Public Policy 2021 Original-Metodichka PP

Федеральное государственное бюджетное
образовательное учреждение высшего образования

РОССИЙСКАЯ АКАДЕМИЯ НАРОДНОГО ХОЗЯЙСТВА
и ГОСУДАРСТВЕННОЙ СЛУЖБЫ при ПРЕЗИДЕНТЕ РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ
НИЖЕГОРОДСКИЙ ИНСТИТУТ УПРАВЛЕНИЯ – ФИЛИАЛ РАНХиГС
RUSSIAN PRESIDENTIAL ACADEMY
OF NATIONAL ECONOMY AND PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
NIZHNY NOVGOROD INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT, BRANCH OF RANEPA
PUBLIC POLICY
учебно-методическое пособие
по практике английского языка
Нижний Новгород
Nizhny Novgorod, Russia

УДК 811.111 (775.8)
ББК 81.432.1
Л 22
Рецензенты:
Петрищева Н.С., канд. пед. наук, доцент кафедры иностранных языков и
профессионального лингвообразования Нижегородского института управле-
ния – филиала РАНХиГС;
Жерновая О.Р., канд. филол. наук, доцент кафедры иностранных языков и
лингвокультурологии Института международных отношений и мировой исто-
рии (ИМОМИ) ННГУ им. Н.И. Лобачевского.
Ланская Ю.С.
Л 22 Public Policy: учебно-методическое пособие по практике ан-
глийского языка / Ю.С. Ланская, Ю.Г. Ремаева. – Нижний Новго-
род: НИУ РАНХиГС, 2021. – 182 с.
ISBN 978-5-00036-266-2
Учебно-методическое пособие предназначено для студентов, обучаю-

щихся по направлению подготовки 41.03.06 «Публичная политика и соци-
альные науки» (уровень бакалавриата) в Нижегородском институте управ-
ления – филиале РАНХиГС.
В пособии используются аутентичные тексты экономической и поли-
тической тематики, комплекс упражнений к которым способствует усвое-
нию и закреплению лексики, развитию различных видов чтения и понима-
ния оригинальной литературы по специальности, а также отработке навыков
устной речи в ситуациях профессионального общения.
УДК 811.111 (775.8)

ББК 81.432.1
ISBN 978-5-00036-266-2 © Ланская Ю.С., 2021

© Ремаева Ю.Г., 2021
© Нижегородский институт управле-
ния – филиал РАНХиГС, 2021
2
THE ECONOMY: HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
Part I
The Economy
Ex. 1 Check the meaning and pronunciation of the following words and
complete the text below.
shelter resources benefit (v) identity consumption pre-
dictable survival commodities
The economy is the social institution that organizes a society’s production, dis-
tribution, and (1) _______ of goods and services. As an institution, the economy op-
erates, for better or worse, in a generally (2) _______ manner. Goods are (3) _______
ranging from necessities (food, clothing, (4) _______) to luxury items (cars, swim-
ming pools, yachts). Services are activities that (5) _______ others (for example, the
work of priests, physicians, teachers, and computer software specialists).
We value goods and services because they ensure (6) __________ or because
they make life easier or more interesting. Also, what people produce as workers and
what they buy as consumers are important parts of social (7) _______ as when we
say, “He’s a steelworker,” or “She drives a Mercedes.” How goods and services are
distributed, too, shapes the lives of everyone by giving more (8) _______ to some
and fewer to others.
Ex. 2 Translate the following words from Russian into English and use
them in sentences of your own.
Социальный институт; товары и услуги; производство, распределение и
потребление товаров и услуг; функционировать предсказуемым образом; начи-
ная от …. до; предметы первой необходимости; еда, одежда, кров; предметы
роскоши; приносить пользу; ценить; обеспечивать выживание; потребители;
социальная идентичность; распределяться; определять жизнь каждого; ресурсы.
3
Ex. 3 Fill in the charts below.
Noun Verb Noun Adjective
benefit luxury
a) produce necessary
b) producer economy a)
c) b)
a) distribute
b) distributor
a)
b) consumer
value
identity
a) survive
b)
Ex. 4 Answer the following questions.

1. What does the economy do?
2. How does it function?
3. What do we understand by goods?
4. What are the basic needs?
5. What do luxury items include?
6. What do we mean by services?
7. Why do we value goods and services?
8. We discover what we are like through what we produce and purchase, don't we?
9. Are resources distributed equally?
Ex. 5 Complete the sentences below.

1. The economy is the social institution that ………………………………………….
2. Goods are commodities that ……………………………………………………….
3. Basic necessities include …………………………………………………………..
4. …………………………………………………………………… are luxury items.
5. Services are activities that …………………………………………………………
6. Goods and services ensure ……………………… and …………………………..
7. …………………….. and ………………..…. are important parts of social identity.
8. ………………………..… shapes the lives of everyone by ……………….……….
4
Part II
The economies of modern high-income nations are the result of centuries of
social change. We turn now to three technological revolutions that reorganized pro-
duction and, in the process, transformed social life.
The Agricultural Revolution
The earliest human societies were made up of hunters and gatherers living off
the land. In these technologically simple societies, there was no distinct economy.
Rather, producing and consuming were part of family life.
When people harnessed animals to plows, beginning some 5,000 years ago, a
new agricultural economy was created that was fifty times more productive than
hunting and gathering. The resulting surplus meant that not everyone had to produce
food, so many took on specialized work: making tools, raising animals, or building
dwellings. Soon towns sprang up, linked by networks of traders dealing in food, ani-
mals, and other goods. These four factors ‒ agricultural technology, job specializa-
tion, permanent settlements, and trade ‒ made the economy a distinct social institu-
tion.
Ex. 1 a) Find out which syllable is stressed in the following words and put
them in the correct column. Practise saying them.
Distinct, surplus, result, gatherer, trader, permanent, income, technology, set-
tlement, process, society, specialized.
 ☺ ☺  ☺    ☺  
distinct
b) Look at the phonetic spelling of some of the words. Practise saying

them.
[prəˈdʌktɪv]
[ˌæɡrɪˈkʌltʃərəl]
[ˌteknəˈlɒdʒɪkli]
[ˌspeʃəlaɪˈzeɪʃn]
5
Ex. 2 Translate the following words and word combinations from English
into Russian.
High-income nations; technological revolutions; hunters and gatherers; to live
off the land; technologically simple societies; distinct; to harness animals to plows; to
take on specialized work; to spring up; (to be) linked by…; to deal in sth; agricultur-
al technology; job specialization.
Ex. 3 Translate the following words and word combinations from Russian
into English and use them in sentences of your own.
Реорганизовать производство; изменить социальную жизнь; состоять из;
производство и потребление; сельскохозяйственная экономика; охота и собира-
тельство; излишек; создавать орудия труда; разводить животных; строить жи-
лища; постоянные поселения; торговля; определенный социальный институт.

Noun Verb Noun Adjective Adverb
a) hunter production
b)
plow agricultural
a) technology
b) gathering
harness
a) trade
b)
specialize
settlement

1. Who did the earliest human societies consist of? How did they live? What exactly
did they do?
2. When was a new agricultural economy created?
3. What did it result in?
4. What specialized work did many people do?
5. How were towns linked? What did traders do?
6
6. What four factors made the economy a distinct social institution?

1. The earliest human societies were made up of ………………. and
………………. who lived………………………………………………………...
2. ………………………....... and ………….…..………..….were part of family life.
3. When people began to ……………..…., a new agricultural economy was created.
4. It was more …………………….…. than ……..………………………………….
5. The resulting surplus allowed people to take on ………………………………….
6. Towns were linked by ………………….…. dealing in ………………….……….
7. The four factors which made the economy a distinct social institution are
…………………………………………………………………………………….
Part III
The Industrial Revolution
Ex. 1 Read the text and match the headings to the paragraphs.
A. Centralization of work in factories
B. Specialization
C. Wage labor
D. Manufacturing and mass production
E. New sources of energy
By the mid-eighteenth century, a second technological revolution was under
way, first in England and then in North America. The development of industry was
even more powerful than the rise of agriculture in bringing change to the economy.
Industrialization changed the economy in five fundamental ways:
1. __________ Throughout history, “energy” had meant the muscle power of
people or animals. But in 1765, the English inventor James Watt introduced the
steam engine. One hundred times more powerful than animal muscles, early steam
engines soon drove heavy machinery.
2. __________ Steam-powered machines soon moved work from homes to fac-
tories, the centralized and impersonal workplaces that housed the machines.
3. __________ Before the Industrial Revolution, most people grew or gathered
raw materials such as grain, wood, or wool. In an industrial economy, the focus shifts
7
so that most people work to turn raw materials into a wide range of finished products
such as processed foods, furniture, and clothing.
4. __________ Centuries ago, people worked at home, making products from
start to finish. In the factory, a worker repeats a single task over and over, making on-
ly a small contribution to the finished product.
5. __________ Instead of working for themselves, factory workers became
wage laborers working for strangers, who often cared less for them than for the ma-
chines they operated. The Industrial Revolution gradually raised the standard of liv-
ing as countless new products and services fueled an expanding marketplace. Yet the
benefits of industrial technology were shared very unequally, especially at the begin-
ning. Some factory owners made vast fortunes, while the majority of industrial work-
ers lived close to poverty. Children, too, worked in factories or in coal mines for pen-
nies a day. Women working in factories were among the lowest paid, and they en-
dured special problems.
Ex. 2 Check the pronunciation of the following words and practise saying
them.
Industry, industrial, fundamental, throughout, muscle, engine, machine, ma-
chinery, raw, focus, processed, furniture, laborer, fuel, shared, unequally, fortune,
majority, endured.
Ex. 3 Guess the meaning of the words in italics from the context.
1. to be under way (par.1)
a) to be already happening;
b) to be finished.
2. fundamental (par.1)
a) theoretical;
b) important.
3. to introduce (par.2)
a) to make something available for use for the first time;
b) to tell somebody what your name is.
4. to house (par.3)
a) to display;
b) to provide space for sth.
8
5. to fuel (par.6)
a) to stimulate sth;
b) to put petrol/gas into a vehicle.
6. to endure (par.6)
a) to suffer from;
b) to last.
into Russian.
To be under way; the rise of agriculture; in five fundamental ways; throughout
history; muscle power; to introduce the steam engine; heavy machinery; steam-
powered machines; centralized and impersonal workplaces; to house machines; man-
ufacturing and mass production; grain; a wide range of finished products; processed
foods; to repeat a single task over and over; to operate machines; countless new
products and services; to fuel an expanding marketplace; the benefits of industrial
technology; to make vast fortunes; to endure special problems.
Внести изменения во ч-л; новые источники энергии; изобретатель; паро-
вой двигатель; сырье; фокус смещается; превращать ч-л во ч-л; специализация;
создавать продукт от начало до конца; внести вклад во ч-л; работать на к-л;
наемные работники; заботиться о к-л/ч-л; поднять уровень жизни; расширяю-
щийся рынок; преимущества ч-л; распределять неравным образом; владельцы
фабрик; нажить огромное состояние; пребывать на грани бедности; быть среди
самых низкооплачиваемых.
Ex. 6 Fill in the correct preposition.

1. to bring change _______ sth
2. to turn sth ______ sth
3. _______ start _______ finish
4. to work _______ sb/sth
5. to care _______ sb/sth
6. _______ the beginning
9
7. to live close _______ poverty
8. to be _______ the lowest paid
Ex. 7 Explain the meaning of these words and word combinations.

1. industrialization
2. mass production
3. raw material
4. wage labor

1. What change did Britain and North America undergo in the 18th century?
2. What new source of energy was introduced in 1765?
3. How did the emergence of steam-powered machines affect the workplace?
4. What do most people focus on in an industrial economy?
5. In what way is making products in a factory different from making products at
home?
6. What positive change did the Industrial Revolution bring about?
7. Who benefited the most from industrial technology? Why?

1. By the mid-eighteenth century, a second technological revolution was
……………….…., first in ………..…………. and then in …….………………..
2. Industrialization changed the economy in ……………………………………….
3. In 1765, the English inventor James Watt introduced ………………….……….
4. It was more powerful than ………………. and soon steam engines drove
…………………………….
5. Steam-powered machines moved work from ………………. to ………………..
6. Before the Industrial Revolution, most people grew or gathered ……………….
7. After it, most people worked to turn raw materials into ……………………...….
8. Centuries ago, people worked at home and made products from ……………….
9. In an industrial economy, factory workers repeated ………………. and made on-
ly a small contribution to………………………..
10. Instead of working for themselves, factory workers became …………………….
11. Factory owners often cared less for their workers than ………………….……….
12. The Industrial Revolution raised ………………. as new products and services
fueled ……………………….
13. Yet the benefits of industrial technology were shared ……………………..…….
14. Factory owners made ………………., while industrial workers lived
…………………………...
10
15. Children and women working in factories were among ………………………….
Part IV
The Information Revolution and Postindustrial Society
By about 1950, the nature of production was changing once again. The United
States was creating a postindustrial economy, a productive system based on service
work and high technology. Automated machinery (and later, robotics) reduced the
role of human labor in factory production and expanded the ranks of clerical workers
and managers. The postindustrial era is marked by a shift from industrial work to ser-
vice work.
Driving this change is a third technological breakthrough: the computer. Just as
the Industrial Revolution did two-and-a-half centuries ago, the Information Revolu-
tion has introduced new kinds of products and new forms of communication and has
altered the character of work. In general, there have been three significant changes:
1. From tangible products to ideas. The industrial era was defined by the
production of goods; in the postindustrial era, people work with symbols. Computer
programmers, writers, financial analysts, advertising executives, architects, editors,
and all sorts of consultants make up more of the labor force in the information age.
2. From mechanical skills to literacy skills. The Industrial Revolution re-
quired mechanical skills, but the Information Revolution requires literacy skills:
speaking and writing well and, of course, knowing how to use a computer. People
able to communicate effectively are likely to do well; people without these skills face
fewer opportunities.
3. From factories to almost anywhere. Industrial technology drew workers
into factories located near power sources, but computer technology allows people to
work almost anywhere. Laptop and wireless computers and cell phones now turn the
home, a car, or even an airplane into a “virtual office.”What this means for everyday
life is that new information technology blurs the line between our lives at work and at
home.
11
Ex. 1 Check the pronunciation of the following words and practice saying
them.
Automated, robotics, era, breakthrough, alter, tangible, financial, analyst, ad-
vertising, executive, architect, mechanical, require, fewer, allow, virtual, blur.
Ex. 2 Match the words to their definitions.

1) breakthrough a) to need or demand something
2) significant b) material, having actual form and substance
3) require c) an important discovery or development that helps solve a

problem
4) tangible d) the ability to read and write
5) blur e) important or noticeable
6) literacy f) to make the difference between two things less clear
Use the words from the table to complete the sentences below. Change the
form of the words if necessary.
1. The program is designed to promote _______ in the community.
2. Gold is a _______ commodity that investors can turn to in times of financial in-
stability.
3. This job _______ a college degree and a knowledge of computers.
4. Scientists have made a major _______ in the treatment of cancer.
5. The Internet has brought about _______ changes in people’s lives.
6. Virtual reality video games _______ the line between what is real and what is
not.
into Russian.
The nature of production; (to be) based on …; service work; automated ma-
chinery; robotics; human labor; clerical workers; to be marked by …; a shift from in-
dustrial work to service work; to introduce new kinds of products and new forms of
communication; tangible products; to be defined by …; advertising executives; to re-
12
quire mechanical skills; literacy skills; to draw workers into factories; laptop and
wireless computers; cell phones.
Постиндустриальная экономика; сократить роль человеческого труда;
расширить ряды офисных работников; постиндустриальная эра; технологиче-
ский прорыв; изменить характер работы; значительные изменения; финансовые
аналитики; трудовые ресурсы; грамотность; успешно вести дела; иметь меньше
возможностей; фабрики, расположенные рядом с источниками энергии; давать
возможность рабочим трудиться в любом месте; превратить дом, машину, са-
молет в виртуальный офис; стирать границы между местом работы и домом.
Ex. 5 Answer the questions below.

1. What is understood by a postindustrial economy?
2. How did automated machinery change the economy?
3. What is the postindustrial era marked by?
4. What technological breakthrough is mentioned in the text?
5. What changes has the Information Revolution brought about?
6. What categories of workers make up the labor force in the information age?
7. What skills does the Information Revolution require?
8. Why is it possible to say that new information technology blurs the line between
our lives at work and at home?

1. The postindustrial economy was propelled by the ………………. Revolution,
which began around 1950.
2. It is based on a shift from ………………. to ………………. and ……………….
technology.
3. In the postindustrial era, people work with ………………………………..…….
4. ……………………………………………………………….. represent the work-
ers of the Information Age.
5. The Information Revolution requires literacy skills:
…………………………………………………………………………………….
6. People who can ……………………………………………. are likely to do well.
7. People without these skills face ………………………………………………….
13
8. Computer technology allows people to work …………………………………….
9. ………………………………………………………………. turn the home, a car,
or even an airplane into a “virtual office.”
10.New information technology blurs the line between………………………….….
Ex. 7 Rephrase the following sentences using the words from the texts.
1. Many people cannot even afford basic needs such as food and clothing.
2. All the necessary steps had been taken to guarantee their safety.
3. Consumers began to find that they could afford more expensive goods.
4. Despite the power cuts, the hospital continued to function normally.
5. They were lost in the mountains for ten days, suffering from hunger, thirst, and
intense cold.
6. Property prices did not change during 2007.
7. Companies that trade in oil should prepare themselves for a price drop.
8. The transitional period was defined by serious political and economic problems.
9. The scheme will bring obvious economic benefits to the area.
10. The committee consists of representatives from every state.
11. Please inform us if there are any important changes in your plans.
12. The hotel offers a large variety of facilities and services.
13. The cause of the accident is still unclear and needs further investigation.
Ex. 8 Translate the derivatives.

1. economy, economics, economist, economic, economical, economically, econo-
mize;
2. produce (v), produce (n), producer, product, production, productivity, productive,
productively;
3. distribute, distribution, distributor, distributive;
4. consume, consumer, consumption;
5. survive, survivor, survival;
6. technology, technological, technologically;
7. agriculture, agricultural;
8. specialize, specialized, specialization;
9. industry, industrial, industrialize, industrialized, industrialization;
10. central, centralize, centralized, centralization;
11. labor (n), labor (v), laborer;
12. literate / illiterate, literacy / illiteracy.
14
Use the word given in capitals at the end of each line to form a word that
fits in the space in the same line.
1. The government is encouraging us to reduce our household _______ of water.
(CONSUME)
2. We had a mandate to eliminate _______. (LITERATE)
3. Attempts to _______ the economy have failed. (CENTRAL)
4. Small businesses are fighting for _______. (SURVIVE)
5. The steam engine was the greatest _______ advance of the 19th century.
(TECHNOLOGY)
6. During periods of economic expansion, those who are in the top one-third of the
income _______ will always benefit. (DISTRIBUTE)
7. The country is still _______ dependent on agriculture. (ECONOMY)
8. It cost the country $4 million in lost _______. (PRODUCE)
9. Workers may lose interest in a particular job that requires _______, repetitive
tasks to complete projects and assignments. (SPECIALIZE)
10. _______ is the process by which an economy is transformed from primarily agri-
cultural to one based on the manufacturing of goods. (INDUSTRY)
Ex. 9 Make up a story using the words below.

