

x y {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }
1 1

x g
= 2 y g= 2 ,
... ...
n n

$ , y ) = ( x , A$ + y )
( Ax

)T = x A +
T
( A x g g
y g g g
y g
, (10.6.1)
g g

g
E n .

( A B )T = B
T T
A -

T
A + ) y = 0,
T
x g
( A g g g
g g
x y, ,
,
5.1.2, -
, , , ,

380
T 1 T
A g
g
A + = O A + = g
A g
,
g g g g

, , {e1 , e2 ,..., en }
T
A + = A e .
e

( x, A y ) = 0 x, y E , A .
10.6.1.
.

x , y E ( x , A$ y ) = 0 .
x = A $ y .
( A$ y , A$ y ) = 0 10.1.1 ,
A y = o. , y -
8.2.2 , A $ = O$ .

-
10.6.1. n
E .
.

E n A$ + ,
A$ ,
1 T
A A$ .
g g
g

A$ + . , A$
A $ + A$ . ,
x , y E
 1 0 . 381
$ , y ) = ( x , A$ + y ) ( Ax
( Ax $ , y ) = ( x , A$ y ) .
, ( x , ( A $ + A$ ) y ) = 0 , -
10.6.1 A $ + A$ = O$ .

A$ B$ , -
10.6.2. E ,
$ $ ) + = B$ + A$ + .
( AB
.

x , y E
$ $ ) + x , y ) = ( x , ABy
(( AB $ $ ) = ( A$ + x , By
$ ) = ( B$ + A$ + x , y ) .

, ((( A B ) + B + A + ) x, y ) = 0 x , y E
$ $ ) + B$ + A$ + = O$ .
10.6.1 ( AB

( A$ + ) + = A$ .
10.6.3.
.

x , y E

(( A$ + ) + x , y ) = ( x , A$ + y ) = ( Ax
$ , y) .

, (( A$ ( A$ + ) + ) x , y ) = 0 x , y E -
$ ( A$ + ) + = O$ .
10.6.1 A

.
382
-
10.6.4.
A$ E n A$ + .
.

1. , A$ + , -
$ + ,
ker A
A $.
, y ker A $ + , ,
+
A$ y = o , b = Ax
$ , x E n , -

$ , y ) = ( x , A$ + y ) = 0 .
(b, y ) = ( Ax
+
$ . ,
2. ker A

8.4.3

dim( ker A + ) = n rg A + =
1 T T
= n rg ( A ) = n rg A = n rg A .

, , 8.4.1
A$ rg A$ , dim( ) = n rg A
10.5.1.
, dim(ker A + ) = dim( )
+ +
ker A ker A .

.
 1 0 . 383
: 1) 10.6.4 -
, -
6.7.3 (), -
$ = b , b -
Ax
$.
A
2) , y b
m
E -
,
:

A x = b -
10.6.5
(- ,
T
). A y = o
b .

10.7.

R$ ,
10.7.1. E , ,
x , y E
( R x, y ) = ( x, R y ) .

A$ + A$ + ,
10.7.1. $ $ + A$ + A$ -
AA
A $.

, A$ + A$ , , ,
x , y E .
384

( A$ + Ax
$ , y ) = ( Ax $ ) = ( x , A$ + Ay
$ , Ay $ ),
.

-
.

R$ E -
n

10.7.1. ,
.
.
1 T
10.7.1 R + = g
R g
g
g

{e1 , e2 ,..., en }
T
R R$ = R$ .
e e

{e1 , e2 ,..., en } . S ,
1
= S
T
10.4, , S .
T 1
=( S S )T = ( S S )T =
T
R e
R e
R e
T T
= S ) = S S =
T T T T
R e
( S R e
1
= S S = S S = R e .
T
R e
R e

T
: R e = R e , x, y E n
( R x, y ) = R x = ( R =
T
y e
x e )T y e
e e
T
= x R + = x = x R y = ( x, R y ).
T T T
e
y e e
R y e e
e e e

.
 1 0 . 385

n
E -
10.7.1 -
, .

-
10.7.2.
R$ E n .
.

: -
R$
= + i , 0 .
8.6.2 R$
. -
x y ,

R x = x y,

Ry = y + x.
: y ,
x ,

( R x, y ) = ( x, y ) ( y, y ),

( x, Ry ) = ( x, y ) + ( x, x).

R$ , ,
( x + y ) = 0 .
2 2

, 0 .

.
386
,
10.7.3. , -
.
.

R$ -
R f1 = 1 f1 R f 2 = 2 f 2 , f 1
f 2 A $ -
1 2
.
: f 2 , -
f 1 ,

( R f 1 , f 2 ) = ( 1 f 1 , f 2 ), ( R f 1 , f 2 ) = 1 ( f1 , f 2 ),

( f 1 , R f 2 ) = ( f 1 , 2 f 2 ) ( f 1 , R f 2 ) = 2 ( f1 , f 2 ).

, R$ -
,
( 1 2 )( f1 , f 2 ) = 0 ,
( f1, f 2 ) = 0 .

E -
R$ , E , E
10.7.4.

E E . E
R$ .
.

E R$ ,
x E : Rx$ E . E
E , x E x E : ( x , x ) = 0 .
 1 0 . 387
E R$ ,
( Rx $ , x ) = 0 . -
$ ) = 0 . ,
R$ ( x , Rx
R x E x E ,
E -
R$ .

R$ E
n

10.7.1. ,
R$ .
.

R$ E n ,
, 1 . 10.7.2
.
(8.5.1) 1 e1 .

, e1 = 1 .
n = 1 , .
1
E e1 , -

R$ . E n 1 E 1 .
n 1
10.7.4 E
R .$
R$
E n 1 . , R$ ,
388

E n 1 , E n 1
R$ 10.7.4 , ,
x , y E n : ( Rx
$ , y ) = ( x , Ry
$ ),

x , y E n 1 .
, -
2 -
e2 . ,
e2 = 1 . 2 1 ,
, ( e1 , e2 ) = 0 .
n = 2 , . -
2
E { e1 , e2 }
E n 2 , 3
e3 ..

En .
.

, 10.7.1, -
10.7.2. R$
En .
.

8.5.

-
10.7.3. ,
, -
.
 1 0 . 389
.

10.7.1.

R$ E n
n

10.7.4. , -
.
.

R$
, -
R$ e
, , -

. 10.7.1 R$ -
.

R , -
10.7.5.
Q , -

1 T
D = Q R Q = Q R Q
.
.

R
E n , -
Q -
-
,
,
10.7.1.

.
390

A$ B$ -
10.7.2. n
E
B = B A .
, A
.

.
A a = a B a = a ,
B A a = B a = a ; A B a = A a = a ,
B B A ) a = o . -
, , , ( A
a , -
, -
, E n , -
. AB $ $ BA
$ $ = O$ .
.
A$ B$
, ,A a = a . , -
A$ .

, b = Ba
$
A$ . ,
$ $ = BA
AB $ $

A b = A B a = B A a = B a = B a = b .
A $ ,
, a b -
. $ , B a = a .
b = a , b = Ba
, a B$ .

.
 1 0 . 391
10.8.

Q$ ,
10.8.1.
E , (
), x , y E -
(Qx $ ) = ( x, y) .
$ , Qy

10.8.1 , -
.
,

Q x = (Q x, Q x) = ( x, x) = x ;

(Q x, Q y ) ( x, y )
cos = = = cos ; x, y E ,
Q x Q y x y

x y ,
$ Qy
Qx $ .

Q $
10.8.1. , ,
Q$ 1 = Q$ + .
.

10.8.1 x , y E (Qx $ ) = ( x , y ) ,
$ , Qy
,

( x , Q$ + Qy
$ ) = ( x , y ) ( x ,( Q$ + Q$ E$ ) y ) = 0 .
10.6.1 ,
Q$ + Q$ E$ = O$ .
392

Q$ + Q$ E$ = O$ , Q$ + Q$ = E$ .
Q + Q Q + = E Q + , , -
, Q + Q Q + = Q + E
$ $ + = E$ . , 8.2.8
QQ
Q$ 1 = Q$ + .

Q + Q 1 .
10.8.1.

n
E -
10.8.2. .
.

Q$ .
Q$ 1 = Q$ + 10.8.1 8.3 (4) -

1 T
Q$ e
= Q$ 1 e = Q$ + e
= Q$ e .
1 T
Q$ e
= Q$ e
, , -

5.1.4, Q$ e .
.

E n
n
E -
10.8.3. , , -
-
.
 1 0 . 393
.

1. Q$ -
1 T
Q = Q . x, y E n
e e

T
(Q x, Q y ) = Q x Q y = ( Q x e ) T Q y e
=
e e e e
T T T 1 T
= x e
Q Q y e
= x e
Q Q y e
= x e
y e
= ( x, y ).
e e e e

{e1 , e2 ,..., en } .
2. {e1 , e2 ,..., en } -
, -
. ,
S ,
,
1 1 1 1 1 T
Q =( S Q S ) 1 = S Q S = S Q S =
e e e e
T T T T T T T
= S Q S = S Q ( S ) =( S Q S )T =
e e e
1 T
=( S Q S ) T = Q .
e e

A$ E n det A 0
10.8.4
(
). A$ = QR
$ $ , Q$ ,
R$ -
.
394
.
1. ,
$+
A A$ (. 10.7.1) -
. , A + A f = f , ,
+ A f , f ) = ( A f , A f ) > 0 f o ,
, ( A
( A + A f , f ) = ( f , f ) = ( f , f ) ,
( A f , A f ) = ( f , f ) . > 0
, A f =o
f o ,

A f = 0 f det A = 0 .

2. {e1 , e2 ,..., en } ,
A $ + A$ . -
Ae $ ; i = [1, n] ,
i

( A ei , A e j ) = ( A + A ei , e j ) = i (ei , e j ) = i ij ;i, j = [1, n] .

1
, ei = Aei ; i = [1, n] -
i
.