1.
 luxury items
 to afford sth
 to buy a brand name
 the demand for sth
 expensive
 to be of higher quality
 to be an important part of social identity
 to buy sth on credit
 to live paycheck to paycheck
 to raise/boost one’s self-esteem
 to reward oneself for sth
 to be trapped
2.
 to be shared unequally
 to afford sth
 basic necessities
 to benefit others
 to be among the lowest paid
15
 to endure special problems
 to live close to poverty
 to be below the poverty line
 to live paycheck to paycheck
 to be eligible to receive benefits
 to make purchases on credit
 to pay off debts
3.
 the postindustrial era
 to work in the service sector
 to face new challenges
 lifelong learning
 better-educated citizens
 highly skilled workers
 to require literacy skills
 to communicate effectively
 to be stuck in dead-end jobs
 to face fewer opportunities
 to blur the line between sth and sth
 a virtual office
Ex. 10 Develop a dialogue.

1. Your friend spends all the money on well-known brands to create the im-
age of a well-to-do, sophisticated person. You don't think that he/she acts in his/her
best financial interests as he/she usually buys things he/she can't afford. Try to per-
suade your friend to change his/her buying habits and live within his/her means.
2. You are talking to a well-to-do person who thinks that people who are not
well-off are simply lazy and don't want to work hard, so they get what they deserve.
Try to explain to him/her that he/she is not quite right.
3. Your son/daughter is going to quit university and start working as modern
society provides plenty of opportunity for earning money. Try to make him/her
change his/her mind.
Ex. 11 Translate the following sentences from Russian into English.

1. Экономика ‒ основной социальный институт, с помощью которого об-
щество производит, распределяет и потребляет товары и услуги. 2. Товары и
услуги обеспечивают выживание и делают нашу жизнь более легкой и интерес-
ной. 3. Люди, принадлежащие к среднему классу, могут позволить себе не
16
только товары первой необходимости, но также и многие блага современной
жизни. 4. Жизнь каждого человека во многом зависит от того, как именно рас-
пределяются товары и услуги. 5. В технологически примитивных обществах
экономика выступает в качестве составляющей жизни семьи. 6. Большинство
населения занято ручным трудом, направленным на удовлетворение элемен-
тарных потребностей. 7. Аграрные общества имеют определенную производ-
ственную специализацию. 8. Благодаря большему профессиональному расслое-
нию и новым источникам энергии, приводящим в движение машины на фабри-
ках, индустриализация способствует быстрому развитию экономики. 9. Для
постиндустриальной экономики характерен переход от производства товаров к
предоставлению услуг. 10. Подобно тому, как индустриальная революция под-
толкнула экономику прошлого, основанную на промышленном производстве, в
наши дни информационная революция благоприятствует постиндустриальной
экономике. 11. Информационная революция изменила не только характер рабо-
ты, выполняемой людьми, но и само понятие «рабочее место». 12. Большинство
промышленных рабочих могут потрогать продукты своего труда, в то время как
постиндустриальные работники манипулируют символами ради достижения
таких абстрактных целей, как придание большей привлекательности интернет-
сайту, превращение какой-либо компании в более прибыльную или разработка
самого удобного в эксплуатации программного обеспечения. 13. В доиндустри-
альных обществах доминировал первичный сектор экономики, обеспечиваю-
щий сырьевые ресурсы. 14. В индустриальных обществах основную роль игра-
ет вторичный сектор, производящий товары. 15. Третичный сектор, связанный с
предоставлением услуг, доминирует в постиндустриальных обществах.
17
ECONOMIC SYSTEMS
Part I
Capitalism
Capitalism is an economic system in which natural resources and the means of
producing goods and services are privately owned. An ideal capitalist economy has
three distinctive features:
1. Private ownership of property. In a capitalist economy, individuals can
own almost anything. The more capitalist an economy is, the more private ownership
there is of wealth-producing property, such as factories, real estate, and natural re-
sources.
2. Pursuit of personal profit. A capitalist society seeks to create profit and
wealth. The profit motive is the reason people take new jobs, open new businesses, or
try to improve products. Making money is considered the natural way of economic
life. Just as important, the Scottish philosopher Adam Smith (1723–1790) claimed
that as individuals pursue their self-interest, the entire society prospers.
3. Competition and consumer choice. A purely capitalist economy is a free-
market system with no government interference (sometimes called a laissez-faire
economy, from the French words meaning “leave it alone”). Adam Smith stated that a
freely competitive economy regulates itself by the “invisible hand” of the law of sup-
ply and demand. Consumers regulate a free-market economy, Smith explained, by
selecting the goods and services offering the greatest value. As producers compete for
the customer’s business, they provide the highest-quality goods at the lowest possible
prices. In Smith’s time-honored phrase, from narrow self-interest comes the “greatest
good for the greatest number of people.” Government control of an economy, on the
other hand, distorts market forces by reducing the quantity and quality of goods,
shortchanging consumers in the process.
Justice in a capitalist system amounts to freedom of the marketplace, where a
person can produce, invest, and buy according to individual self-interest.
18
them.
Capitalism, capitalist, natural, private, ideal, feature, ownership, pursuit, mo-
tive, entire, purely, interference, law, supply, highest-quality, shortchange.
into Russian.
To be privately owned; wealth-producing property; real estate; to seek to do
sth; the profit motive; to open new businesses; to be considered; the natural way of
economic life; the entire society; consumer choice; a purely capitalist economy; to
state sth; a freely competitive economy; the law of supply and demand; to offer the
greatest value; to compete for customer's business; to provide the highest-quality
goods at the lowest possible prices; narrow self-interest; the greatest good for the
greatest number of people; to distort market forces; to shortchange consumers; jus-
tice; to amount to sth.
Экономическая система; природные ресурсы; средства производства то-
варов и услуг; отличительные черты; стремление к ч-л; частная собственность;
владеть ч-л; создать прибыль и богатство; улучшать продукты; зарабатывать
деньги; утверждать; преследовать свои личные интересы; процветать; конку-
ренция; свободная рыночная система; вмешательство государства (правитель-
ства); регулировать себя; «невидимая рука» к-л/ч-л; выбирать товары и услуги;
проверенная временем фраза; правительственный контроль; с другой стороны;
сокращать количество и качество товаров; инвестировать; согласно ч-л.

1. (the) pursuit _____ sth
2. to compete _____ sth
3. _____ the other hand
4. to amount _____ sth
19
5. according _____ sth/sb

1. economy, economist, economics, economic, economical, economically, econo-
mize;
2. capital (n), capitalist (n), capitalist (adj), capitalism;
3. own (v), owner, ownership;
4. privacy, private, privately, privatize, privatization;
5. profit, profit (v), profitable, profitably, profitability;
6. prosper, prosperous, prosperity;
7. compete, competitor, competition, competitive, competitiveness;
8. interfere, interference.
1. Industrial relations should be free from state _______. INTERFERE
2. After the war, Germany became one of Europe's most _______ countries. PROS-
PER
3. New machinery has enhanced the company’s productivity and _______. COM-
PETE
4. The city decided to _______ the municipal power company. PRIVATE
5. The country is still _______ dependent on agriculture. ECONOMY
6. The advertising campaign proved very _______. PROFIT
7. The government wants to transfer these companies into private _______. OWN
8. With _______, people are motivated by the idea of personal profit and success.
CAPITAL
Ex. 6 Explain the meaning of the following terms:

1. a laissez-faire economy
2. the law of supply and demand

1. What is capitalism?
2. What is it characterized by?
3. What does private ownership of property mean?
4. Why is it possible to say that capitalism is profit driven?
5. What did Adam Smith claim?
6. What is understood by a laisser-faire economy?
7. How do consumers regulate a free-market economy, according to A. Smith?
20
8. What are the negative effects of government control?
9. What does freedom of the marketplace imply?
Ex. 8 Read the following text and translate it into Russian. Say in what
way contemporary capitalism is different from laissez-faire.
Today, capitalism has taken on a somewhat different form. Private ownership
and maximization of profits still remain the most significant characteristics of capital-
ist economic systems. However, in contrast to the era of laissez-faire, capitalism to-
day features government regulation of economic relations. Without restrictions, busi-
ness firms can mislead consumers, endanger workers’ safety, and even defraud the
companies’ investors ‒ all in the pursuit of greater profits. That is why the govern-
ment of a capitalist nation often monitors prices, sets safety and environmental stand-
ards for industries, protects the rights of consumers, and regulates collective bargain-
ing between labor unions and management. Yet under capitalism as an ideal type,
government rarely takes over ownership of an entire industry.
Contemporary capitalism also differs from laissez-faire in another important
respect: capitalism tolerates monopolistic practices. A monopoly exists when a single
business firm controls the market. Domination of an industry allows the firm to effec-
tively control a commodity by dictating pricing, quality standards, and availability.
Buyers have little choice but to yield to the firm’s decisions; there is no other place to
purchase the product or service. Monopolistic practices violate the ideal of free com-
petition cherished by Adam Smith and other supporters of laissez-faire capitalism.
Some capitalistic nations, such as the United States, outlaw monopolies through anti-
trust legislation. Such laws prevent any business from taking over so much of the
competition in an industry that it controls the market. The U.S. federal government
allows monopolies to exist only in certain exceptional cases, such as the utility and
transportation industries. Even then, regulatory agencies scrutinize these officially
approved monopolies to protect the public. The protracted legal battle between the
Justice Department and Microsoft, owner of the dominant operating system for per-
sonal computers, illustrates the uneasy relationship between government and private
monopolies in capitalistic countries.
21
Ex. 9 Complete the sentences using the words from the box.
availability defraud monitor utilities purchase maximization
antitrust monopoly labor outlaw
1. We are going to __________ the campaign to assess its effectiveness.
2. Gas and electricity are essential __________ and they should be taken back into
public ownership.
3. In the past central government had a __________ on television broadcasting.
4. When you __________ something, you buy it.
5. The process through which the company is capable of increasing earning capacity
is known as profit __________.
6. The point of __________ laws is to prevent restrictions on competition.
7. He is charged with attempting to __________ his business partner.
8. The __________ of goods or services is a key consideration in determining the
price at which those goods or services can be obtained.
9. A few cities, including San Francisco, explicitly __________ weight discrimina-
tion.
10. A __________ union is an organization intended to represent the collective inter-
ests of workers in negotiations with employers.
Part II
Socialism
Socialism is an economic system in which natural resources and the means of
producing goods and services are collectively owned. In its ideal form, a socialist
economy rejects each of the three characteristics of capitalism described earlier in fa-
vor of three opposite features:
1. Collective ownership of property. A socialist economy limits rights to pri-
vate property, especially property used to generate income. Government controls
such property and makes housing and other goods available to all, not just to the peo-
ple with the most money.
2. Pursuit of collective goals. The individualistic pursuit of profit goes against
the collective orientation of socialism. What capitalism celebrates as the “entrepre-
neurial spirit,” socialism condemns as greed; individuals are expected to work for the
common good of all.
22
3. Government control of the economy. Socialism rejects capitalism’s lais-
sez-faire approach in favor of a centrally controlled or command economy operated
by the government. Commercial advertising thus plays little role in socialist econo-
mies.
Justice in a socialist context means not competing to gain wealth but meeting
everyone’s basic needs in a roughly equal manner. From a socialist point of view, the
common capitalist practice of giving workers as little in pay and benefits as possible
to boost company earnings is unjust because it puts profits before people.
The People’s Republic of China, Cuba, North Korea, and more than two dozen
other nations in Asia, Africa, and Latin America model their economies on socialism,
placing almost all wealth-generating property under state control. The extent of world
socialism declined during the 1990s as most of the countries in Eastern Europe and
the former Soviet Union have geared their economies toward a market system. More
recently, however, voters in Bolivia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and other nations in South
America have elected leaders who have moved the national economies in a socialist
direction.
Ex. 1 a) Find out which syllable is stressed in the following words and put
them in the correct column. Practise saying them.
Control, ideal, opposite, profit, common, command, extent, manner
 ☺ ☺   ☺  ☺  
b) Look at the phonetic spelling of some of the words. Practise saying

them.
[əˈveɪləbl]
[ˌɪndəvɪdʒuəˈlɪstɪk]
[ˌɒntrəprəˈnɜːriəl]
[rɪˈdʒekt]
23
[əˈprəʊtʃ]
[ˈrʌfli]
[ˈdʌzn]
[ɡɪə(r)]
1. to reject (par.1)
a) to accept or agree with something;
b) to refuse to accept or agree with something;
c) to ignore someone, not to give them love or attention.
2. to celebrate (par.3)
a) to praise someone or something;
b) to show that an event or occasion is important by doing something special or
enjoyable;
c) to criticize someone for doing sth.
3. to condemn (par.3)
a) to say strongly that you do not approve of something or someone;
b) to give someone a severe punishment after deciding they are guilty of a crime;
c) to praise someone or something.
4. to boost (par.5)
a) to limit sth;
b) to make something increase or become better;
c) to decrease.
5. to decline (par.6)
a) to expand;
b) to become larger in number, amount, or degree;
c) to decrease in quantity or importance.
into Russian.
To be collectively owned; to reject sth; in favor of sth; to generate income; to
make sth available to sb; the individualistic pursuit of profit; the collective orientation
24
of socialism; to celebrate sth as sth; to condemn sth as sth; capitalism's laisser-faire
approach; in a roughly equal manner; from a socialist point of view; two dozen other
nations; to model one's economy on socialism; the extent of world socialism; to gear
one's economy toward a market system; to move one's economy in a socialist direc-
tion.
Коллективное владение собственностью; ограничивать права на владение
частной собственностью; стремление к коллективным целям; дух предприни-
мательства; жадность; трудиться на общее благо; централизованно управляе-
мая или командная экономика; коммерческая реклама; приобретать богатство;
удовлетворять основные потребности каждого, стимулировать рост доходов
компании; несправедливый; ставить получение прибыли выше интересов лю-
дей; приносящая доходы собственность; передать ч-л под контроль государ-
ства; идти на убыль; большинство стран Восточной Европы и бывшего Совет-
ского Союза; избиратели; выбирать лидеров.

1. _______ favor of sth
2. (the) right _______ sth
3. to make sth available_______ sb
4. to work_______ the common good
5. _______ sb's point of view
6. to put sth _______ people
7. to model sth _____ sth
8. to place sth _______ control
9. to move _______ a direction
Ex. 6 Find antonyms in A and B.

A to reject; to be privately owned; available; the common good; equal; to cele-
brate sth as sth; unjust; to reduce; a command economy.
B just; unequal; to boost; to be collectively owned; a free market economy; to
accept; to condemn sth as sth; self-interest; unavailable.
25
Ex. 7 Agree or disagree with the following statements.
1. Under socialism, the means of production and distribution in a society are privately
owned.
2. Government ownership of all major industries is a primary feature of socialism as
an ideal type.
3. The basic objective of socialism is to meet people’s needs rather than to maximize
profits.
4. Socialists accept the laissez-faire philosophy that free competition benefits the
general public.
5. They believe that the central government, acting as the representative of the peo-
ple, should make basic economic decisions.
Ex. 8 Comment on the following jokes about life in the Soviet Union.
1. Socialism is a system of governance that heroically overcomes problems that do
not exist under other systems.
2. Bedbugs appeared in the house occupied by the secretary of the region Party com-
mittee. The Party boss summoned an expert on insects and asked him how to get
rid of bedbugs. “The best way is to organize them into a collective farm,” he tells
the Party boss. “Half of them will flee and the rest will starve to death.”
3. “Granddaughter, please explain Communism to me,” an old Russian woman asks

her granddaughter. “How will people live under it? They probably teach you all
about it in school.”
“Of course they do, Granny,” her granddaughter responds. “When we reach Com-
munism, the shops will be full – there’ll be butter, and meat, and sausage…you’ll
be able to go and buy anything you want...”
“Ah!” exclaimed the old woman joyfully. “Just like under the Tsar!”
4. A delegation of Soviet workers is visiting an American factory.
“Whose factory is it?”
“Ford’s.”
“Whose cars are parked in the lot?”
“Workers’.”
American delegation in the USSR:
“Whose factory is it?”
“It belongs to workers.”
26
“Whose car is in the parking lot?”
“Director’s.”
5. This is Armenian Radio; our listeners asked us: “What is the most permanent fea-
ture of our socialist economy?”
We’re answering: “Temporary shortages.”
6. A Briton, a Frenchman, and a Russian are standing and staring at a portrait of Ad-
am and Eve.
“Look at their calm, their reserve,” says the Briton. “Surely they must be British!”
“Nonsense!” replies the Frenchman. “They are beautiful. Surely they must be
French! ”
The Russian finally speaks, “They have no clothes, no shelter, only an apple to eat,
and are being told this is paradise. They are Russian.”
Part III
Socialism and Communism
Many people think of socialism and communism as the same thing, but they are
not. Communism is a hypothetical economic and political system in which all mem-
bers of a society are socially equal. Karl Marx viewed socialism as one important
step on the path toward the ideal of a communist society that abolishes all class divi-
sions. In many socialist societies today, the dominant political party describes itself
as communist, but the communist goal has not been achieved in any country.
Why? For one thing, social stratification involves differences in power as well
as wealth. Socialist societies have reduced economic differences by regulating peo-
ple’s range of choices. In the process, government did not “wither away,” as Marx
imagined it would. Rather, government has grown, giving socialist political elites
enormous power and privilege. Marx might have agreed that a communist society is a
utopia (from Greek words meaning “no place”). Yet Marx considered communism a
worthy goal and might well have objected to so-called Marxist societies such as
North Korea, the People’s Republic of China, and Cuba for falling short of the prom-
ise of communism.
27
Welfare Capitalism and State Capitalism
Some nations of Western Europe, including Sweden and Italy, have market-
based economies but also offer broad social welfare programs. Analysts call this
type of economic system welfare capitalism, an economic and political system
that combines a mostly market-based economy with extensive social welfare pro-
grams.
Under welfare capitalism, the government owns some of the largest indus-
tries and services, such as transportation, the mass media, and health care. In
Greece, France, and Sweden, almost half of economic production is “national-
ized,” or state-controlled. Most industry is left in private hands, although it is sub-
ject to extensive government regulation. High taxation (aimed especially at the
rich) funds a wide range of social welfare programs, including universal health care
and child care. In Sweden, for example, government provided social services repre-
sent 27 percent of all economic output, much higher than the 16 percent share in the
United States (OECD, 2011).
Another blend of capitalism and socialism is state capitalism, an economic
and political system in which companies are privately owned but cooperate closely
with the government. State capitalism is the rule among the nations along the Pacific
Rim. Japan, South Korea, and Singapore are all capitalist countries, but their gov-
ernments work in partnership with large companies, supplying financial assistance
and controlling foreign imports to help their businesses compete in world markets.
Ex. 1 Check the pronunciation of the following words and practise reading
them.
Hypothetical, wither, elite, enormous, utopia, worthy, object (v), welfare, na-
tionalized, Cuba, Japan, Singapore.

1) hypothetical a) extremely large;
2) wither away b) in a situation where you have to obey a rule or a law;
28
3) an elite c) based on situations or ideas which are possible and imag-
ined rather than real and true;
4) enormous d) practical or financial help that is provided, often by the
government, for people or animals that need it;
5) fall short of sth e) a group of people who have a lot of power and influence
because they have money, knowledge, or special skills;
6) welfare f) to not reach a particular level or to fail to achieve some-
thing that you were trying to do;
7) a blend of … g) to gradually become weaker or less successful and then
end;
8) subject to sth h) a mixture of different things that combine together well.
Use these words to complete the sentences below. Change the form of the
word if necessary.
1. The council has spent an __________ amount of money on this project.
2. All our hopes just ___________.
3. I wasn't asking about anybody in particular ‒ it was a purely __________ question.
4. Facilities in these schools __________ the standards required.
5. The President has been accused of developing policies in favor of a small
__________.
6. The public areas offer a subtle __________ of traditional charm with modern
amenities.
7. As a diplomat, he is not __________ local laws.
8. The eurozone faces profound financial, __________ and demographic challenges.
Ex. 3 Explain the meaning of the following words and word combinations.
1. to abolish sth
2. privilege
3. a utopia
4. to nationalize sth
5. economic output
6. to be the rule among …
29
into Russian.
a) To think of socialism and communism as the same thing; a hypothetical
economic and political system; to view sth as sth; to describe oneself as communist;
the communist goal; for one thing; to involve differences in power as well as wealth;
to regulate people's range of choices; to wither away; a utopia; so-called Marxist so-
cieties; to fall short of the promise of communism;
b) To combine a mostly market-based economy with extensive social welfare
programs; under welfare capitalism; to own some of the largest industries and ser-
vices; economic production; to be subject to extensive government regulation; to be
aimed especially at the rich; universal health care and child care; government provid-
ed social services; a blend of …; state capitalism; to be the rule among the nations
along the Pacific Rim; to work in partnership with large companies; to control foreign
imports.
a) Быть социально равными; устранять классовые различия; доминирую-
щая политическая партия; достичь цели; социальная стратификация; умень-
шить экономические различия; наделить политическую элиту безграничной
властью и привилегиями; возражать против ч-л;
б) Программы социального обеспечения; аналитики; СМИ; здравоохра-
нение; быть национализированным/подконтрольным государству; быть в част-
ных руках; высокое налогообложение; финансировать широкий круг социаль-
ных программ; объем производства; доля/часть; тесно сотрудничать с прави-
тельством; предоставлять финансовую помощь; конкурировать на мировых
рынках.

1. to think _______ sth/sb
2. to object _______ sth
30
3. to fall short _____ sth
4. to combine sth _______ sth
5. to be subject _______ sth
6. (to be) aimed _______ sb/sth
7. to cooperate _______ sb/sth
8. _______ partnership with sb

1. Are socialism and communism the same? Why?/Why not?
2. How did Karl Marx view socialism?
3. Has the communist goal been achieved anywhere? Why?
4. What do analysts understand by welfare capitalism?
5. What does the government own under welfare capitalism?
6. Where can welfare capitalism be found?
7. What is typical of these countries? How are social welfare programs funded?
8. What is state capitalism?
9. Where can it be found?
10. In what way do governments of these countries cooperate with large companies?

1. Капитализм основан на частной собственности на средства производ-
ства и стремлении к получению прибыли в условиях рыночной конкуренции. 2.
В основе социализма ‒ коллективная собственность на средства производства и
государственный контроль над экономикой. 3. Капитализм ‒ в высшей степени
продуктивная экономическая система, обеспечивающая в целом высокий уро-
вень жизни. Она предоставляет гражданам свободу действовать в личных инте-
ресах. 5. Социализм менее продуктивен, но создает условия для большего эко-
номического равенства. 6. Если каждый действует в соответствии со своими
личными интересами, неизбежно возникает ситуация, при которой у одних
больше власти для достижения таких целей, чем у других. Именно эта элита и
доминирует в экономической и политической жизни страны. 7. В отличие от
31
капиталистической системы социалистическая претендует на то, чтобы назы-
ваться демократической, поскольку ее экономика удовлетворяет базовые по-
требности всех граждан в жилище, образовании, работе и медицинском обслу-
живании. 8. Хотя экономика США и является по преимуществу капиталистиче-
ской, государство активно участвует в экономической жизни. В Швеции,
например, и во многих азиатских странах с государственным капитализмом,
включая Японию, роль государства в экономике еще значительнее.
Ex. 9 Discuss the following questions.

1. Karl Marx considered communism a worthy goal. Do you share his point of
view?
2. What type of economy did the Soviet Union have? What was it characterized by?
3. What type of economy does the Russian Federation have? What are its basic
characteristics?
4. In which direction would you like the economy of the Russian Federation move,
towards welfare capitalism or state capitalism?
32
POWER AND AUTHORITY
Part I
Defining Power and Authority
Politics is the social institution through which a society distributes power,

sets goals, and makes decisions.
The sociologist Max Weber (1978, orig. 1921) claimed that every society is
based on power, which he defined as the ability to achieve desired ends despite re-
sistance from others. The use of power is the business of government, a formal or-
ganization that directs the political life of a society. Governments demand compli-
ance on the part of a population; yet Weber noted that most governments do not
openly threaten their people. Most of the time, people respect, or at least accept, their
society’s political system.
No government, Weber explained, is likely to keep its power for long if com-
pliance comes only from the threat of brute force. Even the most brutal dictator must
wonder if there can ever be enough police to watch everyone ‒ and who would watch
the police? Every government, therefore, tries to make itself seem legitimate in the
eyes of the people. This fact brings us to Weber’s concept of authority, power that
people perceive as legitimate rather than coercive. How do governments transform
raw power into more stable authority? Weber pointed to three ways: traditional au-
thority, rational-legal authority, and charismatic authority.
them.
Sociologist, government, compliance, accept, threat, threaten, legitimate, au-
thority, perceive, coercive, rational-legal, charismatic
33
1) resistance a) allowed and acceptable according to the law; legal;
2) legitimate b) to understand or think of somebody/something in a particu-
lar way;
3) threaten c) using force or the threat of force;
4) compliance d) to tell someone that you will kill or hurt them, or cause
problems for them if they do not do what you want;
5) coercive e) dislike of or opposition to sth; refusal to obey;
6) perceive f) the practice of obeying rules or requests made by people in
authority.
Complete the sentences below using the words from the chart. Change the
form of the word if necessary.
1. If you __________ me or use any force, I'll inform the police.
2. The government took elaborate precautions to crush any __________.
3. __________ with the law is expected of all.
4. Russia __________ US-led international order as a threat to its security.
5. The president relied on the __________ powers of the military.
6. The __________ government was overthrown in a coup.
into Russian.
To claim sth; despite resistance from others; the business of government; on
the part of a population; to note sth; to accept one's political system; the threat of
brute force; to seem legitimate; to bring us to the concept of …; to perceive sth as le-
gitimate rather than coercive; raw power; stable authority; rational-legal authority.
Быть основанным на власти; достигать желаемых целей; руководить по-
литической жизнью общества; требовать подчинения; открыто угрожать своему
34
народу; уважать к-л/ч-л; удерживать власть долго; самый жестокий диктатор;
следить за к-л/ч-л; законный; принудительный; превращать ч-л во ч-л; указы-
вать на ч-л, традиционный тип власти; харизматический тип власти.

1. to be based _______ sth 5. _______ the eyes of sb
2. resistance _______ sb 6. to bring sb _______ sth
3. _______ the part of sb 7. to transform sth _______ sth
4. to keep sth _______ long 8. to point _______ sth

1. resist, resistance, resistant;
2. govern, governor, government, governing, governmental, governmentally;
3. comply, compliance, compliant;
4. threaten, threat, threatening, threateningly;
5. legitimate (v), legitimize, legitimacy/illegitimacy, legitimate/illegitimate, legiti-
mately/ illegitimately;
6. perceive, perception;
7. coerce, coercion, coercive, coercively.
1. __________ people are willing to do what other people want them to. COMPLY
2. The government has been __________ elected by the people. LEGITIMATE
3. The ultimate decisions are taken at __________, even presidential, level. GOV-
ERN
4. The public __________ of the government’s performance is far from positive.
PERCEIVE
5. When taken collectively these acts signify a deeper, more __________ tendency.
THRATEN
6. It was vital that the elections should be free of __________ or intimidation. CO-
ERCE
7. We may be very __________ to changing our beliefs. RESIST
35
Ex. 7 Complete the following sentences.
1. Max Weber claimed that every society is based on …………………………….…
2. According to him, power is the ability to ………………………………………….
3. The use of power is the business of …………………………………………….….
4. Government is a formal organization that …………………………………………
5. Governments demand ……………………………………………………………...
6. People respect, or at least accept, ………………………………………………….
7. No government can keep its power for long if …………………………………….
8. That is why every government tries to make itself seem ………………………….
9. According to Weber, authority is ………………………………………………….
10. There are three types of authority: ………………………………………………...
Part II
Traditional Authority
Preindustrial societies, said Weber, rely on traditional authority, power legit-
imized by respect for long-established cultural patterns. Woven into a population’s
collective memory, traditional authority means that people accept a system, usually
one of hereditary leadership, simply because it has always been that way. Chinese
emperors in centuries past were legitimized by tradition, as were aristocratic rulers in
medieval Europe. The power of tradition can be so strong that, for better or worse,
people typically come to view traditional rulers as almost godlike.
Traditional authority declines as societies industrialize. Hannah Arendt (1963)
pointed out that traditional authority remains strong only as long as everyone shares
the same beliefs and way of life. Modern scientific thinking, the specialization de-
manded by industrial production, and the social changes and cultural diversity result-
ing from immigration all combine to weaken tradition.
Around the world, there are still hereditary rulers who claim a traditional right
to rule. But this claim is increasingly out of step with modern society. Some tradi-
tional rulers persist by relinquishing most of their power (as in the United Kingdom)
36
or at the other extreme by keeping their people cut off from the world and in a state
of total subjugation (as in North Korea).
Traditional authority is also a source of strength for patriarchy, the domination
of women by men. This traditional form of power is still widespread, although it is
increasingly challenged. Less controversial is the traditional authority parents have
over their children. As children, most of us can remember challenging a parent’s de-
mand by asking “Why?” only to hear the response “Because I said so!” Answering
this way, the parent makes clear that the demand is not open to debate; to respond
otherwise would ignore the parent’s traditional authority over the child and put the
two on an equal footing.
them.
Rely, legitimize, pattern, hereditary, emperor, medieval, Europe, diversity, in-
creasingly, relinquish, extreme, subjugation, patriarchy, controversial.
Ex. 2 In the text find the words that mean the following:
1. officially passed from a parent to their child (par.1)
2. to decrease in importance (par.2)
3. the existence of a variety of cultural or ethnic groups within a society (par.2)
4. not in agreement; out of harmony (par.3)
5. to give up power (par.3)
6. forced submission to control by others (par.3)
7. with neither side having any advantage over the other (par. 4)
into Russian.
Preindustrial societies; long-established cultural patterns; (to be) woven into
sth; hereditary leadership; in centuries past; the power of tradition; for better or
worse; to come to do sth; to industrialize; as long as; modern scientific thinking; to
result from immigration; to claim a traditional right to rule; to be out of step with
modern society; at the other extreme; in a state of total subjugation; the domination of
37
women by men; to be increasingly challenged; less controversial; to challenge a
parent's demand; not to be open to debate; to respond otherwise; to put the two on an
equal footing.
Полагаться на ч-л; уважение к к-л/ч-л; коллективная память населения;
принимать систему; быть узаконенными по традиции; аристократические пра-
вители в средневековой Европе; считать традиционных правителей богоподоб-
ными; идти на убыль; указывать, что ….; иметь (разделять) одни и те же убеж-
дения и образ жизни; культурное многообразие; ослаблять традицию; наслед-
ные правители; сохраняться (продолжать существовать); отказаться от большей
части власти; удерживать людей в изоляции от мира; источник силы для патри-
архата; быть распространенным; иметь власть над к-л; дать понять (выразить
свою позицию); игнорировать традиционную власть родителя над ребенком.

1. to rely _______ sb/sth
2. respect _______ sb/sth
3. (to be) woven _______ sth
4. _______ better or worse
5. to result ______ sth (= come from)
6. to be out of step ______ sb/sth
7. _______ the other/opposite extreme
8. (to be) cut off _______ sth
9. to have authority _______ sb
10. _______ an equal footing
Ex. 6 Find antonyms in A and B.

A respect, in step with sb/sth, to strengthen, collective, to decline, to retain
power.
B to weaken, individual, to relinquish power, disrespect, to flourish, out of step

with sb/sth.
38
1. What type of authority do preindustrial societies rely on?
2. What is understood by traditional authority?
3. Why do people accept a system of hereditary leadership?
4. How do people often view traditional rulers?
5. Why does traditional authority decline as societies industrialize?
6. Are there still hereditary rulers in the world? Where can they be found?
7. Where can traditional authority be observed in everyday life?

1. Preindustrial societies rely on ……………………………………………………...
2. Traditional authority is …………………………………………………………….
3. It is woven into …………………………………………………………………….
4. People accept a system of hereditary leadership because …………………………
5. The power of tradition can be so strong that ………………………………………
6. Traditional authority declines as …………………………………………………..
7. ………………………………………………………………..….weaken tradition.
8. Around the world, there are still …………………………………...........................
9. They persist by …………………………………. (as in the United Kingdom) or
by …………………………………. (as in North Korea).
Part III
Rational-Legal Authority
Weber defined rational-legal authority (sometimes called bureaucratic au-
thority) as power legitimized by legally enacted rules and regulations. Rational-legal
authority is power legitimized in the operation of lawful government.
Weber viewed bureaucracy as the type of organization that dominates in ra-
tional-thinking, modern societies. The same rational worldview that promotes bu-
reaucracy also erodes traditional customs and practices. Instead of looking to the past,
39
members of today’s high-income societies seek justice through the operation of a po-
litical system that follows formally enacted rules of law.
Rationally enacted rules also guide the use of power in everyday life. The au-
thority of deans and classroom teachers, for example, rests on the offices they hold in
bureaucratic colleges and universities. The police, too, depend on rational-legal au-
thority. In contrast to traditional authority, rational-legal authority comes not from
family background but from a position in government organization. A traditional
monarch rules for life, but a modern president or prime minister accepts and gives up
power according to law, which shows that presidential authority lies in the office, not
in the person.
them.
Bureaucracy, bureaucratic, legitimize, legitimized, legal, legally, erode, guide,
monarch.
1. Rational-legal authority is power legitimized in the operation of lawful govern-
ment.
a) the process of cutting into someone’s body to repair or remove a part that is
damaged;
b) the work or activities done by an organization, or the process of doing this
work;
2. Weber viewed bureaucracy as the type of organization that dominates in rational-
thinking, modern societies.
a) all the complicated rules and processes of an official system, especially when
they are confusing or responsible for causing a delay;
b) a system of government that uses a large number of departments and officials.
3. The same rational worldview that promotes bureaucracy also erodes traditional
customs and practices.
40
a) gradually destroys the surface of something through the action of wind, rain,
etc.;
b) gradually destroys something or makes it weaker over a period of time.
4. Instead of looking to the past, members of today’s high-income societies seek
justice through the operation of a political system ‹…›.
a) relying upon sth;

b) expecting; looking forward to sth.
5. The authority of deans and classroom teachers, for example, rests on the offices
they hold in bureaucratic colleges and universities.
a) rooms where people work, usually sitting at desks;

b) important jobs or positions with power, especially in government.
into Russian.
Rational-legal authority; legally enacted rules and regulations; to view sth
as …; rational worldview; to promote bureaucracy; to look to the past; the operation
of a political system; rationally enacted rules; the authority of the dean and classroom
teachers; to hold an office; bureaucratic colleges and universities; in contrast to sth;
family background; according to sth; presidential authority; to lie in the office, not in
the person.
into English.
Узаконивать; деятельность законного правительства; преобладать; рацио-
нально мыслящее современное общество; подрывать традиционные устои и
практики; общество с высоким уровнем доходов; искать справедливости; сле-
довать принятым правовым нормам; задавать направление применению власти
в повседневной жизни; основываться/покоиться на ч-л; зависеть от ч-л; проис-
ходить/проистекать из ч-л; править на протяжении всей жизни; принимать и
отдавать власть.
41
1. instead ______ (doing) sth
2. to look _______ sth
3. to rest _______ sth
4. to depend _______ sth
5. in contrast _______ sth
6. to come _______ sth (= to result from sth)
7. according _______ sth
8. to lie _______ sth (= to exist)

1. rational/irrational, rationality/irrationality, rationally/irrationally, rationalist, ra-
tionalism, rationalize , rationalization;
2. legal/illegal, legality/illegality, legally/illegally, legalize, legalization;
3. bureaucracy, bureaucrat, bureaucratic, bureaucratically, bureaucratize;
4. dominate, dominating, domination;
5. enact, re-enact, enactment.

1. What is Weber's definition of rational-legal authority?
2. What is bureaucracy, according to Weber?
3. How does the rational worldview affect traditional customs and practices?
4. What do members of today's high-income societies rely on while seeking justice?
5. How do rationally enacted rules guide the use of power in everyday life?
6. What is the difference between traditional and rational-legal authority?

1. According to Weber, rational-legal authority is ……………………………….…
2. Bureaucracy is the type of organization that ………………………………………
3. The same rational worldview that promotes bureaucracy also …………………..
4. In high-income societies, people seek justice through …………………………
that follows formally enacted rules of law.
42
5. Rationally enacted rules also guide ………………………………………………
6. The authority of deans and classroom teachers rests on …………………………
7. ……………………… depend on rational-legal authority.
8. Rational-legal authority comes not from …………….. but from ……………..…
9. A modern president or prime minister accepts and gives up power ………………
10. It shows that presidential authority lies in …………………………………………
Ex. 9 Complete the text using the words from the box. Translate it into
Russian.
division legitimacy inevitably promoted remote procedures
influence (v) downward administer temperament bureaucratic
discretion adherence stipulations frustrating
According to Weber, rational-legal authority leads (1) __________ to the for-

mation of bureaucracies. A bureaucracy is a formal organization characterized by an
authority hierarchy, a clear (2) __________ of labor, explicit rules, and impersonali-
ty. Bureaucratic power comes from the accepted (3) __________ of the rules, not
personal ties to individuals. The rules may change, but they do so through formal (4)
__________. People who work within bureaucracies are selected, trained, and (5)
__________ based on how well they apply the rules. Those who establish the rules
are unlikely to be the same people who (6) __________ them. Bureaucracies are hi-
erarchical, and the bureaucratic leadership may be quite (7) __________. Power in
bureaucracies is dispersed (8) __________ through the system to those who actually
carry out the (9) __________ functions. It is an odd feature of bureaucracy that those
with the least power to (11) __________ how the rules are formulated ‒ those at the
bottom of the hierarchy ‒ are often the most adamant about strict (12) __________ to
the rules; their job evaluation may rest on their enforcement.
Within bureaucracies, personal (12) __________ and individual discretion are
not supposed to influence the application of rules. But, bureaucracy has another face.
Rank-and-file bureaucratic workers frequently exercise (13) __________ in applying
rules and procedures, “working the system,” perhaps by personalizing the interaction
43
or dodging bureaucratic (14) __________. But, most of the time, dealing with an
elaborate bureaucracy ‒ even an electronic one like voice mail ‒ can be very
(15) __________.
Part IV
Charismatic Authority
Finally, Weber claimed that power can turn into authority through charisma.
Charismatic authority is power legitimized by extraordinary personal abilities that
inspire devotion and obedience. Unlike traditional and rational-legal authority, char-
ismatic authority depends less on a person’s ancestry or office and more on personali-
ty.
Charismatic leaders have surfaced throughout history, using their personal
skills to turn an audience into followers. Often they make their own rules and chal-
lenge the status quo. Examples of charismatic leaders can be as different as Jesus of
Nazareth and Adolf Hitler. The fact that they and others, such as India’s liberator,
Mahatma Gandhi, and the U.S. civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr., succeeded
in transforming the society around them certainly shows the power of charisma. And
it probably explains why charismatics are highly controversial and why few of them
die of old age.
Because charismatic authority flows from a single individual, the leader’s
death creates a crisis. Survival of a charismatic movement, Weber explained, requires
the routinization of charisma, the transformation of charismatic authority into some
combination of traditional and bureaucratic authority. After the death of Jesus, for
example, followers institutionalized his teachings in a church, built on tradition and
bureaucracy. Routinized in this way, the Roman Catholic Church has lasted for 2,000
years.
them.
Charisma, charismatic, extraordinary, ancestry, surface (v), audience, status
quo, crisis, Jesus of Nazareth, Mahatma Gandhi, routinize, routinization.
44
Ex. 2 Match the words in A to their definitions in B.
A B
1) charisma a) to suddenly appear or become obvious after having been
hidden for a while;
2) to surface b) the members of your family who lived a long time ago;
3) obedience c) to refuse to accept that something is right, fair, or legal;
4) to challenge d) to make something a normal accepted part of a social

system or organization;
5) ancestry e) the state of a situation as it is;
6) to routinize f) a natural ability to attract and interest other people and

make them admire you;
7) the status quo g) when someone does what they are told to do, or what a
law, rule etc says they must do;
8) to institutionalize h) to make something regular and usual.
Use the words from the chart to complete the sentences below.
1. He attracts a lot of interesting people with his __________ and gift of communi-
cation.
2. The very attempt to __________ charisma, to tame it and harness it to the service
of mundane ends, leads only to its dissipation.
3. How far back can you trace your own __________?
4. Weber’s theory predicts that social movements will __________ their ideals in a
bureaucratic structure.
5. The totalitarian political system demands complete __________ to its extensive
rules regarding culture, economics, religion, and morality.
6. Rumors about his alleged porn star mistress have begun to __________ in the
press.
7. Certain people always want to maintain the ___________.
8. As more and more women became aware of sexist attitudes and practices, they
began to __________ male dominance.
45
into Russian.
To claim; (to be) legitimized; to inspire sth; to depend less on a person's ances-
try or office; throughout history; to turn an audience into followers; to challenge the
status quo; India's liberator; civil rights leader; to succeed in sth; to be highly contro-
versial; to flow from a single individual; survival of a charismatic movement; routini-
zation of charisma; a combination of traditional and bureaucratic authority; to institu-
tionalize sth; (to be built) on tradition and bureaucracy; to last.
Харизма; харизматическая власть; выдающиеся личные качества; при-
верженность и подчинение; зависеть от ч-л; предки человека; выходить на по-
верхность; использовать личные навыки; создавать свои собственные правила;
обладающие харизмой лидеры; трансформировать общество; умирать от старо-
сти; создавать кризис; требовать ч-л; трансформация ч-л во ч-л; последователи;
учение к-л.