3. Q$ , -
{e1 , e2 ,..., en } -
{e1 , e2 ,..., en } , , -
R$ Q $ 1 A$ .
, -, A$ = QR
$ $.
-,
R ei = Q 1 A ei = Q 1 i ei = i ei ;i = [1, n]
 1 0 . 395
, ei , i = [1, n] -
R$ , -
i , , R$ e
{e1 , e2 ,..., en } .
10.7.1 R$ .
4. , , .
A$ + A$ = R$ 2 ,
$ $ A$ + = R$ + Q$ + ,
A$ = QR

A$ + A$ = R$ + Q$ + QR
$ $ = R$ + Q$ 1QR
$ $ = R$ + R$ ,
R$ A $ + A$ = R$ 2 .
, -
R$1 R$ 2 -
, , A $ + A$ = R$ 2 ; A$ + A$ = R$ 2 R$ 2 R$ 2 = O$ .
1 2 1 2

, R$1 R$ 2 (. 2)
, .
, 8.2,
R12 R 22 = R12 R1 R 2 + R 2 R1 R 22 =
= ( R1 R 2 )( R1 + R 2 ) = O .
R$1 R$ 2
8.6.8 R$1 + R$ 2
( R$ R$ )( R$ + R$ ) = O
1 2 1 2
$ R$ R$ = O$ .
1 2

, R$ , -
A $ . Q = A R 1 , , -
$.
A
.
396
. 1. -
5.5.2
-
, -
,
, -
.

2. A $ ,
10.8.2, -
-
R$ , -
.

E 2
10.8.1.
2 1
A$ A e0 = .
0 2
.

1. ,
A$ + A$ -
10.8.2.
0 0
() {e1 , e2 }

T
A + A = A + A e0
= A e0
A e0
=
e0 e0

2 0 2 1 2 2
= = .
1 2 0 2 2 3
 1 0 . 397

2 1
1 = 1 ; 2 = 4 ; f1 e0
= ; f2 e0
= ,
1 2

( , -
10.8.2)
{e10 , e20 } , -
{e1 , e2 } :

2 1

f1 3 f2 3
e1 = = ; e2 = = ,
f1 1 f2
2
3 3

{e1 , e2 } :
1
1 3 1
e1 = A e1 = ; e2 = A e2 =
1 2 2
3
1 2

1 2 1 3 3
= = .
2 0 2 1
2
3 3
398
2.
2 1 1 2

3 3 3 3
G = F =
1 2 2 1
3 3 3 3
()
{e1 , e2 } {e1 , e2 } {e1 , e2 }
0 0

, 7.5.2, -
Q$
1
Q e0
= F G .

,
Q
{e1 , e2 } {e1 , e2 }
(
)
G 1 F
{e1 , e2 } {e10 , e20 } {e10 , e20 } {e1 , e2 } .

, Q e0
= F e0
G 1 .
e0

, (8.3.1) (7.4.2),
1 1
G 1 = G e0
, Q e0
= F G .
e0

, G ( -
, ),

1 T
Q = F G = F G =
e0
 1 0 . 399

1 2 2 1 2 2 1

3 3 3 3 3 3
= = ,
2 1 1 2 1 2 2

3 3 3 3 3 3
.

3. R$ = Q$ 1 A$ ,
1 T
R e0
= Q 1 A = Q A = Q A =
e0 e0 e0 e0 e0 e0

2 2 1 4 2

3 3 2 1 3 3
= = ,
1 2 2 0 2 2 5

3 3 3 3
, ,
2 2 1 4 2

3 3 3 3
A e0
= Q e0
R = .
e0
1 2 2 2 5

3 3 3 3
400

11

11.1.

U
11.1.1. a b -
15 ab ,
, ,
:
1. ab = ba ;
2. a b = a b ;

3. a1 + a 2 b = a1 b + a 2 b ;
4. a a -
,
a a =0 a =o,
, .

-
, -
, .

: 1 ,
-
-
.

15
-
3.
 1 1 . 401
, , a b = b a ,
a b = a b , , -
a = i :

ia ia = (i)(i) a a = (i ) 2 a a = i 2 a a = a a ,
ia ia , a a
4 .

a b = b a -
-
:

a b = b a = b a = b a = a b ,
=
= , -

ia ia = ii a a = a a ,
4.

1. n-
11.1.1.
1 1
2
a= 2 ; b= , i , i ; i = [1, n]
... ...
n n

, ,
n
a b = i i ,
i =1
.
402
2.
[, ] -


a b = a ()b()d .

, , -
, . -
,
aa bb ab ba .
,
2
aa bb ab = ab ab = ab ba a, b U .
Un
{g1, g 2 ,..., g n }
.

:
1
2
a b = 1 2 K n g
=
K
n

g1 g1 g1 g 2 K g1 g n 1
g 2 g1 g2 g2 g2 gn 2
= 1 2 K n
K
,
K K K K K
g n g1 gn g2 K gn gn n
 1 1 . 403
g
U n.

, g i g j = g j g i , -
=
T
g g
.

A ,
11.1.2.
A = A , .
T

A ,
T
A = E
T
A A A = E , -
.

,
. ,

A ) = det A det A = det A det A =

T T
det ( A
2
= det A = det E = 1 .

11.2.

, -
10.
-
, -
.
404

A $ ,
11.2.1. U , ( -
), a , b U -

A a A b = a b .

: , -
n
U , -
.

+
$ ,
A
11.2.2. U ,
A$ , a , b U -

A a b = a A + b .

A $ B$ ,
11.2.1. U , -
: $ $ ) + = B$ + A$ + (A ) + = A + .
( AB
.

.
( A B )a b = B a A + b = a B + A + b a, b U .
11.2.2,
$ $ ) + = B$ + A$ + .
( AB

(A )a b = A a b = a A + b = a A + b a, b U
.
.
 1 1 . 405
, -
U n ,

A$ + , -
11.2.2. $ n
A U , {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }

1 T
A + = A ,
g g

(10.6.1) -
.

11.3.

A $ ,
11.3.1. , -
( ), A$ = A$ + .
: ,
n
U , ,
-
E n . :
1.
.
2. , -
-
, .
3.
,
.
406
4. -
n
U
.

A $
11.3.2. , -
-
.

A$ B$ -
11.3.1. , -
B
A = B A , -
.
.

. A a = a B a = a ,
B A a = B a = a,
A B a = A a = a,
, , , ( AB $ $ BA
$ $ ) a = o . -
a , -
,
, ,
.
$ $ BA
AB $ $ = O$ .
. A$ B$
, , A a = a . -
, -
, .
 1 1 . 407
,
b = Ba
$ A$ . -
$ $ = BA
, AB $$
A b = A B a = B A a = B a = B a = b .
A $ ,
, a b -
. b = a b = Ba $ B a = a . a
B$ .

A $
11.3.2
( -
). B C ,
A$ .
.

f -

A$ , -

. , dim = 1 .
A $ B$ ( 11.3.1)
, B f = f , A $ C$ ,
C f = f . A
f = f -

A B f = B A f = f , C B A f = f ,
A C f = C A f = f , B C A f = f ,
C B ( f ) = ( f ) B C ( f ) = ( f ).
408
, ,

( B C C B )( f ) = o f ,
$ $ CB
BC $ $ = O$ B$ C$ .
, , -
,
.
.

11.3.1

-
: :
( a , b ) = ( a , b ) a b = a b

A$ : A$ :
( A a, A b) = (a, b) a, b E A a A b = a b a, b U

: :
T T
A A = E A A = E

n
E U n

 1 1 . 409

A$ + :
A$ + :
( A a, b) = (a, A + b) a, b E A a b = a A + b a , b U .

n n
E U

1 T 1 T
A + = A A + = A
g g g g

: (-
) :
( A a, b) = (a, A b) a, b E A a b = a A b a, b U

: :
T T
A = A A = A

n
E U n -

- -
n n
E U -
-

11.3.1 -
,
.
410
11.4. .

,
. ,
[, ]
( ) () () -

B((), ()) = () K (, ) () dd .

( x) = x A x ,
11.4.1.
x U , A$ , -
( -
) U .

A a = a A a
11.4.2.
A $ a -
.

. 1. a ( a = a a = 1)
A$ -
, A a = ,

A a = a A a = a a = a a = .

2. ,
, .
A$ + = A$ ,
 1 1 . 411

A a a = a A + a = a A a = A a a ,

, .

3. ,
= E , E$ ,
A $ A$ = 0 . -
aa
,
A A a a = a ( A A a )a = a A a a A a a =
= ( A a A a ) a a = 0 .

A$ = ( A$ A$ a ) 2
11.4.3. a a

A -
a.

A$ A$ , -
11.4.1. a
, -
, -
A = ( A ) 2 a ( A a ) 2 .
== a

, A$ -
a
A a , , ,
. A

A $ ( )
A a ( ).
412

A = a ( A A a ) 2 a = a ( A A a )( A A a )a =
a

= ( A A a ) + a ( A A a )a =

= ( A A a )a ( A A a )a 0.

, 11.4.2,

A = ( A A a ) 2 = a ( A A a ) 2 a =
a a

= a (( A ) 2 2 A A a + ( A a ) 2 )a =

= a ( A ) 2 a 2 A a a A a + ( A a ) 2 a a =

= ( A ) 2 2 A a A a + ( A a ) 2 = ( A ) 2 ( A a ) 2 .
a a

A $ , -
11.4.2. , , -
, .
.

A a = a ,
2
A = ( A ) 2 a ( A a ) 2 = a ( A ) 2 a a A a =
== a
2
= a A ( A a) a A a =

= a A (a) a a = a A a a a =
2 2
 1 1 . 413

= a a 2 a a = 2 a a 2 a a =
2 2

= 2 2 = 0 ,
a a = 1.

11.5.
, -
,

A$ B$ , -
11.5.1 , -
(c
- 2
1
). A B A B B A a .
a a 4
.

1. Q = ( A A a ) + ( B B a ) i (
),

Q + = ( A A a ) ( B B a ) i ,
:
A$ , A$ , B$ , B$ . , Q + Q -
a a

a Q + Q a = Q a Q a 0 Q . (. -
10.8.2, 1.)
414

2. Q$ + Q$ A$ , A$ , B$ , B$ ,
a a

Q + Q = (( A A a ) ( B B a )i)(( A A a ) +
+ ( B B a )i) =
= ( A A a ) 2 + 2 ( B B a ) 2 +
+ (( A A a )( B B a ) ( B B a )( A A a ))i =
= ( A A a ) 2 + 2 ( B B a ) 2 + ( A B B A )i.

3. C = ( A B B A ) i , , -
C
.
Q + Q :

Q + Q a = A + 2 B + a ( A B B A )ia =
a a

= B C a + A .
2
a a

Q$ + Q$
a
, -
. , -
,

( C$ a ) 2 4 A$ B$ 0 ,
a a

1 2
A$ B$ $ $ BA
AB $$ .
a a 4 a

.
 1 2 . 415

12


, -
, ,
, , -
, ..,
-
.

12.1.

,
, -
, , -
.

-
,

{e1 , e2 ,..., en } -
E n
(x).
n
E
{e1 , e2 ,..., en } , (x)
.
416
-
9.2.1. ,
, -
n
E ,
(x ) -
.
(. 9.2), -
n
n n
( x) = ki k i = x
T
g g
x g
,
k =1 i =1

g
-

{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }

T
g
= S g
S .

9.2.1
(-
), -
.
, -

,
12.1.1. , -
, -
16.

16
, -
, -

.
 1 2 . 417
.

1. 9.2, -
( x )

= S
T
e
e
S ,
S = ij {e1 , e2 ,..., en }
{e1 , e2 ,..., en } ,
n
ek = sk e s , k = [1, n] ,
s =1

e
-
, ( x) .
2. S -
( 10.4),
1 T
S = S . ,

1
e
= S e
S .

3. e
-
{e1 , e2 ,..., en }
( 10.7.1) ,
{e1 , e2 ,..., en } ( 8.3.2)
1
e
= S e
S .
4. -
-
-
{e1 , e2 ,..., en } -
.
418
(. 10.7.1)
( , -
(x ) ) ,
-
.
.

, 12.1.1 -
10.7.4.

12.1.1.
( x) E n .

( x ) = ( x,
x) ; x E n .

( x, A x)
( x ) = n
, E
12.1.2. ( x, x )
A $ , -
.

12.1.1, -
. -
(x ) .

(-
12.1.1. ) (x )
() -
$ , -
A
.
 1 2 . 419
.

, -
-
A$ ( 12.1.1),
n n

( x, A x)
ij i j i i
2

( x ) = = i =1
n
= i =1
n
,
( x, x )

i =1
2
i
i =1
i
2

, ,
9.5.1, , min ( x ) max .

12.1.1 -
.

-
12.1.1.
E 3
(x) = 21 2 + 21 3 2 2 3 .

1.
1 0 0
{e1 , e2 , e3 } e1 = 0 , e2 = 1 , e3 = 0 . -
0 0 1

(x) = 21 2 + 21 3 2 2 3

B( x , y ) ,
420
1
B ( x, y ) = ( ( x + y ) ( x) ( y )) (. 9.2).
2
( y ) = 21 2 + 213 2 2 3 ,

( x + y ) = 2(1 + 1 )( 2 + 2 ) +
+ 2(1 + 1 )( 3 + 3 ) 2( 2 + 2 )( 3 + 3 ),

B( x, y ) = 1 2 + 13 2 3 + 1 2 + 1 3 2 3 ,

1 1
x e
= 2 y e
= 2 .
3 3
, (x)
0 1 1
e
= 1 0 1 .
1 1 0

2. -
E
3

. -
8.5.2:
1 1
det 1 1 = 0 3 3 + 2 = 0 .
1 1
: 1 = 2, 2,3 = 1 , -
. ,
, -
, 10.7.1:
 1 2 . 421
( x) = 21 2 + 22 + 32
.

3. , S
,
.
-
(8.4.1) .
= 2
2 1 1 1 0
1 2 1 2 = 0 .
1 1 2 3 0
, 2, -
. , -
, 6.8 ( ),

21 + 2 = 3 ,

1 + 2 2 = 3 .
3 ,
1
f1 = 1 .
1
= 1 2, -
10.7.2 (
) . ,
-
:
422

1 1 1 1 0
1 1 1 2 = 0 ,
1 1 1 3 0

1 = 2 + 3 . -

1 1 1
2 = 1 + 0 , .
3 0 1

f1 ,

. , -
= 1 ,

1 +
. 1 ,
0
, 2 + = 0 . , , = 1
1 1
= 2 , f 2 = 1 f 3 = 1 .
0 2

4. { f1 , f 2 , f 3 } E 3 ,
. -
, -
{ f1 , f 2 , f 3 } .
 1 2 . 423
1 1 1

3 2 6
1 1 1
e1 = , e2 = e3 = .
3 2 6
1 2

3 0 6

1 1 1

3 2 6
1 1 1
S =
3 2 6
1 2
0
3 6
( {e1 , e2 , e3 }
{e1 , e2 , e3 } ), -
{e1 , e2 , e3 } {e1 , e2 , e3 } ,
,
1 T
S = S ,
,
.
1 1
( 7.4), 2 = S 2
3 3
1 1
1
2 = S 2 ,
3 3
424
1 1 1

1 3 3 3 1
1 1
2 = 0 2 .
2 2
3 1 1 2 3

6 6 6

,
,

{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } -
( x ) ( x ) , -
n

(, ).
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } ,
( x ) , ( x) -
.
, -
,

.17 ,

( x) = A12 + 2 B1 2 + C 22

2

, -
.

17
, -
(
), -
.
 1 2 . 425
(. 4.4.1),
( A C ) sin 2 = 2 B cos 2 .

1 ( x) = 12 22 2 ( x) = 1 2
,
2 sin 2 = 0,

0 = cos 2,
, .

n

( x ) ( x ) , -
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } , ,
.

1. ( x) -
,
n

{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } , ,
(. 9.2.1). -
- , -
,
.
( x ) .

2. n
n
( x, y ) = k k ,
k =1
-
n . ,
426
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } = {e1 , e2 ,..., en } ,
( x ) , -
.

3. ,
{e1, e2 ,..., en} ,
S , ( x)
, 12.1.1.
( x ) -
, e
= E -
S ,
T T
e
= S e
S = S E S =
T 1
= S S = S S = E .

, ,
(x ) ,
(x) .

, -
,

, S .

,
12.1.2.
(x) = 12 + 21 2 + 3 22
(x) = 412 + 161 2 + 6 22
.
 1 2 . 427
.

1. (x ) (x ) -
. ( 9.3.2)

1 1 4 8
det = 2 > 0 ; det = 40 < 0
1 3 8 6
, (x ) -
, (x ) -
.

2. -
(x ) . -

(x) = 12 + 21 2 + 3 22 = (1 + 2 ) 2 + 2 22 ,

1 = 1 + 2
,
2 = 22

1
= 1 2
1 2 ,
1
2 = 2
2
( x) = 1 2 + 22
( x) = 41 2 + 4 21 2 322 .

-
2
3.
, {1 ; 2 }
2 {e1 , e2 } ,
428

1 0
e1 e
= ; e2 e
= .
0 1
(x)
4 2 2
e
= . -
2 2 3
, 1 = 5
2 = 4 ,
2 2 1

3 3
f1 e
= f2 e
= ,
1 2 2
3 3
{e1, e 2 } .

4. {e1 , e2 }
{e1, e 2 } ,

(x) = 1 2 + 2 2 (x) = 51 2 42 2 ,

2 2 1

3 3
S = .
1 2 2
3 3
,
 1 2 . 429
2 2 1 2 2
1 = 1 + 2 1 = 1 + 2 2 ,
3 3 3

= 1 + 2 2 2 = 1 1 + 2 .

2
3
1
3
2 3

, , -
,
( ), -
.
, -
(x) S -
T
, S
S = E . -
(x )

= S
T
S .

12.1.1 -
( x ) -
, -
. , -

S .

T
S S = E

) 1 . , -
T
, S =( S
, -
, -
,
430

= S ) 1 ) T
T T
S =(( S S =

= ( ( ) 1 ( S
T 1 T
) ) S =
1 T 1 1 1
= S ( ) S = S ( ) S .

, -
-
1
S .

,
1
, .
-
8.5
1
( ) f = f ,

( ) f = o .
f :
det

=0
g

, -
-
( x ) .

12.1.2.
1 1 4 8
= = , -
1 3 8 6

( x)
 1 2 . 431
4 8 1 1 4 8
det ( ) = 0 det = 0.
8 3 1 3 8 3 3
1 = 5 2 = 4 ,
( x ) ( x ) = 51 42 ,
2 2

, ( x ) = 1 + 2 .
2 2

12.2.

E 3 {e1 , e2 , e3 } ,
1 0 0
e1 = 0 , e2 = 1 , e3 = 0 ,
0 0 1

1112 + 212 1 2 + 22 22 + 213 1 3 + 33 32 +

+ 2 23 2 3 + 214 1 + 2 24 2 + 2 34 3 + 44 = 0
3 k
(
k =1 i =1
ik > 0 ).

3
E .
, 12.1.

1 1 2 + 2 22 + 3 32 + 2 14
1 + 2 24 2 + 2 34 3 + 44 = 0,
1 + 2 + 3 > 0 ,
.
432
I. : 1 2 3 0 ,
8.6.8 ,
11 12 13
det 21 22 23 0 .
31 32 33

, -
,

1 1 2 + 2 2 2 + 3 3 2 + 44
= 0,
:

44
0
1)
sgn( i ) = sgn( 44
) , i = 1, 2, 3 ;
2)
sgn( i ) = sgn( 44
) , i = 1, 2, 3 ;
3)
sgn( 1 ) = sgn( 2 ) =
= sgn( 3 ) = sgn( 44
);
4)
sgn( 1 ) = sgn( 2 ) =
= sgn( 3 ) = sgn( 44
);
44
=0
5)
sgn( 1 ) = sgn( 2 ) = sgn( 3 ) ;

6)
sgn( 1 ) = sgn( 2 ) = sgn( 3 ) .
 1 2 . 433
II. : 1 0, 2 0, 3 = 0 .