2. to turn sth/sb _______ sth/sb
3. to succeed _______ sth
4. to die _______ sth
5. to flow _______ sth
6. (to be ) built _______ sth

1. According to Weber, power can turn into authority through ………………….......
2. Charismatic authority is power legitimized by ……………………………………
3. Charismatic authority depends less on ………….and more on…………………..
4. Charismatic leaders use their personal skills to …………………………………...
5. They make …………. and challenge ……………………………………………..
46
6. …………………………………………………. are examples of charismatic
leaders.
7. As a rule, charismatics are highly …………… and few of them ………………...
8. When a charismatic leader dies, it usually ……………………………………......
9. Survival of charismatic movement requires ………………………………….….
10. Routinization of charisma is ………………………………………..………….....
Ex. 7 Charismatic leaders are among the most interesting figures in world
history. Find information about one of them and write a paragraph describing
the qualities that made this person influential.
47
POLITICAL SYSTEMS
Part I
Political Systems: Historical Overview
Political systems have changed over the course of history. Technologically
simple hunting and gathering societies, once found all over the planet, operated like
large families without formal governments. Leadership generally fell to a man with
unusual strength, hunting skill, or personal charisma. But with few resources, such
leaders might control their own people but could never rule a large area.
Agrarian societies are larger with specialized jobs and material surpluses. In
these societies, a small elite gains control of most of the wealth and power, so that
politics is not just a matter of powerful individuals but a more complex social institu-
tion in its own right. This is the point in history when power passed from generation
to generation within a single family and leaders start to claim a divine right to rule,
gaining some measure of Weber’s traditional authority. Leaders may also benefit
from rational-legal authority to the extent that their rule is supported by law.
As societies grow bigger, politics takes the form of a national government, or
political state. But the effectiveness of a political state depends on the available tech-
nology. Centuries ago, armies moved slowly on foot, and communication over even
short distances was uncertain. For this reason, the early political empires ‒ such as
Mesopotamia in the Middle East about 5,000 years ago ‒ took the form of many
small city-states.
More complex technology brings about the large-scale system of nation-states.
Currently, the world has 194 independent nation-states, each with a somewhat dis-
tinctive political system. Generally, however, these political systems fall into four
categories: monarchy, democracy, authoritarianism, and totalitarianism.
48
them.
Divine, measure, currently, empire, monarchy, authoritarianism, totalitarian-
ism.

1) fall to sb a) at the present time
2) in its own right b) coming from or relating to God or a god
3) divine c) become the duty or responsibility of somebody
4) bring sth about d) a certain quantity or degree of something
5) a measure of sth e) because of its own special qualities and not because of
a connection with something else
6) currently f) make sth happen
Use them to complete the sentences below. Change the form of the words if
necessary.
1. The system gives people __________ protection against pollution.
2. This matter is __________ being discussed.
3. Major spending is required to __________ substantial improvements in hous-
ing.
4. The emperor was considered the nation's __________ spiritual leader.
5. Though it's based on a best-selling novel, the movie is great __________.
6. On Election Day, the primary responsibility for voter education __________
Election Day workers.
into Russian.
The course of history; technologically simple hunting and gathering societies;
to operate like large families; to fall to sb; with few resources; agrarian societies; spe-
cialized jobs and material surpluses; a small elite; a matter of powerful individuals; a
more complex social institution in its own right; within a single family; to claim a di-
vine right to rule; to gain some measure of Weber's traditional authority; to the extent
49
that …; to depend on the available technology; city-states; to bring about the large-
scale system of nation-states; a somewhat distinctive political system.
Ex. 4 Translate the following words and words combinations from Russian
into English and use them in sentences of their own.
Функционировать; человек, обладающий большой силой, навыками охот-
ника или личной харизмой; контролировать своих людей; управлять большой
территорией; получать контроль над большей частью богатств; переходить от
поколения к поколению; извлекать пользу из ч-л; принимать форму; эффек-
тивность государства; передвигаться медленно пешком; общение даже на не-
большом расстоянии; по этой причине; политические империи; вызывать/быть
причиной; в настоящее время; подразделяться на …; монархия, демократия, ав-
торитаризм и тоталитаризм.

1. Leaders fall _______ two categories.
2. We benefited directly _______ the reorganization.
3. MacKenzie is a powerful man _______ his own right.
4. Politicians from all _______ the world gather here.
5. _______ some reason we all have to come in early tomorrow.
6. The party is expecting to gain control _______ the council in the next election.
7. The differences in opinion depend largely _______ where economists look for
evidence.
8. With his partner away, all the work now fell _______ him.
9. Discontent had grown _______ such an extent that the government had to with-
draw the new tax.
10.Two elections were held _______ the space of a year.

1. How did technologically simple hunting and gathering societies operate?
2. Who were they led by?
3. In what way are agrarian societies different from hunting and gathering societies?
50
4. Who gains control of most of the wealth and power in agrarian societies?
5. What is this period characterized by?
6. What form does politics take as societies grow bigger?
7. What did the effectiveness of a political state depend on?
8. Why did early political empires take the form of small city-states?
9. What does complex technology bring about?
10. What four categories do political systems fall into?
Part II
Monarchy
Ex. 1 Complete the text with the phrases below.
A. meaning that their monarchs are little more than symbolic heads of state
B. although not necessarily with divine support
C. some trace their ancestry back for centuries
D. the Bible, for example, tells of great kings such as David and Solomon
E. who managed to survive the recent uprisings in the Middle East
Monarchy (with Latin and Greek roots meaning “one ruler”) is a political sys-
tem in which a single family rules from generation to generation. Monarchy is com-
monly found in the ancient agrarian societies; (1) __________. In the world today,
twenty-six nations have royal families; (2) __________. In Weber’s terms, then,
monarchy is legitimized by tradition.
During the Middle Ages, absolute monarchs in much of the world claimed a
monopoly of power based on divine right. Today, claims of divine right are rare, alt-
hough monarchs in a number of nations ‒ including Saudi Arabia and Oman ‒ still
exercise almost absolute control over their people, (3) __________. Worth noting is
that the leaders (4) __________ were all monarchs rather than nontraditional leaders.
With industrialization, however, the general trend is for monarchs to gradually
pass from the scene in favor of elected officials. All the European nations with royal
families today are constitutional monarchies, (5) __________; actual governing is the
responsibility of elected officials, led by a prime minister and guided by a constitu-
tion. In these nations, nobility formally reigns, but elected officials actually rule.
51
them.
Ancient, the Bible, ancestry, monarch, Saudi Arabia, Oman, reign.
into Russian.
A single family; to trace one's ancestry back to sth; (to be) legitimized by tradi-
tion; to claim a monopoly of power; to exercise almost absolute control over sb;
worth noting is …; to manage to do sth; the Middle East; nontraditional leaders; a
general trend; in favor of sb; elected officials; actual governing; (to be) led by a prime
minister and guided by a constitution; nobility; to formally reign; to actually rule.
into English.
Править из поколения в поколение; древние аграрные общества; Библия;
королевская семья; средневековье; абсолютные монархи; божественное право;
пережить недавние народные восстания; постепенно уходить со сцены; консти-
туционная монархия; символический глава государства; быть обязанностью из-
бранных должностных лиц.
Ex. 5 Explain how you understand the following words and word combi-
nations.
1. an agrarian society
2. ancestry
3. a monopoly of power
4. divine right
5. a symbolic head of state
6. (the) nobility
7. to reign
8. to rule
52
Ex. 6 Find the words that go together.
A B
1) agrarian a) family
2) divine b) officials
3) elected c) heads of state
4) royal d) societies
5) absolute e) right
6) symbolic f) monarchs
C D
7) to exercise g) one's ancestry
8) to pass h) a monopoly of power
9) to survive i) from the scene
10) to claim j) control
11) to trace back k) uprisings

1. to tell _______ sb/sth
2. _______ Weber's terms
3. to be legitimized _______ tradition
4. to exercise control _______ sb / sth
5. to pass _______ the scene
6. _______ favor of sb/sth

1. Monarchy is a political system in which ………………….…………………….…
2. Monarchy is commonly found in ……………………………………………….…
3. Today, twenty-six nations have …………………………………………………....
4. Some royal families can trace ……………………………………….…………..…
53
5. Medieval monarchs claimed a monopoly of power based on ……………………..
6. In Saudi Arabia and Oman, monarchs still exercise ………………….....................
7. Monarchs gradually pass from the scene in favor of ………………..……………
8. All the European nations with royal families today are ……….…………………
9. In these nations, monarchs are ………………..; actual governing is the responsi-
bility of ……………………………………………………..…..
10. In other words, nobility……………….., while elected officials………………….
Part III
Democracy
The historical trend in the modern world has been toward democracy, a politi-
cal system that gives power to the people as a whole. Most high-income countries of
the world, including those that still have royal families, claim to be democratic. In-
dustrialization and democratic government go together because both require a literate
populace. Also, with industrialization, the legitimization of power in a tradition-based
monarchy gives way to rational-legal authority. Thus democracy and rational-legal
authority go together, just like monarchy and traditional authority.
Democracy is a system of government in which power is vested in the citizens
or “the people” and in which the citizenry participates directly or indirectly in making
decisions. Usually, the size of the citizen population makes direct participation im-
possible. Therefore, decision making usually takes place indirectly, through elected
representatives; this indirect form of governance is known as representative democ-
racy. Representative democracies hold free elections and, theoretically, give every
citizen the right to vote. In a democracy, political candidates and parties can cam-
paign in opposition to the party holding power, and the choice of candidates is not
limited to a single party. In addition, when a majority of citizens votes to change the
party in power, an orderly and peaceful transition in government occurs. In democra-
cies, elected representatives legislate; vote on taxes; control the budget; and debate,
support, question, discuss, criticize, and oppose government policies.
54
Democratic forms of government extend basic rights to all of their citizens (and
legal residents). These rights include freedom of speech, movement, religion, press,
and assembly (that is, the right to form and belong to parties and other associations)
as well as freedom from arbitrary arrest and imprisonment. Other characteristics of
democracies include free and fair elections, a constitution that sets limits on executive
and other powers, access to alternative information sources (free press), and an edu-
cated or informed citizenry.
Ex. 1 In the text, find the words that mean the following:
1. to state that something is true, even though it has not been proved (par.1);
2. the people who live in a country (par.1);
3. to be given the official right to do or own something (par.2);
4. to take part in an activity or event (par.2);
5. to lead or take part in a series of actions intended to achieve a particular social or
political result (par.2);
6. decided or arranged without any reason or plan, often unfairly (par.3);
7. the state of being in prison, or the time someone spends there (par.3).
into Russian.
A historical trend; people as a whole; to claim to be democratic; to require a
literate populace; the legitimization of power; a tradition-based monarchy; to give
way to sth; to be vested in sb; to make direct participation impossible; to take place
indirectly; an indirect form of governance; to campaign in opposition to sth; not to be
limited to a single party; an orderly and peaceful transition (of power); to occur; to
extend basic rights to all of their citizens; legal residents; freedom from arbitrary ar-
rest and imprisonment; to set limits on sth; an educated or informed citizenry.
into English.
Давать власть к-л; сочетаться/идти вместе; грамотное население; граж-
дане; участвовать в принятии решений; выбранные представители; представи-
55
тельная демократия; проводить выборы; предоставлять каждому гражданину
право участия в голосовании; партия, наводящаяся у власти (2); большинство
граждан; заниматься законотворчеством; голосовать относительно налогов;
контролировать бюджет; вести дебаты; выступать против политики правитель-
ства; свобода слова, передвижения, вероисповедания, прессы и собраний; при-
надлежать к политической партии; незаконный арест и тюремное заключение;
свободные и честные выборы; исполнительная власть; доступ к альтернатив-
ным источникам информации.
Ex. 4 Fill in prepositions where necessary.

1. a trend _______ sth; 10. _______ addition;
2. to require _______ sth; 11. (to be) _____ power;
3. to give way _______ sth; 12. to vote _______ sth
4. to vest sth _______ sb; 13. to oppose _____ sth;
5. to participate _______ sth; 14. to extend sth _____ sb;
6. a right _______ sth; 15. to belong _______ sth;
7. in opposition _______ sb/sth; 16. freedom _______ arrest;
8. to hold _______ power; 17. to set limits _____ sth;
9. to be limited _____ sth; 18. access _____ sth
Ex. 5 Complete the chart below.

Verb Noun Verb Noun
participate imprison
campaign assembly
elect legitimize
governance representation
legislation

1. How is democracy defined?
2. Why do industrialization and democracy often go together?
56
3. What type of authority is democracy based on?
4. Who is power vested in in a democratic society?
5. What makes direct participation in decision-making impossible?
6. How does decision-making usually take place in modern societies? How is this
form of governance called?
7. Do representative democracies give every citizen the right to vote?
8. What can political candidates and parties do in a democracy?
9. What happens when a majority of citizens votes to change the party in power?
10. What are elected representatives responsible for?
11. Are basic rights extended to all citizens in a democracy? What do these rights in-
clude?
12. What are other characteristics of democracies?
Ex. 7 Complete the sentences below:

1. Democracy is a political system that ………………………………………………
2. Most high-income countries claim to be ………………………….……………...
3. Democracy and …………… authority go together, just like monarchy and
…………… authority.
4. In democratic states, power is vested in …………… who participate in ………....
5. The size of the citizen population makes direct participation…………….……..…
6. So decision making usually takes place indirectly, through ……………………….
7. This indirect form of governance is known as …………………………………….
8. Representative democracies hold ………………………………………………....
9. Political candidates and parties can ………………. in opposition to the party
……………., and the choice of candidates is not limited to ……………………..
10. When a majority of citizens votes to change the party in power,
…………………… occurs.
11. In democracies, elected representatives ……….; vote on ……….; control the
……….; and debate, support, criticize, and oppose ………………. .
12. The basic rights that people have in a democracy include freedom of speech,
………., religion, ………., and assembly as well as freedom from ………. arrest
and imprisonment.
57
13. Other characteristics of democracies include free and ………. elections, a consti-
tution that ………. on executive and other powers, access to ………. sources of
information, and an educated or informed ………..
Ex. 8 Complete the text below using the words from the box. Translate it
into Russian.
vote representation preoccupied proportional election satisfy
cooperation participate available legislature
Representative democracy is based on two assumptions. The first assumption
recognizes that not everyone in modern society can actively (1) _______ in all politi-
cal decisions. A representative government does not expect its people to be involved
deeply in politics; citizens merely need to (2) _______. Given the minute division of
labor in contemporary society, it would be hopelessly inefficient for all qualified citi-
zens to be (3) _______ with political activities. Who would manage companies, teach
school, design buildings, prepare taxes, rear children? The classical practice of de-
mocracy in ancient Greece could exist only because the masses (women and slaves),
excluded from the political process, were (4) _______ to perform nonpolitical func-
tions.
In the second assumption of representative democracy, citizens will not elect
(or reelect) politicians who fail to (5) ________ the wishes of the majority. In the
two-party system of the United States, we have a “winner take all” form of repre-
sentative democracy. Here, the party with the most votes wins the (6) _______. In
many European countries, where third-party systems are common, parties participate
in government to the extent that they win (7) _______ in general elections. For ex-
ample, one party might win 40 percent of the vote and control 40 percent of the (8)
_______. Three other parties might take 20 percent each and still control a combined
60 percent of the legislature. This (9) _______ representation system seems to be
more democratic; it tends to encourage compromises and (10) __________. Govern-
ments formed under this system can be fragile, however, and shifting political alli-
ances may force new elections, even after relatively short periods of time.
58
Ex. 9 Read the following quotations and explain how you understand
them.
1. Democracy is the government of the people, by the people, for the people. (Abra-
ham Lincoln)
2. The democratic aspiration is no mere recent phase in human history. It is human

history. (Franklin D. Roosevelt)
3. Man’s capacity for justice makes democracy possible, but man’s inclination to
injustice makes democracy necessary. (Reinhold Niebuhr)
4. Democracy cannot succeed unless those who express their choice are prepared to
choose wisely. The real safeguard of democracy, therefore, is education. (Frank-
lin D. Roosevelt)
5. Democracy is not a fragile flower; still it needs cultivating. (Ronald Reagan)
6. There can be no daily democracy without daily citizenship. (Ralph Nader)
Part IV
Authoritarianism
Some nations prevent their people from having any voice at all in politics. Au-
thoritarianism is a political system that denies the people participation in govern-
ment. An authoritarian government is indifferent to people’s needs, offers them no
voice in selecting leaders, and uses force in response to dissent or opposition. The ab-
solute monarchies in Saudi Arabia and Oman are authoritarian, as is the military junta
in Ethiopia.
Another political category is the largely peaceful system of “soft authoritarian-
ism” that thrives in the small Asian nation of Singapore, where political freedom is
limited but people are secure and prosperous and mostly support the government.
Totalitarianism
The most intensely controlled political form is totalitarianism, a highly cen-
tralized political system that extensively regulates people’s lives. Totalitarianism
emerged in the twentieth century as technological advances gave governments the
ability to rigidly control their populations. For example, the government of North Ko-
rea, perhaps the most totalitarian in the world, uses not only police to control people
59
but also surveillance equipment and powerful computers to collect and store infor-
mation about them.
Although some totalitarian governments claim to represent the will of the peo-
ple, most seek to bend people to the will of the government. As the term itself im-
plies, such governments have a total concentration of power, allowing no organized
opposition. Denying the people the right to assemble and controlling access to infor-
mation, these governments create an atmosphere of personal isolation and fear.
Totalitarian governments span the political spectrum from fascist (as in Nazi
Germany during World War II) to communist (such as North Korea today). In all
cases, however, a single political party claims total control of the society and permits
no opposition.
them.
Authoritarian, authoritarianism, totalitarian, totalitarianism, deny, junta, sur-
veillance, rigidly, access, isolation, fascist, Nazi, Saudi Arabia, Oman, Ethiopia, Sin-
gapore.
Ex. 2 Match a word in A to its definition in B.