11 2 + 2 2 2 + 2 34 3 + 44
= 0 ,
:

34 0 ,
11 2 + 2 2 2 + 2 34
3 = 0 ,
:

7)
sgn( 1 ) = sgn( 2 ) ;

8)
sgn( 1 ) = sgn( 2 ) ;

34 = 0, 44
0 , :
9)
sgn( i ) = sgn( 44
), i = 1, 2 ;
10)
sgn( i ) = sgn( 44
) , i = 1, 2 ;
11)
sgn( 1 ) = sgn( 2 ) ;

34 = 0, 44
= 0 , :
12)
sgn( i ) = sgn( 2 ) ;

13)
sgn( i ) = sgn( 2 ) .
434
III. : 1 0 2 = 3 = 0 .

11 2 + 2 24
2 + 2 34 3 + 44
= 0,
-

24
2 + 34 3 34 2 24
3
1 = 1 ; 2 = ; 3 =
+
2
24
2
34 24
2 + 34 2

(, , O 2 3 ).

11 2 + 2( 24
2 + 34
2 )2 + 44
=0
:

0 34 0 , -
24
:
14) ;

24
= 34 = 0 , :
15)
sgn( 1) = sgn( 44
);
16)
sgn( 1) = sgn( 44
);

24
= 34 = 44
= 0 , :
17) .
 1 2 . 435
. 1.
-
-
.

2.
,
.

12.3.
( ) -
[ a, b] f ( ) -

g 0 (), g1 (), g 2 (), ..., g n (), ... ,
( -
f ( ) )
[a, b] , .

,
,
.

[1,1] f () ,
{g k () = k , k = [0, n]} .
,
n
n , Pn () = k k , -
k =0
f ( ) .
, [1,1]
,
436

g k () , -
{g k () = k , k = [0, n] } (n + 1) -
,

{ g k = g k (), k = [0, n] }.
-

1
( x , y ) = x ( ) y ( ) d
1
E .
x ( ) y ( )
1
= x y = ( x y, x y ) = ( x() y ())
2
d
1
( x () y () E ), -

x ( ) = y ( ) [1,1] .

E ,
f () f E . -
n
f
k =0
k g k E
n n
2 = ( f k g k , f k g k ) .
k =0 k =0

k , k = [0, n] , -
.
2

 1 2 . 437
n n
2 = ( f k gk , f k gk ) =
k =0 k =0
n n n
= ( f , f ) 2 k ( f , g k ) + k i ( g k , g i ),
k =0 k =0 i =0

2 k
k = [0, n] ,
n


i =0
i ( g k , g i ) = ( f , g k ), k = [0, n] , (12.3.1)

k , k = [0, n] ,
. ,
2

, -
, .
-
10.3.2, , -
k ; k = [0, n]
f {g k = g k (), k = [0, n] } ,
f .

2 :
n n n
2 = ( f , f ) k ( f , g k ) + k (( f , g k ) + i ( g k , g i )) =
k =0 k =0 i=0

n n
= ( f , f ) k ( f , g k ) = ( f , f k g k ).
k =0 k =0

,
n
f = k g k ,
k =0
438

, f .
-
2
n
2 = ( f , f k g k ) k , k = [0, n] , -
k =0
12.3.1. ,


.
,

{ g k = g k () = k , k = [0, n] }
,
10.2.1, -

1
e0 () = 1 ; e1 () = ; e2 () = 2 ;
3
n
3 d
e3 () = 3 ; ... ; en () = n ( 2 1) n ,
5 d
.

{ g k = k , k = [0, n] } , ,
(, , -
)

dk 2
{ ek () = ( 1) k , k = [0, n] }.
d k

, -
, 12.3.1
 1 2 . 439
n

(e , e ) = ( f , e ) , k = [0, n]
i =0
i k i k

( f , ek )
: k = ; k = [0, n] , -
(ek , ek )
2 :
n
( f , ek ) 2
n
= ( f , f e ) = ( f , f )
2
.
k = 0 (ek , ek )
k k
k =0

, , {ek , k = [0, n] } ,
(ek , ei ) = ki ; k , i = [0, n] ,
n
k = ( f , ek ) ; k = [0, n] 2 = f k2 .
2

k =0

, k , k = [0, n] -
:
1)
f ;
2) , -
,
{ek , k = [0, n] }
(. 10.3.2).
, , -
, .
-
-
.
440
-
10.7.3,
, -
, , -
.
R
[1,1] ,
18 , -
, ,
. ,
1 1 1
d 2x dx dx dy
( Rx , y ) = 2 y ( ) d =
y ( ) + d d d.
1 d
d 1 1

, ,

1 1 1
d2y dy dx dy
( x, R y ) = x() d = x ( ) + d .
1 d 2
d 1 1
d d

R ,
1 1
dx dy
y () = x() . , ,
d 1 d 1
, ( , ) -
[1,1].

18
10.7.1 , A + A -
. A =
d
d
d ( ),
A + =
d
d2
R = A + A = 2 .
d
 1 2 . 441
R . -
R x = x

d 2x
= x, 0 ,
d 2
x() = e + e ,
, -
.

dx dx
x(1) = x(1) =
d 1 d 1
(. 3):

e e = 0 sin = 0 .

k = 2 k 2 k = 0,1, 2, ... ,

x k () = k cos k + k sin k .

k k , -
k .
,
,
[1,1] . -
( , ) -
, -
.
442
: -
: -
n ? , , -

n
k2 ) = 0 ?
2
lim ( f
n
k =0
. ,

, E

E , ( E ), -
f E , f E , ,
( f , g k ) = 0 k
( g k E , -
).
, , 19.

19

{g k , k = 0,1, 2, ...} , f E
,
.
 . 1 . 443

4.4 -
, -
.
.

1.1.

-
,
4.4.1. .

1.

x2 y2
2 2 = 0 -
a b

{O, e1 , e2 } .
y 2 = a 2 a 0 .

{O, e1 , e2 }
. 1.1.1.
3 x + 4 xy + y = 0. -
2 2

444

(2 x + y ) 2 x 2 = 0
( ),

y = x y = 3x .
(. . 1.1.1.)

= 1 < 0 ,
-

1
= arctg 2 .
2 . . 1.1.1

2.

y 2 = 0 y = 0 -

{O, e1 , e2 } . 1
b +0 .

3.

x2 y2
+ = 0 -
a2 b2

{O, e1 , e2 } .

4.

{O, e1 , e2 } , -

 . 1 . 445
x2 y2
2
+ 2 = 1 y 2 = a 2 .
a b
.

1.2.

, -
. 1.2.1.
x2 y2
+ =1; a b > 0,
a2 b2
.

a2 b2
= -
. 1.2.2. a
.

a
.
0
a
x = .

2
b
p =
a
.

1. : | x | a | y | b,

446
b
y= a2 x2 .
a
2. L
Ox Oy ,
.

x x x
L L L,
y y y
c
x
L,
y
.

. . 1.2.1

( P, Q) -
P Q , -
F1 A F2 A .
 . 1 . 447
x
A= , -
. 1.2.1. y
L , ,
:

1) r1 = | F1 A | = a x ; r2 = | F2 A | = a + x ;

2) | F1 A | + | F2 A | = 2a ;
( A, F1 ) ( A, F2 )
3) = =;
( A, D1 ) ( A, D2 )

( M , F1 )
4) = M L ;
( M , D1 )

5) | F2 B | = p , F2 B Ox ;

6) = .
.

1. (. . . 1.2.1)

r1 = ( x a) 2 + y 2 ; r2 = ( x + a) 2 + y 2 .
,
, i = 1, 2 :

b2 2
ri = ( x a) + y = ( x a) + 2 (a x 2 ) =
2 2 2
a
= ( x a) 2 + (1 2 )(a 2 x 2 ) =
448

= x 2 2 xa + a 2 2 + a 2 a 2 2 x 2 + x 2 2 =
= a 2 2 xa + x 2 2 = | a x | .
| x | a 0 < 1 , a x 0 , -
,

r1 = | F1 A | = a x ; r2 = | F2 A | = a + x.

2. 2 1.

3.

( A, F1 ) a x ( A, F2 ) a + x
= = ; = = .
( A, D1 ) a ( A, D2 ) a
x +x

4. 4 .

5. ,
b b b
| F2 B | = a 2 a 22 = a 1 2 = b = p .
a a a
6.
. 1.2.2.

x0
A= , -
. 1.2.2. y0
, ,
 . 1 . 449
,
A,
x0 x y0 y
+ 2 = 1.
a2 b
.

A
y y0 = y ( x0 )( x x0 ) .

2 x 2 yy
+ 2 = 0,
a2 b

b 2 x0
y ( x0 ) = .
a 2 y0
b 2 x0
y y0 = ( x x0 ) , , -
a 2 y0
x02 y 02
, + = 1 ,
a2 b2
x0 x y 0 y
+ 2 = 1.
a2 b
,
y 0 = 0 ,
x = a.

6 . 1.2.1.

A,
450

x0
. d 2
y0
c
F2 (.
0
3.2.1):
1 x 0 ( c ) y 0 ( 0) 1 x0 c
d2 = + 2 1 = +1 =
a 2
b a2
1 r x02 y 02
= x0 + a = 2 , = + .
a a a2 b2

d 1 F1 -
c
:
0
1 x0 c 1 r
d1 = 1 = x0 a = 1 .
a 2
a a
,
d 1 d 1
sin = 1 = sin = 2 =
r1 a r2 a
= .

6 . 1.2.1 .

. 1.2.1 . 1.2.2 -
.

: -
, -
2a .
 . 1 . 451
: (
) , -
()
() .
: -

. ( , ,
.)

-
, , .
A , (. . 1.2.1.),

= r2 = a + x = a + ( cos a) = a + cos a 2 .

(1 cos ) =
= a(1 2 )

p
= .
1 cos

(
4.6.) . . 1.2.2
452
1.3.

, -
. 1.3.1.
x2 y2
= 1 ; a > 0, b > 0,
a2 b2
.

a2 + b2
= -
. 1.3.2. a
.

a
.
0

a
x= -

.

b2
p=
a
.

1. ,
| x| a,
b
y= x2 a2 ;
a
 . 1 . 453
2. L
Ox Oy , -
.

x x x
L L L,
y y y
c
x
L,
y
.

(. . 1.3.1).

y = u x + v -
. 1.3.3.
y = f (x ) x ,
f ( x)
u = lim v = lim( f ( x ) u x ) .
x x x

b
3. y= x . -
a
b b
, u = lim x 2 a 2 = , ,
x ax a
b b b
v = lim ( x2 a2 m x ) = lim ( x 2 a 2 m x ) =
x a a a
x

b (x2 a 2 ) x2 1
= lim = ab lim = 0.
a x x 2 a 2 x x
x2 a2 m x
454
. . 1.3.1.

. . 1.3.1

x
A= , -
.1.3.1 y
.
L , ,
:
1.

r1 = | F1 A | = a + x ;

r2 = | F2 A |= a + x ( x > a) .


r1 = | F1 A | = a x ;

r2 = | F2 A | = a x ( x < a) ;

2. | r1 r2 | = 2a ;
 . 1 . 455
( A, F1 ) ( AF2 )
3. = =;
( A, D1 ) ( A, D2 )

( M , F1 )
4. = M , M L;
( M , D1 )

5. | F2 B |= p ;

6. = .
.

1. .
1.2.1, -

r1 = ( x a) 2 + y 2 ; r2 = ( x + a) 2 + y 2 ,
-
. i = 1, 2

b2 2
ri = ( x a) 2 + y 2 = ( x a) 2 + (a x 2 ) =
a2
= ( x a) 2 + (1 2 )(a 2 x 2 ) =
= x 2 2 xa + a 2 2 + a 2 a 2 2 x 2 + x 2 2 =
= a 2 2 xa + x 2 2 = | a x | .

| x | a > 1 , -


r1 = | F1 A | = a + x ; r2 = | F2 A | = a + x,
456


r1 = | F1 A | = a x ; r2 = | F2 A| = a x.
2 3.

4 .

5. ,
b b b
| F2 B | = a 22 a 2 = a 2 1 = b = p .
a a a
6.
6 . 1.2.1,
. 1.3.1.

-
a
y= -
x
:
1 1
x= x y ,
2 2
1 1
y = x + y .
2 2

. 1.3.1 . 1.2.2 -
.

: -
,
2a .
 . 1 . 457
: -
,
() (-
) .
:

. ( , -
, -
.)

x0
A= , -
. 1.3.2. y0
, ,
, -
,
x0 x y 0 y
2 =1.
a2 b

A
y y 0 = y ( x0 )( x x0 ) .

2 x 2 yy
2 = 0,
a2 b
b 2 x0 b 2 x0
y ( x 0 ) = . y y 0 = 2 ( x x0 ) ,
a 2 y0 a y0
, ,
458

x02 y 02
= 1 ,
a2 b2
x0 x y 0 y
2 =1.
a2 b
,
y 0 = 0 ,
x = a.

,
-
Ox (. .
1.3.2).

A ,
,

= r1 = a + x =
= a + ( cos + a) = . . 1.3.2

= a + cos + a 2 .

(1 cos ) = a( 2 1)
p
= .
1 cos

( 4.6.)
 . 1 . 459
1.4.

, -
. 1.4.1.
y 2 = 2 px ; p > 0 ,
.

p
2 .
. 1.4.2.
0
p
x= -
2
.
p -
.

. . 1.4.1, -
,

.

1. , x 0;
2. L
Ox ,
x x
L L,
y y
.
460

. . 1.4.1

3. -
,
.

x
A= , -
. 1.4.1. y
L , ,
:
p
1. r = x+ ;
2
( A, F )
2. = 1;
( A, D)
( M , F )
3. = 1 M , M L ;
( M , D)

4. | FB | = p ; 5. = .
 . 1 . 461
.

p 2
1. r = (x ) + y 2 ,
2
,
p2 p
r = x 2 px ++ 2 px = | x + | ,
4 2
p
x , -
2
1 2.

3 .

p
4. , | FB |= 2 p = p.
2
5. -
. 1.4.2.

y = ax ,
2

, -
.
. 1.4.1
.

: -
, -
() (-
) .
462
:

. (
, ,
.)

x0
A= , -
.1.4.2 y0
.
, ,
,
A ,

yy 0 = p( x + x0 ) .
.

A
y y 0 = y ( x0 )( x x0 ) .

p
2 yy = 2 p , y ( x0 ) = , y0 0 .
y0
p
y y0 = ( x x0 ) , ,
y0
y 02 = 2 px0 ,
yy 0 = p( x + x0 ) .
,
y 0 = 0 , x = 0 .

.
 . 1 . 463
5 .1.4.1.

A
p
y0 x0
, 2 .
p
y0
p
y 0 ( x0 ) + py 0
2 y0
cos = = .
p 2 y 02 + p 2
y +p
2
0
2
( x0 ) + y 02

2
y0
, ,
p
1
.
0
, .

, -
, -
-
(. .
1.4.2).
A , ,

p
= x+ =
. .1.4.2
2
464

p p
= + cos + = p + cos .
2 2
(1 cos ) = p
p
= .
1 cos
( 4.6.)
 . 2 . 465

4.5.1
,
. -
-
.

2.1.

,
4.5.1.

, - ,
, -
1, ,

{O, e1 , e2 , e3 } .
,
, ,
x = 0,

y = 0,
, , -
Oxy .
466



{O, e1 , e2 , e3 } .
, -
.
-
, -
.

2.2.
, -
. 2.2.1.
x2 y2 z2
+ + = 1 , a > 0, b > 0, c > 0,
a2 b2 c2
.

1. , -
, | x | a ; | y | b ; | z | c .

2. :
- -
;
- ;

-
.
3. ,
, . ,
 . 2 . 467
z = z 0 , z 0 < c ,
:

x2 y2
+ = 1,
z 02 2 z 02 2
(a 1 2 ) (b 1 2 )
c c
z = z0 ,

. (. . 2.2.1.)

. . 2.2.1

2.3.
, -
. 2.3.1.
468

x2 y2
+ = 2 z , a > 0, b > 0,
a2 b2
.

1. , -
, z 0
.

. . 2.3.1

2.
- Oz ;
-
Oxz Oyz .
 . 2 . 469
3. , -
Oz , , ,
Ox Oy . ,
z = z 0 > 0 ,
:
x2 y2
+ = 1,
(a 2 z 0 ) 2 (b 2 z 0 ) 2
z = z0 ,

. (. . 2.3.1.) , -
y = y 0

2 y2
x = 2a 2 ( z 02 ),
2b
y = y0 ,

. x = x0
:

2 x2
y = 2b 2 ( z 0 2 ),
2a
x = x0 .

2.4.
, -
. 2.4.1.
x2 y2
= 2 z , a > 0, b > 0,
a2 b2
.
470

1. ,
, z -
.

. . 2.4.1

2.
- Oz ;
-
Oxz Oyz .

3. , -
Oz , , -
, Ox Oy , . (.
.2.4.1.)
, z = z 0 > 0 , -
:
 . 2 . 471
x2 y2
= 1,
(a 2 z 0 ) 2 (b 2 z 0 ) 2
z = z0 ,

. z 0 < 0 -

x2 y2
= 1,
(a 2 z 0 ) 2 (b 2 z 0 ) 2
z = z0 .

,
x = x 0 :

2 x2
y = 2b 2 ( z 0 2 )
2a ,
x = x0
.
y = y 0 -

2 y2
x = 2a 2 ( z + 02 ),
2b
y = y0 .
, -
-
,
, ,
, -
.

4. -
.
472

x y x y
( a + b )( a b ) = 2 z ,
, -
,

x y x y
a + b = 2, a b = 2,
x y
x y
( ) = z ( + ) = z ,
a b a b
,
,
, .
, ,
,
. -
(
) -
.

2.5.
\

, -
. 2.5.1.
x2 y2 z2
+ = 1, a > 0, b > 0, c > 0,
a2 b2 c2
.

1. ,
,
 . 2 . 473
z (, + ) .

. . 2.5.1

2. (. . 2.5.1)
- -
;
-
;
- -
.

3. , -
Oz , , ,
Ox Oy . -
-
.

4. -
.
474

x z x z y2
+ =
( a c )( a c ) b 2 ,
1

,
, ,

x z y x z y
( a + c ) = (1 b ), ( a + c ) = (1 + b
),
x z y

x z y
( ) = (1 + ) ( ) = (1 ),
a c b a c b
,
,
, .
-
,
.
.

2.6.
, -
. 2.6.1.
x2 y2 z2
= 1 , a > 0, b > 0, c > 0,
a2 b2 c2
.

1. , -
, x a
.
 . 2 . 475

. . 2.6.1

2.
- -
;
-
;
- -
.
3. , -
Ox , x > a ,
, Oy Oz , .
(. . 2.6.1.)

2.7.

, Oxz ,
F ( x , z ) = 0 . Oz ,
.
476
, -
. 2.7.1.
F ( x 2 + y 2 , z ) = 0,
.

, , :
. 2.7.1.
1.
x2 + y2 z2
+ 2 = 1.
a2 c
k z = x + y .
2 2 2 2
2.

:
.
, z 2 = 2 px -
Ox , -
, -
Oz ,

z 2 = 2 p x 2 + y 2 z 4 = 4 p 2 ( x 2 + y 2 ) .

, -
. 2.7.1.
z 2 = 2 px Ox .
.
x0
0 . , -
z0
Ox x = x0 , -
z 0 y 2 + z 2 = z 02 .
 . 2 . 477
, z 02 = 2 px0 ,
y 2 + z 2 = 2 px0 .
x0
, 0 ,
z0
, ,

y 2 + z 2 = 2 px .
478

, 20
- , -
{O, g 1 , g 2 } .
z -

.

1 0
g1 = g2 = , -
0 1

z=

1 0
z= + = g1 + g 2 .
0 1

-
.

. 3.1.
1 2
z1 = z2 =
1 2

20
( 7.5) , ,
-
, .
 . 3 . 479
-

1 2 1 2
z1 z 2 = .
1 2 + 21

. 3.2. 1 0
{g 1 = , g2 = },
0 1

. 3.1, -
,
z .

. 1. -

, -
.
2. -
: -
z1 z 2 -

z , ,

z1 = z 2 z .
3. , -

, -
0
,
. 3.2 -
, , -

.
480
, -
:
1 0
z= + = g1 + g 2
0 1
g1 ( -
), g 2 i (
).
z z = + i ,
:

z1 + z 2 = ( 1 + 1i ) + ( 2 + 2 i ) = (1 + 2 ) + (1 + 2 )i ;
z = ( + i ) = ( ) + ()i ;

z1 z 2 = ( 1 + 1i )( 2 + 2 i ) = ( 1 2 1 2 ) + ( 1 2 + 2 1 )i .