A B
1) to deny sb a) refusal to agree with an official decision or accepted opin-
sth ion;
2) dissent (n) b) to become, and continue to be, successful, strong, healthy,

etc;
3) junta c) close observation, especially of a suspected spy or criminal;
4) to thrive d) to refuse to allow someone to have or do something;
5) surveillance e) to include ;
6) to span f) a military government that has gained power by using force.
60
Complete the sentences below using the words from the chart.
1. In totalitarian states mass propaganda and electronic _______ are widely used to
influence people’s thinking and control their actions.
2. He is a political theorist whose research interests _______ critical theory, race
and politics.
3. In November 1963 a military _______ staged a coup d'état and killed President
Diem.
4. None of us can _______ in a nation divided between a small number of people
receiving an ever larger share of the nation’s income and wealth, and everyone
else receiving a declining share.
5. The regime ruthlessly suppresses all _______.
6. The country’s government used to _______ its citizens’ basic rights to free ex-
pression.
into Russian.
a) To have a voice in politics; to deny the people participation in politics; to of-
fer sb no voice in selecting leaders; the largely peaceful system of “soft authoritarian-
ism”; to be limited; secure and prosperous; to mostly support the government;
b) The most intensely controlled political form; to extensively regulate people's
lives; to emerge; technological advances; to claim; to bend people to the will of the
government; as the term itself implies; to allow no organized opposition; to deny the
people the right to assemble; to span the political spectrum from fascist to com-
munist; a single political party.
a) Авторитаризм; помешать/не дать к-л сделать ч-л; право голоса в ч-л;
лишать к-л ч-л; авторитарное правительство; быть безразличным к нуждам лю-
дей; использовать силу в ответ на инакомыслие или противодействие; абсолют-
ная монархия; военная хунта; процветать; процветающий;
61
б) Тоталитаризм; чрезвычайно централизованная политическая система;
жестко контролировать население; аппаратура для наблюдения; собирать и
хранить информацию; тоталитарное правительство; представлять волю людей;
иметь полную концентрацию власти; собираться; контролировать доступ к ин-
формации; создавать атмосферу личной изоляции и страха; нацистский; не до-
пускать противодействия.

1. participation _______ sth
2. to prevent sb _______ (doing) sth
3. to be indifferent _______ sth
4. in response _______ sth
5. to bend sb _____ sb's will
6. access _____ sth

Verb Noun Adjective Noun
prevent prosperous
participation security
emerge indifferent
opposition centralization
dissent fascist
assemble authoritarianism
concentration totalitarian
access
isolation
regulate
62
Ex. 7 Agree or disagree with the following statements.
1. Authoritarianism is a political system that concentrates power in the hands of a
leader or a small elite that is not constitutionally responsible to the body of the
people.
2. Authoritarian leaders can be removed from power by citizens who have a voice in
politics and can choose freely among various competitors in elections.
3. 'Soft authoritarianism' is a largely peaceful system in which political freedom is
limited but people are secure and prosperous and mostly support their government.
4. This type of authoritarianism is practised in many European countries.
5. Totalitarianism is a system of government characterized by a single ruling party
led by a dictator.
6. It has an unchallenged official ideology that defines a vision of the “perfect” socie-
ty and the means to achieve that vision.
7. Totalitarian governments are products of the 19th century, because by that time
technologies existed that allowed a few people in power to control the behavior of
the masses and the information the masses could hear.
8. Many of the governments labeled as totalitarian have followed Communist princi-
ples.
9. Although totalitarian governments extensively regulate people's lives, citizens ex-
ercise their basic rights including freedom of speech and expression, freedom of re-
ligion and conscience, freedom of assembly, and the right to equal protection be-
fore the law.

1. Authoritarianism is a political system that …………………………………………
2. An authoritarian government is indifferent to ……………., offers them
……………., and uses force in response to ………………..
3. The absolute monarchies in ……………… and ………….. are authoritarian.
4. “Soft authoritarianism” is a largely ……………….. system that thrives in
………………………..
63
5. ………………………. is limited there but people are …………. and ……………
and mostly ………………. the government.
6. Totalitarianism is a highly centralized political system that ……………………….
7. It emerged in the twentieth century as ………………………………………………
8. Nowadays, totalitarian states use …………………..… and ………………..……..
to collect and store information about people.
9. Although some totalitarian governments claim to ………………………………..,
most seek to ………………………………...
10. Such governments have …………………………… and allow
………………………………...
11. They deny their people ………………… and control ……………….., creating
an atmosphere of ………………...
12. Totalitarian governments span the political spectrum from ……………… to
……………..
13. However, in all cases a single political party claims
………………………………........

1. Политика ‒ это важнейший социальный институт, посредством которо-
го общество распределяет власть и организует принятие решений. 2. По мне-
нию Макса Вебера, три социальных контекста трансформируют принуждение в
легитимную власть ‒ традиция, рационально установленные нормы и правила и
личная харизма лидера. 3. Все доиндустриальные общества характеризовались
наличием традиционной власти; индустриальные придали власти легитимность
через бюрократические организации и законодательство. 4. Харизматическая
власть, появляющаяся в любом обществе, поддерживается благодаря ее посте-
пенному превращению в традиционную или в рационально-правовую. 5. Мо-
нархия базируется на традиционной власти и присуща всем доиндустриальным
обществам. Несмотря на то, что она сохранилась и потом, индустриализация
благоприятствует демократии, основанной на рационально-правовой власти и
огромном бюрократическом аппарате. 6. Авторитарные политические режимы
64
лишают народ права участвовать в управлении государством. Тоталитарные
политические системы идут даже дальше, строго регулируя повседневную
жизнь своих граждан. 7. В мире насчитывается 194 политически независимых
национальных государства. 8. Одна из глобальных политических тенденций за-
ключается в росте богатства и власти транснациональных корпораций. Кроме
того, появление новых технологий, ассоциирующихся с информационной рево-
люцией, означает, что национальные правительства больше не могут контроли-
ровать информационный поток, идущий через государственные границы.
Ex. 10 Make up a story using the words below.

1.
 a royal family
 to achieve one's position through heredity
 to rule from generation to generation
 to be legitimized by tradition
 to pass from the scene
 elected officials
 to be responsible for
 to perform ceremonial functions
 to serve as symbolic leaders
2.
 to deny sb sth
 to have a voice in politics
 to control one's population
 to be indifferent to people's needs
 to allow no organized opposition
 to create an atmosphere of isolation
 to repress free speech
 to suppress protest
 to control access to information
3.
65
 to build a healthy democratic society
 to participate in sth
 to share the responsibility for sth
 to shape one's future
 to elect representatives
 to hold office in the name of the people
 to deliberate on complex public issues
 to make political decisions
 to be accountable to sb for sth
4.
 to claim to do sth
 to represent the will of the people
 to enjoy the advantages of incumbency
 to be reluctant to do sth
 to be indifferent to people's needs
 to pursue one's own interests
 to deny sb sth
 to participate in making decisions
 to permit no opposition
Ex. 11 Agree or disagree with the following quotations. Justify your point
of view.
1. In a democracy, the majority of the citizens is capable of exercising the most
cruel oppressions upon the minority. (Edmund Burke)
2. Democracy substitutes election by the incompetent many for appointment by
the corrupt few. (George Bernard Shaw)
3. Dictatorship naturally arises out of democracy, and the most aggravated form
of tyranny and slavery out of the most extreme liberty. (Plato)
4. Democracy is the process by which people choose the man who'll get the
blame. (Bertrand Russell)
66
5. Democracy is the worst form of government except all those other forms that
have been tried from time to time. (Winston Churchill)
6. The difference between a democracy and a dictatorship is that in a democracy
you vote first and take orders later; in a dictatorship you don't have to waste
your time voting. (Charles Bukowski)
7. The best argument against democracy is a five minute conversation with the
average voter. (Winston Churchill)
8. This is a deep and uncomfortable paradox, which will not have escaped you;
we can only defend democracy by being undemocratic. Every secret service
knows this paradox. (Philip Pullman)
Ex. 12 Discuss the following questions.

1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of direct and representative democ-
racy?
2. Is Russia a democracy? Why?/Why not?
3. Does Russia need democracy? What kind of democracy does it need?
4. What political system is most favourable for Russia? Why?
67
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CHANGE. POWER BEYOND THE RULES
Political life is by no means carried on only within the orthodox framework of

political parties, voting systems and representation in legislative and governmental
bodies. It often happens that groups find that their objectives or ideals cannot be
achieved within, or are actively blocked by, this framework. Sometimes political and
social change can only be brought about through recourse to non-orthodox forms of
political action.
Part I
What are social movements?
(1) The most common type of non-orthodox political activity takes place
through social movements ‒ collective attempts to further a common interest or se-
cure a common goal through action outside the sphere of established institutions. A
wide variety of social movements besides those leading to revolution have existed in
modern societies, some enduring and some transient. Social movements come in all
shapes and sizes. Some are very small, numbering no more than a few dozen mem-
bers; others may include thousands or even millions of people. While some social
movements carry on their activities within the laws of
the society in which they exist, others operate as illegal or underground groups. It is
characteristic of protest movements, however, that they operate near the margins of
what is defined as legally permissible by governments at any particular time or place.
(2) Social movements often arise with the aim of bringing about change on a
public issue, such as expanding civil rights for a segment of the population. In re-
sponse to social movements, counter-movements sometimes arise in defence of the
status quo. The campaign for women's right to abortion, for example, has been vocif-
erously challenged by anti-abortion ('prolife') activists, who argue that abortion
should be illegal.
(3) Often, laws or policies are altered as a result of the action of social move-
ments. These changes in legislation can have far-reaching effects. For example, it
used to be illegal for groups of workers to call their members out on strike, and strik-
68
ing was punished with varying degrees of severity in different countries. Eventually,
however, the laws were amended, making the strike a permissible tactic of industrial
conflict. Similarly, lesbian and gay movements have been largely successful in rais-
ing the issue of equal rights and many countries around the world have equalized
their laws on the legal age of sexual activity for heterosexuals and homosexuals.
(4) Social movements are among the most powerful forms of collective action.
Well-organized, persistent campaigns can bring about dramatic results. The American
civil rights movement, for example, succeeded in pushing through important pieces
of legislation outlawing racial segregation in schools and public places. The feminist
movement scored important gains for women in terms of economic and political
equality. In recent years, environmental movements have campaigned in highly un-
conventional ways to promote sustainable forms of development and change attitudes
towards the natural environment
(5) Social movements are as evident a feature of the contemporary world as are
the formal, bureaucratic organizations they often oppose, and some scholars suggest
that we may be moving towards a global 'social movement society', which provides
fertile ground for this type of collective action.
Ex. 1 Find the words in the text that mean the following:
1. to help the progress or development of something; promote (par.1);
2. continuing only for a short time (par.1);
3. the furthest limit of sth (par.1);
4. the state of a situation as it is (par. 2);
5. in a loud and confident way (par.2);
6. strictness; harshness (par.3);
7. to make two or more things the same in size, value, amount etc (par.3);
8. to completely stop something by making it illegal (par. 4);
9. able to continue without causing damage to the environment (par.4);
10. a situation in which something develops quickly or successfully (par.5).
69
Ex. 2 Explain the meaning of the following words and word combinations:
1. orthodox/non-orthodox
2. an underground group;
3. a counter-movement;
4. to challenge sth vociferously
5. racial segregation;
6. dramatic results
7. to push through a piece of legislation
into Russian.
Non-orthodox political activity; collective attempts to do sth; action outside the
sphere of established institutions; a wide variety of social movements; to come in all
shapes and sizes; to operate as …; underground groups; to be characteristic of sth;
near the margins of sth; to be defined as …; legally permissible; to expand sth; in re-
sponse to sth; a counter-movement; in defence of sth; to be vociferously challenged;
to alter sth; to be punished with varying degrees of severity; a permissible tactic of
industrial conflict; to equalize sth; well-organized, persistent campaigns; dramatic re-
sults; to push through an important piece of legislation; racial segregation; to cam-
paign in highly unconventional ways; to promote sustainable forms of development;
evident; a feature of the contemporary world; to move towards a 'global social
movement society'.
into English.
Происходить/случаться; продвигать общие интересы; отстаивать общую
цель; существовать; длительный; кратковременный; насчитывать; осуществлять
деятельность в рамках закона; незаконный; протестное движение; возникать; с
целью сделать ч-л; внести изменения; общественная проблема; гражданские
права; кампания в защиту права женщин на аборт; противники аборта; иметь
далеко идущие последствия; призывать к забастовке; вносить поправки во ч-л;
70
движение гомосексуалистов; поднять вопрос о равных правах; движение за
гражданские права; преуспеть в ч-л; запретить/лишить законной силы; движе-
ние феминисток; добиться заметных улучшений в плане экономического и по-
литического равенства; движение в защиту окружающей среды; изменить от-
ношение к окружающей среде; бюрократические организации; противостоять
к-л/ч-л; обеспечить благодатную почву для ч-л.
Ex. 5 a) Find synonyms in A and B.

A B
1) orthodox a) allowable
2) operate b) conventional
3) permissible c) non-orthodox
4) unconventional d) further
5) alter e) evident
6) gains f) function
7) promote g) change
8) obvious h) advantages
71
b) Find antonyms in С and D.
C D
1. conventional a. illegal
2. non-orthodox b. transient
3. legal c. within
4. enduring d. individual
5. individual e. orthodox
6. common f. accept
7. outside g. unconventional
8. challenge h. collective

1. to lead _______ sth
2. to be characteristic _______ sth
3. _______the aim of doing sth
4. in response _______ sth
5. _______ defence of sth
6. a campaign _______ sth
7. to call sb out _______ strike
8. to punish sb _______ sth
9. to succeed _______ (doing) sth
10. _______ terms of sth
11. an attitude _______ sth/sb
12. fertile ground _______ sth

1. What do we mean by social movements?
2. Is there a variety of social movements in modern society? How can you prove
this?
72
3. What is characteristic of protest movements?
4. Why do social movements arise?
5. What is a counter-movement? Why does it arise?
6. What changes can social movements bring about? Give examples.
7. What do some scholars suggest?

1. The most common type of non-orthodox political activity is ……………………..
2. Social movements are …………………………………………………………….
3. Social movements come in all …………………………………………………….
4. Some of them are enduring, while others are ……………………………………..
5. Some social movements carry out their activities within the laws of their society,
while others …………………………………………………………………………...
6. Social movements usually arise with the aim of ………………………………….
7. Counter-movements emerge in order to ………………………………………….
8. The action of social movements often results in …………………………………
9. Some scholars suggest that ……………………………………………………….
Part II
Revolution
Political revolution is the overthrow of one political system in order to estab-
lish another. Reform involves change within a system, either through modification of
the law or, in the extreme case, through a coup d’état (in French, literally, “blow to
the state”), in which one leader topples another. Revolution involves change in the
type of system itself.
No political system is immune to revolution, nor does revolution produce any
one kind of government. The American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), also known
as the American War of Independence, replaced colonial rule by the British monar-
chy with a representative democracy. French revolutionaries in 1789 overthrew a
monarch, only to set the stage for the return of monarchy in the person of Napoleon.
73
In 1917, the Russian Revolution replaced monarchy with a socialist government built
on the ideas of Karl Marx.
Despite their striking variety, revolutions share a number of traits:
1. Rising expectations. Common sense suggests that revolution would be more
likely when people are severely deprived, but history shows that most revolutions oc-
cur when people’s lives are improving. Rising expectations, rather than bitterness and
despair, make revolution more likely.
2. Unresponsive government. Revolutions become more likely when a gov-
ernment is unwilling to reform itself, especially when demands for reform by power-
ful segments of society are ignored.
3. Radical leadership by intellectuals. The English philosopher Thomas
Hobbes (1588–1679) claimed that intellectuals provide the justification for revolu-
tion, and universities are often the center of political change.
4. Establishing a new legitimacy. Overthrowing a political system is not easy,
but ensuring a revolution’s long-term success is harder still. Some revolutionary
movements are held together mostly by hatred of the past regime and fall apart once
new leaders are installed. Revolutionaries must also guard against counterrevolution-
ary drives led by overthrown leaders. This explains the speed and ruthlessness with
which victorious revolutionaries typically dispose of former leaders.
Scientific analysis cannot declare that a revolution is good or bad. The full con-
sequences of such an upheaval depend on the personal values of the observer and, in
any case, typically become evident only after many years.
Ex. 1 Look at the phonetic spelling of some of the words. Practise saying
them.
[ˌkuː deɪˈtɑː]
[vəˈraɪəti]
[səˈvɪəli]
[əˈkɜː(r)]
[ɪnˈʃʊə]
[ɪnˈstɔːl]
74
[əˈnælɪsɪs]
[ˈkɒnsəkwəns]
[ʌpˈhiːvəl]
Ex. 2 Match a word in A to its definition in B.

A B
1) coup d’état a) without enough food, education, and all the things that
are necessary for people to live a happy and comfortable
life;
2) deprived b) to get rid of somebody/something that you do not want

or cannot keep;
3) to install c) a sudden change of government that is illegal and often

violent;
4) to dispose of sb d) a big change that causes a lot of confusion, worry and

problems;
5) upheaval e) to put somebody in a new position of authority, often

with an official ceremony.
1. It took her a mere 20 minutes to __________ of her opponent.
2. The country has undergone a major political __________.
3. The army has promised to __________ a new government within a week.
4. Unlike a revolution, a __________ is a change in power from the top that merely
results in the abrupt replacement of leading government personnel.
5. A survey examined experiences and attitudes in the more socially __________

areas of the city.
into Russian.
The overthrow of a political system; change within a system; in the extreme
case; to be immune to sth; to replace colonial rule with a representative democracy;
to overthrow a monarch; in the person of sb; (to be) built on the ideas of Karl Marx;
75
common sense; (to be) severely deprived; to occur; to make sth more likely; unre-
sponsive government; powerful segments of society; radical leadership by intellectu-
als; to claim sth; to establish a new legitimacy; to be held together by hatred of the
past regime; to install a new leader; a counterrevolutionary drive; ruthlessness; victo-
rious revolutionaries; a former leader; an upheaval; to depend on the personal values
of the observer.
into English.
Установить политическую систему; изменение закона; государственный
переворот; свергнуть к-л/ч-л (2); революционеры; подготовить почву для ч-л;
возвращение монархии; заменить монархию социалистическим правитель-
ством; несмотря на поразительное разнообразие…; иметь некоторые общие
черты; растущие ожидания; горечь и отчаяние; не желать делать ч-л; требова-
ния реформы; игнорировать ч-л; находить оправдание революции; быть цен-
тром политических изменений; обеспечить долгосрочный успех ч-л; революци-
онное движение; распадаться/разрушаться; принимать меры предосторожности;
свергнутый лидер; избавляться от к-л; последствия ч-л; стать очевидным.

1. to be immune _______ sth
2. to replace sth _______ sth
3. to set the stage _______ sth
4. _______ the person of sb
5. (to be) built _______ sth
6. demand ______ sth
7. justification _______ (doing) sth
8. to guard _______ sth
9. to dispose _______ sb/sth
Ex. 6 Rephrase the sentences using the words from the text.
1. They were reluctant to support the resolution which gave the president the mili-
tary responsibility to enforce the act.
76
2. Considerable alteration of the existing system is needed.
3. He was accused of plotting to overthrow the government.
4. Revolutions are most likely to happen when a prolonged period of objective eco-
nomic and social development is followed by a short period of sharp reversal.
5. The Nazis got rid of people they thought were ‘undesirables’ – like the Jews.
6. According to the latest Corruption Perceptions Index, no country is free of corrup-
tion.
7. The program provides aid for economically disadvantaged groups.

1. What is revolution?
2. In what way is it different from reform?
3. Are there political systems with immunity to revolution?
4. What three revolutions are mentioned in the text?
5. What traits do all revolutions share?
6. Do revolutions occur when people are severely deprived? Why?/Why not?
7. How can government inertia make revolution more likely?
8. How do intellectuals contribute to revolution?
9. What problems usually arise after the revolution?
10. Is it possible to understand the impact of any revolution at once? Why?/Why not?
Ex. 8 Agree or disagree with the following quotations. Justify your point of
view.
1. When dictatorship is a fact, revolution becomes a right. (Victor Hugo)
2. Poverty is the parent of revolution and crime. (Aristotle)
3. Every generation needs a new revolution. (Thomas Jefferson)
4. The revolution is not an apple that falls when it is ripe. You have to make it fall.
(Ernesto Che Guevara)
5. The results of political changes are hardly ever those which their friends hope or
their foes fear. (Thomas Huxley)
77
6. Those who make peaceful revolution impossible will make violent revolution inev-
itable. (John F. Kennedy)
7. Let the world change you and you can change the world. (Ernesto Che Guevara)
Ex. 9 Food for thought.

"Revolution" is a song by the English rock band the Beatles, written by John
Lennon. Three versions of the song were recorded in 1968, all during sessions for the
Beatles' self-titled double album, also known as "The White Album".
Read an extract from 'Revolution': The Story Behind The Beatles' Song by
Paul McGuinness about the historical context of the song.
With the exception of the two world wars, 1968 was surely the most explosive
and divisive year of the 20th Century. As the year dawned, the Summer Of Love had
mutated into the winter of discontent. Revolution was very much in the air, all around
the world.
Student demonstrations in Paris brought France to its knees – the economy
came to a halt, President de Gaulle even briefly fled the country and consulted mili-
tary generals, fearing all-out civil war. Civil reform movements in Czechoslovakia
threatened to destabilise the country, forcing the Soviet Union to send tanks onto the
streets of Prague. In London, anti-Vietnam demonstrators in Grosvenor Square
clashed with riot police, resulting in 86 people being injured.
Over in the US, the assassinations of Martin Luther King, Jr, and Robert Ken-
nedy were the headline stories in a year that saw continuous clashes between anti-war
or civil-rights protesters and police, climaxing with five days of protest at the Demo-
cratic National Convention in Chicago.
There was a rise in the women’s liberation movement, and any number of po-
litical causes emerged from the underground and the universities of the West. In
1968, no self-respecting student would be without a Che Guevara poster on the wall.
John Lennon felt compelled to address the situation in what he wanted to be the
next Beatles single.
Listen to the song and answer the questions below.
78
The Beatles ‒ Revolution
(1) You say you want a revolution All I can tell is brother you have to wait
Well, you know Don't you know it's gonna be
We all want to change the world All right, all right, all right
You tell me that it's evolution (3) You say you'll change the Constitution
Well, you know Well, you know
We all want to change the world We all want to change your head
But when you talk about destruction You tell me it's the institution
Don't you know that you can count me Well, you know
out/in You better free your mind instead
Don't you know it's gonna be But if you go carrying pictures of Chair-
All right, all right, all right man Mao
(2) You say you got a real solution You ain't going to make it with anyone
Well, you know anyhow
We'd all love to see the plan Don't you know it's gonna be
You ask me for a contribution All right, all right, all right
Well, you know All right, all right, all right
We're doing what we can All right, all right, all right
But if you want money for people with All right, all right
minds that hate
Questions
1. Who do you think the song is addressed to?
2. Do the Beatles acknowledge the need for change?
3. What is the difference between "count sb out" and "count sb in"?
4. Why does John Lennon first use the particle 'out' and then 'in'?
5. What contribution does he mean?
6. What is Mao Zedong (Chairman Mao) famous for? Why is his name used in the
song?
7. What should one change before starting to reform society, according to the Beat-
les?
79
Part III
Terrorism
Terrorism is the systematic use of violence to create a general climate of fear in
a population and thereby to bring about a particular political objective. Terrorism has
been practised by political organizations, by nationalistic and religious groups, by
revolutionaries, and even by state institutions such as armies, intelligence services,
and police.
The term “terrorism” was first coined in the 1790s to refer to the terror used
during the French Revolution by the revolutionaries against their opponents. The Jac-
obin party of Maximilien Robespierre carried out a Reign of Terror involving mass
executions by the guillotine. Although terrorism in this usage implies an act of vio-
lence by a state against its domestic enemies, since the 20th century the term has been
applied most frequently to violence aimed, either directly or indirectly, at govern-
ments in an effort to influence policy or topple an existing regime.
Terrorism involves the use or threat of violence and seeks to create fear, not
just within the direct victims but among a wide audience. The degree to which it re-
lies on fear distinguishes terrorism from both conventional and guerrilla warfare. Alt-
hough conventional military forces invariably engage in psychological warfare
against the enemy, their principal means of victory is strength of arms. Similarly,
guerrilla forces, which often rely on acts of terror and other forms of propaganda, aim
at military victory and occasionally succeed (e.g., the Viet Cong1 in Vietnam and the
Khmer Rouge2 in Cambodia). Terrorism proper is thus the systematic use of violence
to generate fear, and thereby to achieve political goals, when direct military victory is
not possible. This has led some social scientists to refer to guerrilla warfare as the
“weapon of the weak” and terrorism as the “weapon of the weakest.”
1
the Viet Cong – the group of guerrillas who were supported by the Communist government of
North Vietnam during the Vietnam War, and fought against US and South Vietnamese forces.
2
the Khmer Rouge – an extreme left-wing military organization which took control of the govern-
ment of Cambodia in 1975, under its leader Pol Pot. Around 3 million Cambodians are believed to
have been killed under Khmer Rouge rule, which continued until 1979.
80
In order to attract and maintain the publicity necessary to generate widespread
fear, terrorists must engage in increasingly dramatic, violent, and high-profile attacks.
These have included hijackings, hostage takings, kidnappings, car bombings, and,
frequently, suicide bombings. Although apparently random, the victims and locations
of terrorist attacks often are carefully selected for their shock value. Schools, shop-
ping centers, bus and train stations, and restaurants and nightclubs have been targeted
both because they attract large crowds and because they are places with which mem-
bers of the civilian population are familiar and in which they feel at ease. The goal of
terrorism generally is to destroy the public’s sense of security in the places most fa-
miliar to them. Major targets sometimes also include buildings or other locations that
are important economic or political symbols, such as embassies or military installa-
tions. The hope of the terrorist is that the sense of terror these acts engender will in-
duce the population to pressure political leaders toward a specific political end.
Ex. 1 a) Practise saying the following proper names.

 Maximilien Robespierre [ˈrəʊbspɪər, ˌmæksəˈmɪliən]
 (the) Viet Cong [ˌvjet ˈkɒŋ]
 Vietnam [ˌvjetˈnæm/ˈnɑːm]
 (the) Khmer Rouge [ˌkmeə ˈruːʒ]
 Cambodia [kæmˈbəʊdiə]
b) Check the pronunciation of the followings words and practise saying

them.
Opponent, execution, guillotine, regime, socio-, guerrilla, hijacking, bombing, sui-
cide.
Ex. 2 In the text, find the words which mean the following:
1. something that you are trying hard to achieve, especially in business or politics
(par.1);
2. to invent a new word or expression, especially one that many people start to use
(par. 2);
3. to overthrow / to take power away from a leader or government (par.2);
4. a form of warfare which doesn’t involve the use of nuclear weapons (par.3);
81
5. a member of a small unofficial military group that fights in small groups (par.3);
6. attracting a lot of public attention, usually deliberately (par.4);
7. happening or chosen without any definite plan, aim, or pattern (par.4);
8. to feel relaxed and confident (par. 4);
9. to make a feeling or situation exist (par.4);
10. to persuade someone to do something, especially something that does not seem
wise (par. 4).
Ex.3 Explain the meaning of the following words and word combinations:
1. hijacking
2. hostage taking
3. kidnapping
4. car bombing
5. suicide attack/bombing
into Russian.
To bring about a particular political objective; to practise terrorism; to coin a
term; to carry out a Reign of Terror; a guillotine; to imply sth; domestic enemies; to
rely on fear; conventional and guerrilla warfare; to invariably engage in sth; the prin-
cipal means of victory; strength of arms; to occasionally succeed; terrorism proper;
the 'weapon of the weakest'; to generate widespread fear; high-profile attacks; kid-
napping; car bombing; random; to be carefully selected for the shock value; embas-
sies and military installations; to engender a sense of terror; to pressure political lead-
ers toward a specific political end.
Создавать общую атмосферу страха; спецслужбы; массовые казни; отно-
ситься к ч-л; акт насилия; применять термин по отношению к …; оказать влия-
ние на ч-л; уничтожить существующий режим; включать применение насилия
82
или угрозу применения насилия; жертва; стремиться вызвать страх; отличать
одно от другого; партизанские силы; привлекать и поддерживать внимание об-
щественности; угон самолета; захват заложников; взрыв, осуществленный
смертником; жертва; делать к-л/ч-л мишенью; гражданское население; чувство-
вать себя непринуждённо; уничтожить чувство безопасности; побудить к-л де-
лать ч-л.

1. In its most basic definition, the term terrorism refers __________ any act that that
is perpetrated __________ the purpose of causing terror.
2. Acts of limited political terrorism are one-time acts of violence aimed
__________ making a political or ideological statement in response __________ a
government policy or action.
3. Modern terrorists rely heavily __________ the mass media and use a constant
stream of broadcasting (radio, television, video, and the Internet) to achieve the full-
est psychological impact __________ their targets.
4. Since the 20th century, ideology and political opportunism have led a number of
countries to engage __________ transnational terrorism, often __________ the guise
of supporting movements of national liberation.
5. The term ecoterrorism is applied __________ acts of environmental destruction
committed in order to further a political goal or as an act of war.
83
Ex. 7 Complete the following sentences using the words from the box.
Change the form of the word where necessary.
guerilla random execution topple hostage engender ob-
jective coin (v) induce high-profile distinguish target (v)
1. Terrorism is __________ violence that makes no distinction between people.
2. In 1944, Raphael Lemkin, a Polish-Jewish lawyer, __________ the term “geno-

cide” to describe attempts to kill an entire group of people.
3. Political corruption threatens to __________ the regime.
4. A small band of __________has blown up a train in the mountains.
5. A British journalist was held __________ for over four years.
6. __________ is still the penalty in some states for murder.
7. Nothing would __________ me to vote for him again.
8. At least three __________ attacks have been motivated by racial bias.
9. War has always been a means of pursuing national __________.
10. Acts of terrorism deliberately __________ civilians, neutral military personnel, or

other non-combatants, with blatant disregard for their safety.
11. These changes may __________ anxiety and fear.
12. Various attempts have been made to __________ among types of terrorist activi-
ties.

1. What is terrorism?
2. Who has terrorism been practised by?
3. When was the term terrorism first coined and what did it refer to?
4. How has the term been used since the 20th century?
5. What does terrorism rely on?
6. In what way is it different from conventional and guerrilla warfare?
84
7. Why do terrorists engage in increasingly dramatic, violent, and high-profile at-
tacks?
8. What tactics do they use?
9. What are the common targets of their attacks?
10. What is the goal of terrorism?
Ex. 9 Read the following quotations and explain how you understand
them.
1. Terrorism and deception are weapons not of the strong, but of the weak.
(Mahatma Gandhi)
2. Terrorism has become the systematic weapon of a war that knows no borders or
seldom has a face. (Jacques Chirac)
3. If we like them, they’re freedom fighters . . . If we don’t like them, they’re terror-
ists. In the unlikely case we can’t make up our minds, they’re temporarily only guer-
rillas. (Carl Sagan)
4. Fighting terrorism is like being a goalkeeper. You can make a hundred brilliant
saves but the only shot that people remember is the one that gets past you. (Paul Wil-
kinson)
5. The terrible thing about terrorism is that ultimately it destroys those who practice
it. Slowly but surely, as they try to extinguish life in others, the light within them
dies. (Terry Waite)

1. Терроризм ‒ это произвольные акты насилия или угрозы его примене-
ния со стороны какого-либо человека или группы, которые пользуются этим в
качестве политической стратегии. 2. Хотя террористические акты осуждаются
почти всеми государствами, террористы стремятся представить насилие как ле-
гитимную политическую тактику. 3. Терроризм является не только оружием
отдельных групп, но и некоторых правительств, использующих его в качестве
оружия против своего собственного народа. 4. Государственный терроризм яв-
85
ляется узаконенной формой в некоторых авторитарных и тоталитарных госу-
дарствах, которые выживают за счет угроз и устрашения. 5. Демократические
общества особенно уязвимы для террористов, поскольку предоставляют своим
гражданам всевозможные гражданские свободы. В отличие от них тоталитар-
ные режимы широко практикуют государственный терроризм, но одновремен-
но с этим их многочисленный репрессивный аппарат делает практически не-
возможным совершение таких актов одиночками.
86
RUSSIA: POLITICAL SYSTEM
Part I
Government and Politics
(before the 2020 Amendments to the Russian Constitution)
The Russian Federation is a democratic federal law-bound state with a republi-
can form of government. State power is divided among the legislative, executive, and
judicial branches.
The 1993 constitution created a dual executive consisting of a president and
prime minister, but the president is the dominant figure. The president, who is elected
in a national vote and cannot serve more than two terms consecutively, is vested with
significant powers. As Russia’s head of state, the president is empowered to appoint
the chairman of the government (prime minister), key judges, and cabinet members.
When the legislature fails to pass the president’s legislative initiatives, he may issue
decrees that have the force of law.
The president determines the basic direction of domestic and foreign policy
and represents the state within the country and in foreign affairs. The president ap-
points and recalls the country's ambassadors upon consultation with the legislature,
accepts the credentials and letters of recall of foreign representatives, conducts inter-
national talks, and signs international treaties. The president is also commander in
chief of the armed forces and can declare martial law or a state of emergency.
In 2008 an amendment to the constitution, to take effect with the 2012 election,
extended the presidential term from four to six years.
Government duties are split between a number of ministries, some of which, in
turn, have federal services and federal agencies accountable to them. The head of
government, the prime minister, is appointed by the president and confirmed by the
State Duma. The government ensures the implementation of domestic and foreign
policy, works out the federal budget, oversees the implementation of financial and
monetary policy, ensures the rule of law, human rights and freedoms.
87
The Federal Assembly is the country’s legislature. It consists of the Federation
Council (an upper house comprising appointed representatives from each of Russia’s
administrative divisions) and the State Duma (a 450-member popularly elected lower
house). The president’s nominee for chairman of the government is subject to ap-
proval by the State Duma; if it rejects a nominee three times or passes a vote of no
confidence twice in three months, the president may dissolve the State Duma and call
for new elections. All legislation must first pass the State Duma before being consid-
ered by the Federation Council. A presidential veto of a bill can be overridden by the
legislature with a two-thirds majority, or a bill may be altered to incorporate presi-
dential reservations and pass with a majority vote. With a two-thirds majority (and
approval by the Russian Constitutional Court), the legislature may remove the presi-
dent from office for treason or other serious criminal offenses. The Federation Coun-
cil must approve all presidential appointments to the country’s highest judicial bodies
(Supreme Court and Constitutional Court).
Russia’s highest judicial body is the Supreme Court, which supervises the ac-
tivities of all other judicial bodies and serves as the final court of appeal. The Su-
preme Court has been supplemented since 1991 by a Constitutional Court, estab-
lished to review Russian laws and treaties. The Constitutional Court is presided over
by 19 judges, who are nominated by the president and approved by the Federation
Council. Appointed to life terms, judges for both the Supreme Court and the Consti-
tutional Court must be at least 35 and 40 years of age and have 10 and 15 years of
experience respectively. The Constitutional Court has the power of judicial review,
which enables it to rule on the constitutionality of laws. The Russian legal system has
attempted to overcome the repression practiced during the Soviet era by requiring
public trials and guaranteeing a defense for the accused. Historically, the Supreme
Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation had ruled on commercial disputes, but it
was abolished in 2014, and its powers were absorbed by the Supreme Court.
88
into Russian.
A law-bound state, a dual executive; to be the dominant figure; to serve more
than two terms consecutively; significant powers; to be empowered to do sth; the
chairman of the government; key judges; cabinet members; to fail to pass president's
legislative initiatives; to have the force of law; domestic and foreign policy; to repre-
sent the state within the country and in foreign affairs; to recall sb; credentials and
letters of recall; upon consultation with the legislature; martial law; a state of emer-
gency; to take effect with the 2012 election; to be split between …; (to be) accounta-
ble to sb/sth; to be confirmed by the State Duma; to ensure sth; the rule of law; the
country's legislature; an upper house; a popularly elected lower house; appointed rep-
resentatives from each of Russia's administrative divisions; the president's nominee
for chairman of the government; to be subject to sth; a vote of no confidence; to
override sth; to incorporate presidential reservations; a majority vote; to remove the
president from office; the country's highest judicial bodies; the final court of appeal;
to supplement sth; to review Russian laws and treaties; to be presided over by 19
judges; (to be) appointed to life terms; to hold a law degree; the constitutionality of
laws; repression during the Soviet era; public trials; a defense for the accused; to be
absorbed by …
into English.
Государственная власть; законодательная, исполнительная и судебная
ветви власти; быть избранным в результате национального голосования; быть
наделенным значительными полномочиями; глава государства; назначать к-л на
должность; законодательный орган; законодательные инициативы; выпускать
постановления; определять основное направление внутренней и внешней поли-
тики; назначать и отзывать послов; проводить международные переговоры;
подписывать международные договоры; главнокомандующий вооруженных
сил; объявлять военное положение или чрезвычайное положение; поправка к
Конституции; продлить президентский срок от 4 до 6 лет; быть подотчетным к-
89
л/ч-л; утвердить (ч-л назначение на должность); права и свободы человека;
включать в себя; одобрение Государственной Думы; выразить вотум недоверия;
распустить Думу; призвать к новым выборам; рассматривать ч-л; преодолеть
президентское вето; изменить ч-л; провести большинством голосов; измена или
другие серьёзные преступления; одобрять все президентские назначения; кон-
тролировать деятельность всех других судебных органов; выносить решения о
конституционности законов; преодолеть ч-л; выносить решения по коммерче-
ским вопросам; упразднять ч-л.

1. to consist _______ sth/sb
2. to be vested _______ sth
3. an amendment _______ sth
4. to be accountable _______ sb/sth
5. a nominee _______ sth
6. to be subject _______ sth
7. to call _______ sth
8. to remove sb _______ office _______ sth
9. to preside ______ sth
10. to rule _______ sth
Ex. 4 Study the difference between the words.