,
,
, i 2 = 1 ,
0 0 1
i 2 = ii = (0 + 1i )(0 + 1i ) = = = (1) + 0 i = 1 .
1 1 0
, -
i 2 (1) ,

z1 z 2 = (1 + 1i )( 2 + 2 i ) = 1 2 + 1i + 21i + 1 2 i 2 =
= (1 2 1 2 ) + (1 2 + 21 ) i,
. 3.1.
:
 . 3 . 481
z1 1 + 1i (1 + 1i )( 2 2 i )
= = =
z 2 2 + 2 i ( 2 + 2 i )( 2 2 i )
(1 2 + 1 2 ) + ( 21 1 2 )i
= =
22 + 22
1 2 + 1 2 21 1 2
= + i.
22 + 22 22 + 22

z = +i:
. 3.3.
1. -
z
Re z .

2. -
z Im z .

3. = 2 + 2 -
z z .
4. , ,

cos =
2 + 2

sin = ,
2 + 2
z
arg z , z 0 .
5. i
- z -
z .
482
: 1. , 1, 2 5,
, -
.
2. -
- -
, -

.

,
z , z1 , z 2 :

1. (z ) = z .
2. z ,
z = z .

3. z z = + 2 -
2

4. z1 + z 2 = z1 + z 2 ; z1 z 2 = z1 z 2 .

n
5. Pn ( z ) = k z k -
k =0
, ,
.
n
,
k =0
k k = 0 ,
 . 3 . 483
n n
k
0 = 0 = k k = k .
k =0 k =0

: -
,
, -
,
, .

. 3.1.
z 2 +1 = 0 .

. , ,

1 0
z = + i = , + = .
0 0
,

1 0
1 = 1 + 0i = 0 = 0 + 0i = .
0 0
-
,

2 2 + 1 0
= .
2 0

, -
, -

:
484

2 2 + 1 = 0,

2 = 0,
= 0,
, ,
=1
= 0,

= 1.

0 0
z1 = = 0 + 1i = i z 2 = = 0 + (1)i = i .
1 1

. 3.3,
, -
:

z = + i = 2 + 2 ( + i) =
2 + 2 2 + 2
= (cos + i sin ) .

, , -
.

1
g1 = ,
0

{O, g1 , g 2 } .
 . 3 . 485

- z -
, -
,

- arg z
, , , -
. 3.3, z = +i
:
z = (cos + i sin ) .

. .3.1

, -
:
e iz = cos z + i sin z z .
486

z = + i = z (cos + i sin )
i
, z = e .
-
, -
, -
21. ,

i1 i 2 i (1 + 2 )
z1 z 2 = 1 e 2e = 1 2 e

, ,

i
i = 0 + 1i = cos + i sin = e 2 ,
2 2

i i
i
i = (e 2
) =e 2
.

-
. 3.2.
cos x = 5 .

. ,

e iz + e iz
cos z = z ,
2

21
-
.
 . 3 . 487

ei x + e i x 1
= 5 y + 10 = 0 ,
2 y
y = ei x .

, ei x = 5 2 6 ,
i x = ln(5 2 6 ),

x = ln 2 (5 2 6 ).
488

4.1.


-
, , ,
, ,
.., ,
, , , -
.
-
,
-
, .
, , ,
.
,
n

, ,
. -
, , -, ,
, ,
-, -
.
 . 4 . 489
,
, -
( !),
.
-
. 4.1.1 -
n

, , , -
-
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } .

. 4.1.1

{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } -

n

{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }
1
x = S x
x 1 g g


x = 2 n
g
... j = ji i
i =1
n

- f g
= f S
f g
= g
-
= 1 2 ... n , n
j = i ij
f (x ) i =1
i = f ( g i )
490

-
A = A g
=
- g
1
11 12 ... 1n = S A g
S
A 22 ... 2 n
= 21 ,
... ... ... ...
n1 n2 ... nn ki =
n n
= kj mi jm
n j =1 m =1
A g j = ij g i ; j = [1, n]
i =1

- B g
= B g
=

- 11 12 ... 1n = S
T
B g S

21 22 ... 2 n
= ,
B( x, y ) ... ... ... ...
n1 n 2 ... nn ki =
n n
= jk mi jm
ij = B ( g i , g j ); i, j = [1, n] j =1 m =1

- g
= g
=

- 11 12 ... 1n = S
T
S
g
21 22 ... 2 n
= ,
(x) ... ... ... ...
n1 n2 ... nn
 . 4 . 491

ij + ji ki =
ij = ; i, j = [1, n] n n
2
= jk mi jm
j =1 m =1

, , S -
n
ij , g j = ij g i ; j = [1, n] , -
i =1
1
T = S ij ,
n
g j = ij g i ; j = [1, n] .
i =1
-
, :

1 {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } ;

2
1
S S , .

,
. ,
n

x y ,

x = 1 2 ... n T
y = 1 2 ... n T
492
n n ,
1 1 1 2 ... 1 n
2 1 2 2 ... 2 n
.
... ... ... ...
n 1 n 2 ... n n
, x y
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }
1 2. ,
n n
k = k i i j = jm m
i =1 m =1
n n
, k j = ki jm i m , , ,
i =1 m =1
1 T 1
xy g
=( S ) x y g
S .
, -
1 2.
, -
, .
, -
, -
, ,
.

, F ,

, r -

Fx xx xy xz x
Fy = yx yy yz y ,
Fz zx zy zz z
 . 4 . 493

D -

E

Dx xx xy xz Ex
D y = yx yy yz Ey .
Dz zx zy zz Ez

,
.
, -
, -
.
,

x, y z .
27,
(, , -).
,

xx xy xz xx xy xz xx xy xz
x x x y y y z z z
yx yy yz yx yy yz yx yy yz
.
x x x y y y z z z
zx zy zz zx zy zz zx zy zz
x x x y y y z z z

n-

A$
, ,
r g
494
n
n
.
-
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } . -

A$ n -

n n
1
A$ g
= S A$ g
S ( ki = kj mi jm ) ,
j =1 m =1

k i n n jm n n n jm p
= kj mi = kj mi =
l j =1 m =1 l j =1 m =1 p =1 p l
n n n jm
= k j im
T
pl ,
j =1 m =1 p =1 p

, ,

A$ 1 T A$
= S S S .
r g
r g

,
1 2.
, , -
-
.
 . 4 . 495
, ,
1
2
x = n
...
n
x . {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }
n
= i ,
i =1

,
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } , ,
n n n
= i = ij j .
i =1 i =1 j =1

, ,
-
:
- -
;
- 1 2, -

.

, ,
, , S
T
S
, ( ,
)
1 1 T
S ( S ) .
496
4.2.

, ,
, , :
, -
n (q, p ) q -
p ( ( p + q ) -

-), n ,
p+ q
n
j1 j2 ... jq i1i2 ...i p ( jm = [1, n] ; m = [1, q] -

ik = [1, n] ; k = [1, p] -
),
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }

j j ... j ii ...i = ... ... i i i i ... i i

n n n n n n

1 2 q12 p 11 2 2 p p

i1 =1 i2 =1 i p =1 j1 =1 j 2 =1 j q =1

j1 j1 j2 j2 ... jq jq j1 j2 ... jqi1i2 ...i p ,

ik = [1, n] ; k = [1, p] jk = [1, p] ; k = [1, m] ,

ij ij -
1
S T = S .
-
-
. -
,
, .
 . 4 . 497

1. ,
, ( q + p ) -
( (q + p ) - ,
(q + p ) - ), -
-
j1, j2 ,..., jq i1, i2 ,..., i p .
- 1 n ,
-
,
.

i = i ,
. 4.2.1.
i = i i = [1, n] .

2. .
, -
: -
(, -
), ,
.

ijk 2 -
. 4.2.2.
: 111 , 112 , 121 , 122 , 211 , 212 , 221 , 222 .

3. -

, . ,
, -
-
.
498

. 4.2.3.
i..j.kl m.. .

4. , -
, .

S$ ,
. 4.2.4.
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } ,
(1,1) ij
( -
), -
ji
7.3.2
8.3.1.

, -
, , , -
:
, . -
,
.

.

1.
. 4.2.5.
( x) = ij i j .
 . 4 . 499
2.

111 + 12 2 + ... + 1n n = 1
2 1
1 + 2 + ... + n =
2 2 2 n 2

.............................................
1n 1 + n2 2 + ... + nn n = n

-
ik i = k .

, ij ij ( -
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } )
(1,1),

, -
. 4.2.1. ( q, p ) , q
n

p ,

n , -
p +q
n
i1i2 ...i p ( j m ; m = [1, q]
j1 j2 ... jq

ik ; k = [1, p] ), -
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } -
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }

ijij......i j = ii ii ... ii jj jj ... jj iji j......i j

1 2
12 p
q 1
1
2
2
p
p
1
1
2
2
q
q
1 2
12 p
q
.
500

(q + p ) ( -
. 4.2.2.
) i1ji2j2......i pjq .
1

,
. 4.2.3. -
.

. 1. , -
-
, -
, -
.
2. ,
,
(0,0).

. 4.2.1

-
n
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }

x ( j = ij i
)
(1,0) j

( j = i ij
) -
f ( x) (0,1) j
 . 4 . 501

( km = mj ik ij
A$
-
) (1,1)
ij

(- km = kj im ji
) -
B( x, y ) (0,2) ji

(- km = kj im ji
) -
( x) (0,2) ji

( km = mj ik ij

1, i = j -
ij = ) (1,1)
0, i j j
i

. 4.2.1 -
.
, . 4.2.1
,
, ,
, .
, . 4.2.1 -

1 , i = j ,
km = mj ik ij = mj kj =
0 , i j.
502
, , ,
mj kj ,
,
mj kj .

-
, ,
. :
1. (1, 0) -.
(0,1) -.
2. , , -
,
, 2 " ".
, -
, 1, .
3. ,
.
,
,
.

1111 1211 1112 1212

2111 2211 2112 2212
.
1121 1221 1122 1222
2121 2221 2122 2222
 . 4 . 503
x y -
. 4.2.1.
f ( x , y ) , -
4

1 , 2 , 3 , 4 1 , 2 , 3 , 4
{g1 , g 2 , g 3 , g 4 }
f ( x, y ) = 1 3 + 3 2 4 .
, -
, , -
.
. 1. ,
.
.
4
g i = ik g k
k =1

{g1 , g 2 , g 3 , g 4 }
{g1 , g 2 , g 3 , g 4 } . -

4 4
f ( g i , g j ) = f ( ik g k , lj g l ) =
k =1 l =1
4 4
= ik lj f ( g k , g l ) .
k =1 l =1

-

, -
S ,
. 4.2.1 -
(0, 2).
504
2. f ( g k , g l )

1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
g1 g
= ; g2 g
= ; g3 g
= ; g4 g
= .
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1

f ( g1 , g 3 ) = 1 ; f ( g 2 , g 4 ) = 3 f ( g k , g l ) = 0
. ,

0 0 1 0
0 0 0 3
.
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0

4.3.

, .

.

(q, p ) i1i2 ...i p

1 2 q j j ... j

. 4.3.1.
i11i2 2...i p q
j j ... j
. ( q, p ) iji j......i j
1 2
12 p
q

 . 4 . 505

i11i2 2...i p q
j j ... j
i11i2 2...i p q
j j ... j
,

i11i2 2...i p q = i11i2 2...i p q + i11i2 2...i p q .
j j ... j j j ... j j j ... j

ij ij , -
. 4.3.1.
(1,1), ,
, (1,1) ij ,

ij = ij + ij .

(q, p ) i11i2 2...i p q .

j j ... j

.4.3.2.
(q, p ) i1i2 ...i p -
1 2 j j ... j
q

i11i2 2...i p q
j j ... j
,

i11i2 2...i p q = i11i2 2...i p q .
j j ... j j j ... j

: ,
(q, p )

nq + p .

(q, p ) i11i2 2...i p q

j j ... j

. 4.3.3.
506

(r , s ) lk11lk2 2......lskr . (q + r , p + s )
i11i2 2...i pl1ql21...2ls
j j ... j k k ... k r

i11i2 2...i p q lk11lk2 2......lskr

j j ... j
,

i11i2 2...i pl1ql21...2ls

j j ... j k k ... k r
= i1i2 ...i p lk11lk2 2......lskr
j1 j2 ... jq
.

-
.

,
n
. 4.3.2. .
. 4.3.3.
, x y = k i -
.
, x y y x . ,
= ,
k i i k

-. , -
.

c = a b ,
. 4.3.1. 1 2
3 4
a ( 0,3) b
5 6
7 8
( 0,1) 9 10 .
 . 4 . 507
. c -
( 0,4) , (
) -
ijk l , ijk l
a b .
, c
1 9 2 9 1 10 2 10 9 18 10 20
3 9 4 9 3 10 4 10 27 36 30 40
= .
5 9 6 9 5 10 6 10 45 54 50 60
7 9 8 9 7 10 8 10 63 72 70 80

(q, p ) i1i2 ...i p ,

1 2 q j j ... j

. 4.3.4.
q 1 p 1 . (,
jr ) (, i s ) -

(, m ). (q 1, p 1)

i11i2 2...i p q11

j j ... j

i11i2 2...is ...r i p q

j j ... j ... j
-

jr i s , -

i11i2 2...i p q11 i11i2 2...m...i p q .
j j ... j j j ...m ... j
=
508
, n
, m , ,
( q 1)( p 1) -
.

(1,1) ,
. 4.3.3.
, (0, 0) , -
i
j

, -
,

mm = 11 + 22 + ... + nn .
-
, -
. ,
, , -
.

. , -

, -
n . , f ( x) = i i . ,
i k .

:
. 4.3.2. a (1,1) ij
1 2 3
4 5 6 ;
7 8 9
 . 4 . 509
b (1, 0) j
2
3 ;
4
c (0,1) i
2 3 4 .

ij j ij i .

. 1. , ij j
3
(1, 0) i = ij j .
j =1

1 = 111 + 12 2 + 13 3 = 1 2 + 2 (3) + 3 4 = 8,
2 = 12 1 + 22 2 + 32 3 = 4 2 + 5 (3) + 6 4 = 17,
3 = 131 + 32 2 + 33 3 = 7 2 + 8 (3) + 9 4 = 26.

2. , ij i (0,1) -
3
j = ij i .
i =1

1 = 11 1 + 12 2 + 13 3 = 1 2 + 4 ( 3) + 7 4 = 18,
2 = 12 1 + 22 2 + 32 3 = 2 2 + 5 ( 3) + 8 4 = 21,
3 = 13 1 + 32 2 + 33 3 = 3 2 + 6 ( 3) + 9 4 = 26.
510

, -
( ) ,
, , -
,
. ,
.
, N ( -
) , N! .
, , , N!
.

1 2
3 4
ijk .
. 4.3.3. 5 6
7 8
.
. -
i j.
-

1 3
2 4
.
5 7
6 8

. 4.3.5. ( ) ,
 . 4 . 511
,
.

( -
. 4.3.6. ) ,
,
,
, -
.

, N ( -
, ),
N!
. ,
.
-
. , -
, .

N =1 ( i1 ) = i1 ,
. 4.3.4.

1
N =2 ( i1 ,i2 ) = ( i1 ,i2 + i2 ,i1 ),
2!

1
N =3 (i1 ,i2 ,i3 ) = { i1 ,i2 ,i3 + i3 ,i1 ,i2 + i2 ,i3 ,i1 +
3!
+ i2 ,i1 ,i3 + i3 ,i2 ,i1 + i1 ,i3 ,i2 }

... ...
512
,
: -
, .

(i j ) .
. 4.3.5.

, N ( -
, ),
N! ,
(1) (k 1 , k 2 ,...,k N ) , (k1 , k 2 ,..., k N )
{1,2,..., N } , -
. , -
.

. ,
, .

N =1
[i1 ] = i1 ,
. 4.3.6.

1
N =2 [i1 ,i2 ] = { i1 ,i2 i2 ,i1 },
2!

1
N =3 [i1 ,i2 ,i3 ] = { i ,i ,i + i3 ,i1 ,i2 + i2 ,i3 ,i1
3! 1 2 3
i2 ,i1 ,i3 i3 ,i2 ,i1 i1 ,i3 ,i2 }

... ...
 . 4 . 513
,
: -
, .

[ i j ] .
. 4.3.7.
, ,
.

1 2
3 4
ijk . -
. 4.3.4. 5 6
7 8
(ij ) k , i ( jk ) i[ jk ] .

. 1. ijk = jik ,
i j ,
1 3
2 4
(. . 4.3.3).
5 7
6 8

ijk = ikj ,
j k ,
1 5
3 7
,
2 6
4 8
514


.

2. (ij ) k

1+1 2+3 5
1
2 2 2
3+2 4+4 5
4
2 2 2

= ,
5+5 6+7 13
5
2 2 2
7+6 8+8 13
8
2 2 2

i ( jk )

1+1 2+5 7
1
2 2 2
3+3 4+7 11
3
2 2 2

= ,
5+2 6+6 7
6
2 2 2
7+4 8+8 11
8
2 2 2

i[ jk ]
 . 4 . 515
11 25 3
0
2 2 2
33 47 3
0
2 2 2

= .
52 66 3
0
2 2 2
74 88 3
0
2 2 2

4.4.

-
, ,
, -
,
. -
-
.
.
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } E n x , -
, i .
ij = ( g i , g j ) ,
i

j = ij i = ( g i , g j ) i = ( g i i , g j ) = ( x, g j ) .
, x -
n
E -
516
j . j -
x {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } , -
x

j = i j i .
, -
-
. , -
x (. -
10.3.2).

E n (q, p ) i1i2 ...i p ,

1 2 q j j ... j

. 4.4.1.
j ... j
q 1 . (q 1, p + 1) i0i1i2 ...i p -
2 q

-
j1 i1i2 ...i p ,
1 2 q j j ... j


j ... j
i0i12i2 ...iqp = i0 j1 i11i2 2...i p q .
j j ... j

, -
, -
. , .

, -
. 4.4.2. E n -
 . 4 . 517
, , -
.

, , ,
T
(2, 0) . g
= S g
S .
, -
:
1 1
S ) 1 = S
T 1
=( S =
T
g g g
( S )
1 1 T
= S g
( S ) ,

T 1 T 1 T T
E = E =( S S ) =( S ) S -

, S
1 T T 1
( S ) =( S ) . ,

ij .

E n (q, p ) i1i2 ...i p ,

1 2 q j j ... j

. 4.4.3.
p 1 . (q + 1, p 1) i2 ...i p
0 1 2 j j j ... jq
-

i1 i1 i 2 ...i p ,
1 2 j j ... j
q

0i21...2i p q = i1 j0 i11i2 ...2 i p q .

j j j ... j j j ... j
518

E 2
. 4.4.1. 2 3
ij = jk
i

3 5
3 4
5 7
.
2 5
1 3
ijk ijk .
. 1.
ijk = im mjk .
111 = 11111 + 12 11
2
= 2 3 + 3 5 = 21,
112 = 11112 + 12 12
2
= 2 2 + 3 1 = 7,
121 = 11121 + 12 221 = 2 4 + 3 7 = 29,
122 = 11122 + 12 222 = 2 5 + 3 3 = 19,
211 = 21111 + 22 11
2
= 3 3 + 5 5 = 34,
212 = 21112 + 22 12
2
= 3 2 + 5 1 = 11,
221 = 21121 + 22 221 = 3 4 + 5 7 = 47,
222 = 21122 + 22 222 = 3 5 + 5 3 = 30.