1. legislate (v) BrE /ˈledʒɪsleɪt/; NAmE /ˈledʒɪsleɪt/ ‒ (formal) to make a law affect-
ing something;
2. legislation (n) BrE /ˌledʒɪsˈleɪʃn/; NAmE /ˌledʒɪsˈleɪʃn/ ‒ a law or a set of laws
passed by a parliament;
3. legislator (n) BrE /ˈledʒɪsleɪtə®/; NAmE /ˈledʒɪsleɪtər/ ‒ a member of a group of
people that has the power to make laws;
4. legislature (n) BrE /ˈledʒɪsleɪtʃə®/; NAmE /ˈledʒɪsleɪtʃər/ ‒ a group of people who
have the power to make and change laws;
90
5. legislative (adj) BrE /ˈledʒɪslətɪv/; NAmE /ˈledʒɪsleɪtɪv/ ‒ [only before noun] (for-
mal) connected with the act of making and passing laws.
Use these words to complete the sentences below.

1. The U.S. president has no _______ power, but he can make recommendations.
2. The individual lawmakers are untouchable for anything they do as _______.
3. The government will _______ against discrimination in the workplace.
4. The _______ comprises a 212-member Chamber of Deputies elected for a four-
year term.
5. New _______ on adoption comes into effect at the end of the year.

1. consecutive, non-consecutive, consecutively;
2. appoint, appointment, appointee, appointed, self-appointed;
3. amend, amended, amendment;
4. elect, re-elect, election, re-election, electioneering, elector, electorate, elected, une-
lected, electoral, electorally;
5. president, presidency, presidential;
6. implement, implementation;
7. constitution, constitutional, constitutionally, constitutionality, constitutionalism,
constitutionalize;
8. nominate, nomination, nominee.
1. Barron recently received an _______ as vice chairman. APPOINT
2. Grover Cleveland is counted twice as the 22nd and 24th president because he was
elected for two _______ terms. CONSECUTIVE
3. He is the favorite to win the _______ election on Thursday. PRESIDENT
4. She was responsible for the _______ of the plan. IMPLEMENT
5. A party's choice of leader is _______ important in so far as the person influences
its _______ image. ELECT
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6. The President will present his _______ for Supreme Court Justice to Congress for
approval. NOMINATE
7. Parliament accepted the _______ and the bill was passed. AMEND
8. They questioned the _______ of the law. CONSTITUTION

1. What kind of state is the Russian Federation?
2. How is state power divided?
3. What is understood by a dual executive?
4. How is the president elected? How long can he hold office?
5. What powers is the president vested with?
6. How are government duties split?
7. Is the head of government elected in a national vote?
8. What are the functions of the government?
9. What is the country's legislature?
10. What does it consist of?
11. What is the composition of the Federation Council?
12. Who does the State Duma comprise?
13. In what case may the president dissolve the State Duma?
14. How can a bill become law?
15. May the president be removed from office? For what?
16. What is Russia's highest judicial body?
17. What are its functions?
18. Who is it presided over?
19. What requirements must judges meet?
20. What did the Supreme Arbitration Court do? When was it abolished?

1. The Russian Federation is a democratic law-bound state with …………………
2. It has a dual executive that consists of ……………………………………….…
3. The president is elected in ………………………………………………………
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4. He can't serve more than …………………………………………………………
5. In 2008, the presidential term was extended from ……….…. to ….…..…. years.
6. The president is vested with ……………………………………………………..
7. He can appoint ……………………………………………………………………
8. The president determines ………………… and represents the state
…………………………………………………..
9. He conducts …………………………..…… and signs …………………………
10. As the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, he can …………………………
11. The prime minister is appointed by ………………… and confirmed by
…………………………………………………
12. The government ensures …………………, works out …………………, oversees
………………………..……, ensures the rule of ……………………………….……
13. The Federal Assembly is the county's ……………………………………………
14. It consists of ………………………………………………………………………
15. All legislation must pass ………………………………………………………….
16. A presidential veto of a bill can be overridden by …………………………….…
17. The legislature may remove the president from office for ……………….………
18. Russia's highest judicial body is ………………………………………………….
19. It supervises …………………….…… and serves as ……………………………
20. The Constitutional Court is presided over by ……………………………………
21. Judges for the Supreme Court and the Constitutional Court must be at least
……………………..… and have …………….………… of experience respectively.
22. The Constitutional Court has the power of judicial review and can rule on
……………………………………….…
Ex. 8 Visit the following sites:

http://duma.gov.ru/media/files/WRg3wDzAk8hRCRoZ3QUGbz84pI0ppmjF.pdf
http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-01.htm
Read the Constitution of the Russian Federation and the 2020 amendments to
the Russian Constitution. Say what changes have occurred in
93
 Chapter 4 The President of the Russian Federation (art. 80-93);
 Chapter 5 The Federal Assembly (art. 94-109);
 Chapter 6 The Government of the Russian Federation (art. 110-117);
 Chapter 7 Judicial Power (art. 118-129).
Part II
Regional and Local Government
(before the 2020 Amendments to the Russian Constitution)
Under the Russian constitution the central government retains significant au-
thority, but regional and local governments have been given an array of powers. For
example, they exercise authority over municipal property and policing, and they can
impose regional taxes. Owing to a lack of assertiveness by the central government,
Russia’s administrative divisions ‒ oblasti (regions), minority republics, okruga (au-
tonomous districts), kraya (territories), federal cities (Moscow and St. Petersburg),
and the one autonomous oblast ‒ exerted considerable power in the initial years after
the passage of the 1993 constitution. The constitution gives equal power to each of
the country’s administrative divisions in the Federal Assembly. However, the power
of the divisions was diluted in 2000 when seven federal districts (Central, Far East,
Northwest, Siberia, Southern, Urals, and Volga), each with its own presidential en-
voy, were established by the central government. In 2010 the southeastern portion of
the Southern district was reorganized as an eighth federal district, North Caucasus.
Russia’s ninth federal district, otherwise known as the Crimean Federal District, was
created in 2014.
The districts’ presidential envoys were given the power to implement federal
law and to coordinate communication between the president and the regional gover-
nors. Legally, the envoys in federal districts had solely the power of communicating
the executive guidance of the federal president. In practice, however, the guidance
served more as a directive, as the president was able to use the envoys to enforce
presidential authority over the regional governments.
In comparison to the federal government, regional governments generally have
inadequate tax revenue to support mandatory items in their budgets, which have bare-
94
ly been able to cover wages for teachers and police. The budgets of regional govern-
ments also are overburdened by pensions.
Legislation has further affirmed the power of the federal government over the
regions. For example, the regional governors and their deputies were prohibited from
representing their region in the Federation Council on the grounds that their sitting in
the Federation Council violated the principle of the separation of powers; however,
under a compromise, both the legislative and executive branch of each region sent a
member to the Federation Council. Legislation enacted in 2004 permitted the presi-
dent to appoint the regional governors, who earlier were elected. In the first decade of
the 21st century, the country began to undergo administrative change aimed at subor-
dinating smaller okruga to neighbouring members of the federation.
Following these reforms in regional government, the new federal districts be-
gan to replace the 11 traditional economic regions, particularly for statistical purpos-
es. The Central district unites the city of Moscow with all administrative divisions
within the Central and Central Black Earth economic regions. The Northwest district
combines the city of St. Petersburg with all areas in the North and Northwest regions,
including Kaliningrad oblast. The Southern district includes portions of the Volga
and North Caucasus economic regions; the North Caucasus district encompasses the
remaining units of the latter economic region. The Volga district merges units of the
Volga, Volga-Vyatka, and Ural economic regions. The Urals district consists of the
remaining administrative divisions of the Ural economic region along with several
from the West Siberia economic region. The Siberia district unites the remainder of
the West Siberia economic region and all of East Siberia. Finally, the Far East district
is congruent with the Far East economic region. The Crimean district, created in
2014, includes the federal city of Sevastopol.
Several of the administrative divisions established constitutions that devolved
power to local jurisdictions, and, though the 1993 constitution guaranteed local self-
governance, the powers of local governments vary considerably. Some local authori-
ties, particularly in urban centres, exercise significant power and are responsible for
taxation and the licensing of businesses. Moscow and St. Petersburg have particularly
95
strong local governments, with both possessing a tax base and government structure
that dwarf the country’s other regions. Local councils in smaller communities are
commonly rubber-stamp agencies, accountable to the city administrator, who is ap-
pointed by the regional governor. In the mid-1990s municipal government was re-
structured. City councils (dumas), city mayors, and city administrators replaced for-
mer city soviets.

1) to retain a) to use your power, influence etc in order to make some-
thing happen;
2) assertiveness b) someone who is sent as a representative from one gov-
ernment or organization to another;
3) to exert c) fitting together well;
4) to dilute d) compulsory, obligatory;
5) envoy e) to keep something or continue to have something;
6) to overburden f) giving approval to ideas, projects, laws, etc. without ex-
amining them carefully first;
7) mandatory g) to make something weaker or less effective;
8) to encompass h) to give someone or something more work, worry, etc.
than they can deal with;
9) congruent i) to give work, responsibility, or power to someone at a
lower or more local level;
10) to devolve j) to make something seem small or unimportant compared
with something else;
11) rubber-stamp k) the quality of expressing opinions or desires in a strong
and confident way, so that people take notice;
12) to dwarf l) to include a large number or range of things.
Use the words to complete the sentences below.

1. The government has not yet appointed an _______ to the area.
2. He was allowed to _______ his parliamentary seat.
96
3. Did Democratic leaders _______ pressure on their colleagues to vote for the new
law?
4. The skill of _______ is very useful here ‒ this implies the ability to say no.
5. This new crisis may well _______ most that have gone before.
6. If political participation is important, why not require _______ voting, as in Aus-
tralia or Belgium?
7. The study will _______ the social, political, and economic aspects of the situa-
tion.
8. We need the freedom to direct funds in a way that is _______ with local priori-
ties.
9. In many cases, compromises _______ the impact of the proposed reform, often
postponing major changes until a later date.
10. President has requested and his _________ parliament has granted a two-year ex-
tension of the Emergency Law.
11. The goal of the welfare bill is to _______ power and responsibility to the states.
12. The Government had not wished to _______ the Peacebuilding Commission with
excessively detailed information.
Ex. 2 Translate the words and word combinations from English into Rus-
sian.
Under the Russian constitution; an array of powers; to exercise authority; ow-
ing to a lack of assertiveness by the central government; to dilute the power of sth; to
implement federal law; to have solely the power of ..; to communicate the executive
guidance of the president; to enforce presidential authority; inadequate (tax revenue);
to support mandatory items; to cover wages; to affirm the power of …; to be prohib-
ited from sth; on the grounds; one's sitting in the Federation Counci; to enact sth; par-
ticularly for statistical purposes; to merge units; the remainder of sth; to be congruent
with sth; local authorities; the licensing of businesses; to dwarf the country's other re-
gions; local councils; rubber-stamp agencies; to be restructured; city soviets.
97
Ex. 3 Translate the words and word combinations from Russian into English.
Сохранять значительную власть; облагать налогами на региональном
уровне; административные единицы; пользоваться существенной властью; пол-
номочный представитель Президента РФ в федеральном округе; координиро-
вать ч-л; губернатор; быть (служить) директивой; поступление в казну от нало-
гов; бюджет; быть перегруженными ч-л; нарушать принцип разделения вла-
стей; в соответствии с компромиссом; разрешать к-л делать ч-л; претерпеть ад-
министративные изменения; замещать ч-л; включать с себя ч-л; передавать
власть местным органам; гарантировать местное самоуправление; существенно
различаться; отвечать за налогообложение; иметь налоговую базу и госструкту-
ру; быть подотчетным к-л; мэр города.

1. _______ the Constitution
2. authority _______ sth
3. owing _______ sth
4. in comparison _______ sth
5. to be prohibited _______ sth
6. _______ the grounds
7. _______ a compromise
8. to be aimed _______ doing sth
9. _______ the purpose of doing sth
10. along _______ sb/sth
11. to be congruent _______ sth
12. to devolve sth _______ sb/sth
13. to be responsible _______ sth
14. to be accountable _______ sb/sth

1. What powers do regional and local governments have under the Russian constitu-
tion?
98
2. When did Russia's administrative divisions exert considerable power?
3. When and how was the power of the divisions diluted?
4. What role does the district's presidential envoy play?
5. What problems do regional governments face?
6. Why can't regional governors and deputies represent their region in the Federation
Council?
7. What did the 2004 legislation allow the president to do?
8. What administrative change did the country undergo at the beginning of the 21st
century?
9. What did the 1993 constitution guarantee?
10. Do the powers of local governments vary considerably? How?
Ex. 6 Find up-to-date information about the administrative divisions of the

Russian Federation and report it back to the class.
Part III
Political Process
All citizens at least age 18 are eligible to vote. Presidential elections are con-
tested in two rounds; if no candidate receives a majority in the first round, there is a
runoff between the top two candidates. For elections to the State Duma, voters cast
separate ballots for a party and for a representative from a single-member district.
Half the seats in the State Duma are allocated on the basis of the party vote, with all
parties winning at least 5 percent of the national vote guaranteed representation on a
proportional basis, and half through the single-member-district contests. Each region-
al governor and the head of each regional assembly appoint one member to serve in
the Federation Council.
Several of the political parties that formed in the 1990s had a notable impact.
Despite the dissolution of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the general
demise of communism, the Communist Party of the Russian Federation emerged as a
major political force. Indeed, in both 1996 and 2000 the Communist Party’s leader
finished second in the presidential balloting, and in 2000 its contingent in the State
99
Duma was the largest (though the party was a distant second in 2003). The ultrana-
tionalist and xenophobic Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) capitalized on popular dis-
enchantment and fear in the early 1990s. Led by Vladimir Zhirinovsky, who finished
third in the presidential election of 1991, the LDP won more than one-fifth of the
vote and 64 seats in the State Duma elections in 1993. By the end of the decade,
however, support for the party had dropped dramatically; its support rebounded
slightly in 2003, when it won nearly one-eighth of the vote. Throughout the 1990s
Yeltsin’s government was viewed unfavourably by a large proportion of the Russian
public. To secure legislative support for his policies, Yeltsin encouraged the for-
mation of the Our Home Is Russia party in 1995 and the Unity party in 1999; both
parties finished behind the Communist Party in parliamentary elections. Parties sup-
portive of the most liberal policies, such as Grigory Yavlinsky’s Yabloko (Apple)
party, found themselves unable to secure a firm base outside the intelligentsia. One of
the most intriguing parties that formed in the 1990s was the Women of Russia party,
which captured 8 percent of the vote in the 1993 State Duma election, though its level
support had dropped by about three-fourths by the end of the decade. In 2001 a num-
ber of parties merged to form the pro-Putin United Russia party; beginning in 2003,
this bloc held the largest number of seats in the State Duma.

1) a runoff a) a piece of paper on which you make a secret vote;
2) a ballot b) the people in a society who are most highly educated
and who are most interested in new ideas, especially in
art, literature, or politics;
3) to allocate c) a second competition or election that is arranged when
there is no clear winner of the first one;
4) demise d) feeling or showing dislike or fear of people from other
countries;
5) xenophobic e) to recover in value, amount, or strength after a decrease
or decline;
100
6) the intelligentsia f) to use something for a particular purpose, give some-
thing to a particular person etc, especially after an offi-
cial decision has been made;
7) to rebound g) the end of something that used to exist;
Use the words to complete the sentences below.

1. There are elements in our society that are intolerant and _______.
2. She won 55% of the votes in the _______.
3. Economics is often described as the study of how to _______ limited resources in
the face of unlimited wants.
4. The leader will be chosen by secret _______.
5. The collapse of the Soviet Union led many to believe that the _______ of socialism
in Cuba was inevitable.
6. He predicted that the economy will _______ in the fourth quarter to a 4.4 %
growth rate.
7. _______ was by its very nature opposed to the existing political and social system,
and this opposition coloured its attitude toward culture in general.
Ex. 2 Translate the words and word combinations from English into Rus-
sian.
To be contested in two rounds; to receive a majority in the first round; a runoff;
to allocate seats in the State Duma on the basis of the party vote; (to be) guaranteed
representation on a proportional basis; to emerge as a major political force; to finish
second in the presidential balloting; to capitalize on popular disenchantment and fear;
to rebound slightly; to view sb/sth unfavorably; to secure legislative support for sth;
to be unable to secure a firm base outside the intelligentsia; to hold the largest num-
ber of seats in the State Duma.
Ex. 3 Translate the words and word combinations from Russian into English.
Гражданин; иметь право на…; президентские выборы; отдать голос; из-
бирательный округ, от которого выбирают одного депутата; оказывать заметное
101
влияние; роспуск политической партии; закат коммунизма; контингент; ультра-
националистическая и ксенофобская партия; значительно сократиться/упасть;
поддержать создание партии; партии, поддерживающие либеральную полити-
ку; получить 8% голосов; объединиться, чтобы образовать новую партию.