, ijk
21 29
34 47
.
7 19
11 30
 . 4 . 519
2.
ij k = imk mj , ij -
, -
ij
1
2 3 5 3
= .
3 5 3 2

11
1
= 111 11 + 1 21 21 = 3 5 4 3 = 3,
12
1
= 111 12 + 121 22 = 3 3 + 4 2 = 1,
211 = 211 11 + 221 21 = 5 5 7 3 = 4,
221 = 211 12 + 221 22 = 5 (3) + 7 2 = 1,
11
2
= 112 11 + 1 22 21 = 2 5 3 5 = 5,
12
2
= 112 12 + 122 22 = 2 (3) + 5 2 = 4,
212 = 212 11 + 222 21 = 1 5 + 3 (3) = 4,
222 = 212 12 + 222 22 = 1 (3) + 3 2 = 3.

, ijk
3 1
4 1
.
5 4
4 3

, i j = i j = ij ,

520
1 T
, S = S ,
, .

4.5.

-

,
.
,

. -
. , -
, -
.


3
E .
-
ijk , -

ijk = (1) (i , j ,k ) , i , j , k ,
ijk = 0 .

(l , m, n), , -
{l , m, n} (. 6.1).
ijk , ,
27 , : 1
1.
 . 4 . 521
, ijk
3
E -
. -
:

lmn = li mj nk ijk = l1 m 2 n 3 + l 2 m 3 n1 + l 3 m1 n 2
l1 m3 n 2 l 2 m1 n3 l 3 m 2 n1 =
l1 l 2 l3
= det m1 m2 m3 ,
n1 n2 n3

lmn = (1) (l ,m,n ) , l , m, n ,

lmn = 0 ,

11 12 13
21 22 23
31 32 33
(
) 1.
ijk
( )
, , ,
.
 522

-
3
E ,
(. 2.2 2.4). - .
i k ,
( ) -

a b . -
i k -
, 9 ,
:
11 1 2 1 3
2 1 22 2 3 .
3 1 3 2 3 3

,
-
:
1 1
i k = ( i k + k i ) + ( i k k i ) ,
2 2
:

11 1 2 1 3 11 + 11 1 2 + 2 1 13 + 3 1
1
2 1 2 2 2 3 = 2 1 + 1 2 2 2 + 2 2 2 3 + 3 2 +
2
3 1 3 2 3 3 3 1 + 13 3 2 + 2 3 3 3 + 3 3
0 1 2 2 1 13 3 1
1
+ 2 1 1 2 0 2 3 3 2 .
2
3 1 13 3 2 2 3 0
.
 . 4 . 523
-, , -
-
, .
, ,
.
, , i k -

, S , -
:

k k = ki i kj j = ikT kj i j = ij i j = i i ,

.
: ()

a b , i k E 3 , -
-
i i = 11 + 2 2 + 3 3 . (. 2.9.)
,

( a , b ) = ki i k . a b , -
, -

b cos
a

b sin ,
0

0 0
524

a b .

( a , b ) = a b cos , -
, .
. , -

0 1 2 2 1 1 3 3 1
2 1 1 2 0 2 3 3 2
3 1 13 3 2 2 3 0

, ,

a b E 3

, [ a , b ] ,

2 3 3 2
3 1 13 .
1 2 2 1

. -, , -
-
(n 1)n
n ,
2
,
. , E 3
3
, E -

.
 . 4 . 525
-, ,

[ a , b ]i = ijk j k .

, , i = 1:

1 jk j k = 11111 + 112 1 2 + 113 13 +

+ 121 2 1 + 122 2 2 + 123 2 3 +
+ 131 3 1 + 132 3 2 + 133 3 3 =
= 2 3 3 2 .

-, i = ijk j k
3
E .

i = ijk j k ,
is s = ijk jm kl m l .
qi i,

qi is s = qi jm kl ijk m l ,

qi is s = qs s = q , qml = qi jm kl ijk , -
ijk
. , i = iml m l , -
.

, , [ a , b ] . -

, a b -
3
E ,

526

0
0

a b cos ,

0
b sin

a b .

[ a , b ] a b sin ,
,
, .
, , -
-
,
-
-
.
, -

. :
1. (. 2.6) -


(a , b , c ) = ( a , [ b , c ] ) = i [ b , c ]i = i ijk j k = ijk i j k .

2.
(. 2.8) -
:

[a , [ b , c ] ]i = ijk j [ b , c ] k = ijk j klm l m =
= ijk klm j l m .
 . 4 . 527

ijk klm = il jm im jl ,

[a , [ b , c ] ]i = ijk j klm l m = ( il jm im jl ) j l m =

= i m m i j j = i (a , c ) i (a , b ) ,

, ,

[a , [ b , c ] ] = b (a , c ) c (a , b ) .
528

1. . .
. 10- ., . .: , 2005.
2. . .
. .: , 2005.
3. . . . .: , 1976.
4. . . . .: , 1979.
5. . . .
.: , 1983.
6. . . . .:
. - - , 1956.
7. . . : . .: ,
1976.
8. . ., . ., . . -
. .: -
, 2001.
 529

4.1.
4.2.
6.3.
. 4.3.
12.3.
5.4.

1.5.
1.5.
7.2.
1.5.
1.5.
6.5.
6.5.
6.5.
9.1.
9.1.
8.7.

, 1.3.
2.4, . 4.5.
5.2.
530
() 8.4.
2.5, 8.7.
( )
8.7.

2.5.
-
2.5.

2.3.

2.7.
-
2.3.
-
2.7.
5.1.
. 1.1.
. 2.1.

-
5.4.
-
5.4.
4.4.
4.5.
4.5.
7.4.
3.3.
5.6.
 531

2.8, . 4.5.
8.7.
4.5.
8.2.

8.3.
2- 3- 1.1.
n- 6.1.
9.2.
. 1.3.
. 1.4.
. 1.2.
11.4.
6.3.
6.3.

10.1.
1.1.
8.2.

. 4.2.

-
9.1.
532

9.2.

8.7.
1.8.

7.3.

8.3.
7.5.
7.5.
8.5.

8.6.
9.4.
() 8.4.

4.4.
4.5.
9.2.
1.1.
9.2.
9.2.
n 1.1.
12.2.
1.4.
1.4.
8.2.
1.4.
1.4.
. 3.0.
1.5.
7.3.
 533
4.3.
4.6.
4.5.

9.1.

8.3.

8.7.

10.3.
1.5.
7.3.
5.2.
1.5.
1.5.
9.3, 10.3.

1.4.

7.2.
1.4.

7.2.
1.4.

7.2.
7.4.
3.2.
7.1.
8.2.
8.7.
8.1.
5.3.
534
8.7.
8.7.
4.1.
4.4.
4.1.

1.1.
9.1.
10.3.
9.2.
8.3.
8.4.
5.3.

1.8.
-
7.3.
6.8.
6.8.
9.2.
k - 6.3.

1.2.
3.3.
3.2.
7.5.
6.6.
5.3.
10.1.
10.1.
 535
1.1.
1.4.
10.1.
1.7.
3.2.
3.2.
3.3.
1.1.
1.3.
1.2.
8.2.
8.7.
7.1.

8.4.
5.1.
7.5.
5.2.
8.2.
5.1.
8.3.
1.7.
6.6, 6.7.

6.7.

6.7.
4.5.
6.6.
5.3.
5.2, 8.1.
5.3.
8.7.
. 4.3.
536

7.3.
2- 1.1.
3- 1.1.
n - 6.1.
6.2.
. 4.4.
. 1.3.
. 1.4.
. 1.2.
10.2.
5.1, 10.4.
2.1, 10.5.
2.1.
2.1.
10.5.
5.5.
10.1.
1.5.
10.8.
1.7.
1.5, 10.2.
6.6.
2.1.
12.1.
5.2.

9.3.

4.4.
4.5.
3.3.
3.1.
7.4.
 537

1.8.
. 2.7.
4.5.
. 4.4.
7.4.
9.6.

9.3.
4.6.
4.1.
4.2.
1.2.
6.4.
1.2.
1.2.
5.2.

9.2, 12.1.

9.2, 12.1.
-
4.4.
12.1
5.1.
5.2.
8.2.

8.3.
8.2.
8.7.
1.1.
1.2.
8.2.
8.7.
7.1.
538

7.4.
3.3.
3.2.

1.6.
- 1.7.
1.1.
6.3.
3-
1.1.
1.1.
7.2.
8.4.
1.2.
6.5.
3.4.

10.1.
3.2.
3.4.
3.3.
6.6.

1.1.

10.7.
. 4.3.
5.4.
2.4.
. 2.4.
 539
. 1.3.
. 2.6.
. 2.5.

1.3.
n- 6.2.
. 1.4.
8.6.
8.6.
2.2.
2.6.
. 1.2.
. 2.2.
. 2.3.
3.3.
9.3.
2.3.
. 4.3.
1.1.
9.1.
n n 6.4.
m n 6.6.
2.2, . 4.5.

10.1.
1.1.
1.6.
8.3.
1.2.
. 4.3.
2.6.
() 8.5.
8.5.
6.6.
1.4.
11.5.
540
8.7.
10.6.
1.1.
1.2.
11.4.
1.1.
1.1.
8.2.
8.7.
7.4.
-
8.6.
4.6.
() 8.4.

. 4.2.
. 4.4.
. 4.5.
8.6.
10.3.
9.3.
6.6.
6.3.
6.5.
10.8.
6.5.
7.5.
6.7, 10.6.
8.2.
3.4.
1.1.
5.1.
. 4.3.
1.4.
 541

. 3.0.

2.2.
10.1.
1.1.
1.2.
1.6.

8.3.
. 4.3.
. 4.3.
11.1.
11.2.
3.3.

3.1.
3.2.

1.6.

1.6.
3.5.
3.5.
3.5.
3.1.
3.1.
3.1.

. 1.3.
. 1.2.
542
. 3.0.

1.8.
3.3.
3.2.

6.7.
6.7.
5.2.

8.5.
8.5.

4.3.
4.6.

6.6.
2.1.

. 3.0.
9.5.
1.1.
6.3.
-
6.8.
 543
4.4.
4.5.
4.5.
4.5.
11.2.
11.3.
11.3.
11.4.
11.4.

8.4.
 . . , . .
. .
. . , . .
. .
06.10.2011. 60 84 1/16. . . . 34,0.
.- . . 33,5. 400 .

( )
141700, ., . ,., 9
E-mail: rio@mail.mipt.ru
_________________________________________________________

125412, , . , .13, .2