1. a runoff _______ the two candidates
2. elections _______ the State Duma
3. to cast ballots _______ a party
4. _______ the basis of the party vote
5. to capitalize _______ disenchantment and fear
6. support _______ the party

1. What is the voting age in the Russian Federation?
2. How many rounds are there in presidential elections? When is the second round
held?
3. What do voters cast their ballots for when elections to the State Duma are held?
4. How are seats in the State Duma allocated?
5. How are members of the Federation Council chosen?
6. What influential political parties are there in Russia? Who are they led by?
Ex. 6 Read the article about the Russian party system and express its main
ideas in English. Do you agree with the author’s point of view?
Александр Кынев
06 фев 2020
Редизайн системы: что ждет новые российские партии

Кризис партийной системы в сочетании с сохранением протестных
настроений заставляет власть реагировать, чтобы сохранить контроль над поли-
тическим процессом
102
По данным Левада-центра, российским партиям доверяют только 16%
граждан, а в той или иной степени не доверяют 71%.
Первая причина недоверия ‒ в изначальной слабости партий, что является
следствием слабости парламента, когда даже победа на выборах не позволяет
партии реализовать свою программу, ведь ключевые решения принимает ис-
полнительная власть. Граждане мало разбираются в конституционном распре-
делении полномочий, но видят результат: стабильную разницу между предвы-
борными обещаниями и действиями депутатов.
Вторая причина ‒ это искусственно поддерживаемая многолетняя несме-
няемость руководства ведущих партий. Партийная номенклатура давно бюро-
кратизировалась, погрязла в договорных отношениях с властью, включающих
растущее госфинансирование и получение утешительных должностей. В ре-
зультате партийная система фактически носит картельный характер. Но с каж-
дым годом сохранять ее все сложнее ‒ дело не только в общественном запросе
на перемены, но и в физическом старении лидеров и растущем конфликте ста-
рой партийной номенклатуры с новым поколением.
Однако избиратель голосует за те партии, которые есть, потому что толь-
ко так можно выразить недоверие к власти. Системная оппозиция превращается
в агрегатор протестных голосов. В 2018–2019 годах мы видели тот же феномен,
что и в 2008–2011 годах: когда не за кого голосовать, избиратели голосуют
назло. На выборах заксобраний в сентябре 2018-го в трех регионах впервые с
2007 года первое место по партийным спискам заняла не «Единая Россия» (по-
бедила КПРФ), а в четырех регионах дело дошло до вторых туров выборов гу-
бернаторов. Доля побед кандидатов «Единой России» в мажоритарных округах
на выборах заксобраний снизилась c 90 до 70%.
Похожий эффект наблюдался на муниципальных выборах. В 2019 году на
самых политически важных выборах в Мосгордуму даже малоизвестные кан-
дидаты получали прибавку 10–15% голосов. Официально кандидаты «умного
голосования» победили в 20 из 45 округов, тогда как в 2014 году партия власти
уступила в Москве только пять округов из 45. Результаты «Единой России» по
103
партийным спискам на выборах 2019-го снизились по сравнению с выборами
2014 года во всех регионах, кроме Кабардино-Балкарии, в среднем на 16%.
Распыляй и властвуй
Отвечать на эту ситуацию власть пытается двумя способами. Первый ‒
дальнейшее сокращение числа региональных депутатов, избираемых по партс-
пискам. Второе ‒ создание в ускоренном порядке новых партий, чтобы усилить
разбиение протестных голосов.
<...>
Пока самая публично заметная инициатива ‒ созданная 1 февраля партия
«За правду» Захара Прилепина, с участием ряда симпатизантов ДНР и ЛНР. О
намерении создать собственные партии также заявили:
 экс-депутат Госдумы от ЛДПР Роман Худяков (ранее сотрудничал с
партией «Родина», а затем с партией ЧЕСТНО) ‒ партия «Достойная жизнь»;
 владелец компании Faberlic Алексей Нечаев (член центрального
штаба ОНФ; его соратник в новом проекте Александр Даванков, старший брат
Владислава Даванкова, заместителя гендиректора курируемого администраци-
ей президента АНО «Россия ‒ страна возможностей») ‒ партия пока не имеет
названия;
 экс-директор по продукту World of Tanks компании Wargaming.net
Вячеслав Макаров (в оргкомитете также давно работавший с властью полит-
технолог Тимофей Шевяков) ‒ Партия прямой демократии;
 Руслан Хвостов, выходец из молодежного движения «Местные»,
созданного в 2005 году при поддержке администрации губернатора Москов-
ской области Бориса Громова, член Общественной палаты региона ‒ партия
«Зеленая альтернатива».
Планы и реальность
Скорее всего, из большинства новых проектов не выйдет ничего, кроме
шума. Причин тому несколько.
Во-первых, процедура регистрации партий остается крайне сложной.
Сначала нужно зарегистрировать ее на федеральном уровне, а затем в течение
104
полугода создать отделения не менее чем в половине регионов (минимум в 43).
Как говорит опыт, это мало кому удается без административной поддержки, а
путь от создания оргкомитета до получения права участия в выборах составляет
примерно полгода. <...>
Во-вторых, даже при получении права участия в выборах новым партиям
придется регистрировать кандидатов и списки через сбор подписей ‒ льгот у
них не будет, ведь закон 2014 года никто не отменял. Не вызывает сомнений,
что имеющие льготы оппоненты все такие подписи будут изучать «под лупой».
В-третьих, инициаторы создания новых партий, если они всерьез рассчи-
тывают на успех, делают классическую ошибку политтехнолога-дилетанта.
Совпадение по какой-то одной характеристике не означает, что все ее облада-
тели за тебя проголосуют. Надежды, что все геймеры проголосуют за геймера,
пользователи Faberlic проголосуют за производителя Faberlic, а диабетики за
диабетика, столь же наивны, как мечты некоторых в 2018 году, что все миллио-
ны подписчиков Ксении Собчак в Instagram проголосуют за нее на президент-
ских выборах.
Люди обладают свободой воли, и у каждого из нас десятки идентифика-
ций ‒ социальные, возрастные, гендерные, этнические, конфессиональные, об-
разовательные, по самым разным хобби и пристрастиям. Политические взгляды
могут вообще с ними не совпадать, а зависеть от референтной группы, взглядов
друзей или родственников. Жесткая социальная стратификация осталась в XIX
веке, сейчас мы имеем мозаичное общество из огромного числа сетей и сооб-
ществ. <...>
Чтобы новый партийный проект оказался успешным, важны несколько
факторов. Во-первых, искренность ‒ только личный опыт избирателей и уве-
ренность, что кандидат настоящий, могут сделать его тефлоновым для контр-
пропаганды и черного PR. Во-вторых, необходимо наличие некоторой публич-
ной репутации у лидеров. Обычно выстреливают проекты, во главе которых
стоят яркие и уже известные как политики люди. <...> Неизвестный проект с
неизвестным лидером имеет минимальные шансы. <...>
105
Все большие партии когда-то начинались с малых. И если новые партии
перестают появляться, то у старых снижается стимул к обновлению. Кроме то-
го, новые партии могут служить индикаторами того, что ведущие политические
силы не представляют интересы тех или иных меньшинств (территориальных,
этнических, идеологических). Наконец, появляется возможность для раскрутки
будущих лидеров.
Таким образом, если старые партии захотят выжить, они будут вынужде-
ны обновляться. А новым, если они захотят добиться успеха, придется стать
настоящими.
106
PUBLIC POLICY
Part I
American Public Policy: An Introduction
Public policy affects each citizen in hundreds of ways, some of them familiar
and some unsuspected. Citizens directly confront public policy when they are arrest-
ed for speeding, but they seldom remember that the advertising on the television
shows they watch is regulated by the Federal Communications Commission and the
Federal Trade Commission. Many citizens who complain loudly at tax time about
government bureaucracy and overregulation have forgotten the fire and police protec-
tion or the paved streets those revenues provide.
Indeed, public policy in America affects a vast range of activities, from nuclear
warheads to bathroom plumbing, from arresting lawbreakers to providing medical
care for the elderly. This book aims to clarify key dimensions of this ubiquitous in-
fluence on American life and to introduce the debates swirling around its major con-
troversies.
What Constitutes Public Policy?
Even though examples of public policy come readily to mind, defining public
policy in clear and unambiguous terms is not easy. Political scientists have devoted
considerable attention to the problem without reaching a consensus.
The term public policy always refers to the actions of government and the in-
tentions that determine those actions. Making policy requires choosing among goals
and alternatives, and choice always involves intention. Policy is seldom a single ac-
tion, but is most often a series of actions coordinated to achieve a goal. Thus, public
policy is defined in this book as an intentional course of action followed by a gov-
ernment institution or official for resolving an issue of public concern. Such a course
of action must be manifested in laws, public statements, official regulations, or wide-
ly accepted and publicly visible patterns of behavior. Public policy is rooted in law
and in the authority and coercion associated with law. (The terms public policy and
policy will be used interchangeably.)
107
Three qualifications are necessary, however, for this definition of public poli-
cy. First, the idea of an intentional course of action includes decisions made not to
take a certain action. For example, Congress voted in 1993 not to continue funding
for the Superconducting Supercollider Project. Second, the requirement that official
actions be sanctioned by law or accepted custom is necessary because public officials
often take courses of action that step outside public policy ‒ for example, they some-
times take bribes or exceed their legal authority. Such deeds should not be considered
public policy ‒ that is, unless they are openly tolerated in a particular political sys-
tem. Third, laws or official regulations should not be mistaken for the whole realm of
policy; nor does policy always meet intended goals. Lawmaking is not enough to es-
tablish a policy; implementation, interpretation, enforcement, and impact of laws and
regulations, discussed later, are also part of policy. Moreover, quite often there are
unintended consequences to public policies. Although some political scientists argue
that these unintended impacts are part of the policy, we believe that it is conceptually
clearer to consider policy and its impacts separately.

1) bureaucracy a) money that the government receives from tax;
2) revenue b) clear in meaning; that can only be understood in one way;
3) ubiquitous c) a complicated official system that is annoying or confusing
because it has a lot of rules, processes etc;
4) unambiguous d) the use of threats or orders to make someone do something
they do not want to do;
5) consensus e) seeming to be everywhere or in several places at the same
time; very common;
6) coercion f) an opinion that everyone in a group agrees with or accepts.
1. Energy-and water-saving technologies are _______.
2. We need to reduce paperwork and _______ in the company.
3. Most decisions are reached by general _______.
108
4. Tax fraud costs the country millions in lost _______.
5. In last night's speech, the president finally made an _______ statement on the is-
sue of taxes.
6. The party dictatorship had terrifying powers of _______.
into Russian.
a) To confront public policy; to be regulated by …; to complain loudly at tax
time; overregulation; fire and police protection; paved streets; a vast range of activi-
ties; nuclear warheads; bathroom plumbing; to clarify key dimensions of sth; ubiqui-
tous influence; to introduce debate; major controversies;
b) To define public policy in clear and unambiguous terms; political scientists;
making policy; to be a single action; an intentional course of action; an issue of pub-
lic concern; to be manifested in sth; widely accepted or publicly visible patterns of
behavior; coercion; to be used interchangeably; decisions made not to take a certain
action; Superconducting Supercollider Project; to be sanctioned by law or accepted
custom; to step outside public policy; to be openly tolerated in a particular political
system; the whole realm of policy; to meet intended goals; to establish a policy; im-
plementation, interpretation, enforcement, and impact of laws and regulations; unin-
tended impacts; to be conceptually clearer.
а) Оказывать влияние на каждого различными способами; некоторые из
них известные, о некоторых мы не подозреваем; быть арестованным за превы-
шение скорости; телевизионная реклама; правительственная бюрократия; по-
ступления в казну от налогов; арест правонарушителей; обеспечение медицин-
ской помощи для пожилых; вращаться вокруг ч-л;
б) Легко приходить на ум; посвятить значительное внимание проблеме;
достичь консенсуса; относиться к ч-л; требовать ч-л; выбирать среди целей и
альтернативных вариантов; намерение; серия действий, направленных на до-
109
стижение цели; разрешать проблему; публичные заявления; официальные
предписания; иметь в основе / уходить корнями во ч-л; продолжать финансиро-
вание ч-л; должностные лица; брать взятки; превышать юридические полномо-
чия; деяния/поступки; ошибочно приниматься за …; законотворчество; быть
частью публичной политики; неожиданные (непредусмотренные) последствия
публичной политики; рассматривать политику и её влияние раздельно.
Ex.4 Fill in the correct preposition.

1. to complain _____ sth
2. to provide sth _____ sb
3. influence _____ sth
4. to swirl _____ sth/sb
5. to come _____ mind
6. to devote sth ____ sth/sb
7. to refer _____ sth
8. to manifest sth _____ sth
9. to be rooted _____ sth
10. to be associated _____ sth
11. to be mistaken _____ sth
12. consequences _____ stр

1. Do people always realize that public policy affects their lives? How can you prove
that its influence is ubiquitous?
2. Is it easy to define public policy? Why?/Why not?
3. What does the term 'public policy' refer to?
4. What role does intention play in making policy?
5. Is policy a single action? Why?/Why not?
6. How is public policy defined in this book?
7. How must it be manifested?
8. What is public policy rooted in?
110
9. What are the three qualifications necessary for this definition of public policy?
What does each of them mean?
Part II
Why Study Public Policy?
Students of political science and public administration have several reasons for
studying public policy. The first is theoretical: Political scientists seek to understand
and explain the world of politics ‒ that is, they attempt to develop and test explanato-
ry generalizations about the political behavior of individuals and institutions. Because
public policy is a part of politics, political scientists are concerned with how it is re-
lated to such things as political party structure, interest groups, inter-party competi-
tion, electoral systems, and executive-legislative relations. Political scientists who
seek explanation call for the discipline to develop and test policy theory. They often
develop models of the policy process as a means to facilitate understanding how poli-
cy is made across a number of areas. Such models can focus on interest group activi-
ties, powerful elites, institutional forces, rational choices, advocacy coalitions, or in-
crementalism.
A second reason for studying public policy is practical. Political scientists and
students of policy apply knowledge to solve practical problems. They are interested
in how policymaking can be made more rational and effective, how the obstacles to
implementing policy decisions can be removed, and how those policies affect the
quality of individual and social life. The standard here, according to political scientist
Lawrence Mead, is “effective governance”; that is, whether government action (or
inaction) solves evident public problems. As political scientists Duncan MacRae and
James A. Wilde pointed out, the study of public policy requires “the use of reason
and evidence to choose the best policy among a number of alternatives.
A third reason for studying public policy, related to the second, is political.
Debate and controversy over public policy in America is not new, but today the range
of issues over which serious disagreement occurs is far greater than in the past. Con-
stant bombardment with policy choices compels citizens to make choices. So many
111
issues are placed before the public ‒ health care reform, crime prevention, economic
stability, AIDS prevention, and war at the national level; taxation and spending,
teacher quality, and public utility regulation at the state level; zoning, mass transpor-
tation, and property taxation at the local level ‒ that mental circuits begin to overload.
As citizens, political scientists and college students hope the study of public policy
will help them find their way through the tangle of complex issues and sophisticated
policy proposals. They try to understand the arguments and ideological positions that
define policy choices.
Ex. 1 Guess the meaning of the following words in italics:

1. Political scientists seek to understand and explain the world of politics …
a) to look for someone or something;
b) to try to do something.
2. Political scientists who seek explanation call for the discipline to develop and test
policy theory.
a) an area of knowledge or teaching; a subject that people study or are taught, es-
pecially in a university;
b) the ability to control your own behaviour, so that you do what you are expected
to do.
3. ‹…› the study of public policy requires "the use of reason and evidence to choose
the best policy among a number of alternatives."
a) why something happens, or why someone does something;
b) the ability to think, understand, and form judgments that are based on facts.
4. Constant bombardment with policy choices compels citizens to make choices.

a) a continuous flow of questions, criticisms, or information;
b) a continuous attack with bombs, shells, or other missiles.
5. As citizens, political scientists and college students hope the study of public policy
will help them find their way through the tangle of complex issues and sophisticated
policy proposals.
a) involving a lot of different parts, in a way that is difficult to understand;
112
b) having a lot of experience of life, and good judgment about socially important
things such as art, fashion etc.
Ex. 2 Explain the meaning of the following words and word combinations:
1. interest groups
2. to facilitate
3. an elite
4. an advocacy coalition
5. incrementalism
into Russian.
Public administration; to attempt to do sth; explanatory generalizations about
the political behavior of individuals and institutions; to be concerned with sth; inter-
est groups; executive-legislative relations; to call for the discipline to develop and test
policy theory; to facilitate sth; institutional forces; advocacy coalitions; to remove the
obstacles to implementing policy decisions; government action (or inaction); to solve
evident public problems; to point out; the use of reason and evidence; debate and
controversy over public policy; constant bombardment with policy choices; to place
issues before the public; teacher quality; public utility regulation; mass transporta-
tion; property taxation; mental circuits; to overload; to find one's way through the
tangle of complex issues and sophisticated policy proposals.
Теоретический; причины для изучения публичной политики; попытаться
понять и объяснить мир политики; внутрипартийная конкуренция; избиратель-
ные системы; средство сделать ч-л; сосредоточить внимание на ч-л; обладаю-
щая властью элита; рациональный выбор; применять знания для решения прак-
тических проблем; оказывать влияние на личную и социальную жизнь; соглас-
но к-л; эффективное управление; требовать ч-л; ряд вопросов, по которым воз-
никают серьёзные разногласия; заставлять граждан делать выбор; реформа
113
здравоохранения; предотвращение преступлений; экономическая стабильность;
предотвращение распространения СПИДа; налогообложение и расходование
средств; идеологическая позиция.
Ex. 5 Find words with the same meaning in A and B.

A. To seek to do sth, evident, complicated, to be concerned with sth, an issue,
to affect, to force sb to do sth, to happen, to focus on sth, an interest group, to use sth,
a hindrance, evidence, to put sth before sb, spending.
B. Complex, a problem, to attempt to do sth, to influence, obvious, to place sth
before sb, expenditure, to be interested in sth, to occur, an obstacle, to apply sth, a
lobby, to compel sb to do sth, facts, to concentrate on sth.
Ex. 6 Fill in the correct prepositions.

1. a reason _____ sth / doing sth
2. to be concerned _______ sth
3. (to be) related _____ sth
4. to call _____ sth
5. to focus _____ sth
6. to be interested _____ sth
7. an obstacle _____ sth / doing sth
8. according ____ sb
9. debate /controversy / disagreement _______ sth
10. bombardment of sb ____ sth
11. to place sth _______ sb
12. ______ the national / local level

1. What are the three reasons for studying public policy mentioned in the text?
2. What do political scientists do in an attempt to understand and explain the world
of politics?
3. What are they concerned with?
4. Why do they develop models of the policy process?
114
5. What do these models focus on?
6. How can political scientists and students of policy apply their knowledge?
7. What are they interested in?
8. What is understood by 'effective governance'?
9. What does the study of public policy require, according to Duncan MacRae and
James A Wilde?
10. What are citizens compelled to do?
11. What issues are placed before them?
12. How can political scientists and college students benefit from studying public
policy as citizens?
Part III
Categories of Public Policy
The American national government is responsible for thousands of different
policies. State and local governments are responsible for many thousands more. For
this reason, we need classifications of policies into different types to discuss them
clearly. Classification of policies allows political scientists to test which features of
policy have the most influence on the politics of the policy process. There is no single
classification suitable for all purposes. The following paragraphs summarize three
common classifications employed by political scientists: purposes, types,
goods. These classifications focus on different aspects of public policy.
Public policy attempts to achieve certain goals. That’s why we can group poli-
cies into classifications based on purpose. There are many different ways to classify.
Political philosophers for centuries have debated the most fundamental purposes of
government and the proper goals for it to pursue. The policies discussed in this text
can be categorized under four headings.
1. Government exists to provide security from internal and external threats to
the lives, liberties, and properties of its members. National defense and foreign policy
are prime examples of this purpose. Government itself is often a threat to the security
115
of residents; modern democratic nations enhance security by placing limits on gov-
ernment itself through constitutions and bills of rights.
2. A second purpose of government is membership; that is, determining who is
and who is not a member of society. Members of a political society are citizens, who
enjoy certain rights and bear certain responsibilities. The matter of citizenship has
taken on considerable significance in recent decades. The debate focuses on who is
eligible for citizenship. A second focus of membership debate in democratic nations,
such as the United States, is equality. Democracies do not recognize first- and sec-
ond-class citizenship. All citizens should be equal in fundamental rights and respon-
sibilities. Yet racial, religious difference and gender historically have divided citizens
into different groups with different political rights and social opportunities. Hence,
race, religion, gender, and ethnicity raise significant equality challenges.
3. A third purpose of government is helping to ensure the material well-being
of its members. We may think of this as a prosperity goal. In democratic, capitalist
nations government does not have the sole in providing the goods and services neces-
sary for material prosperity. However, American citizens do expect the national gov-
ernment to help to manage the economy and to provide the legal and social infra-
structure for economic growth. State and local officials are often judged by their abil-
ity to attract employment and economic development to their cities or states.
4. Finally, government helps people to meet needs. The expectation is not that
government has the main responsibility in all areas, but it takes a leading role in
some, such as educating citizens. The extensive system of elementary, secondary and
higher education can be operated by state and local governments and funded by the
federal government. Policies such as Medicare, Medicaid, and Social Security are ex-
amples of this governmental purpose.
them:
Purpose; judge (v.); growth; prosperity; fundamental; feature; legal; infrastruc-
ture; fund (v.); officials; ensure; certain; considerable; equality; gender; determining;
allow; foreign; ethnicity; recent; through.
116
Ex.2 Translate the following words and word combinations from English
into Russian:
Responsible for thousands of different policies; material well-being; funded by
the federal government; to meet needs; eligible for citizenship; to enjoy certain rights;
internal and external threats; single classification; to enhance security; equality chal-
lenges.
Ex.3 Translate the following words and word combinations from Russian
into English:
Брать на себя лидирующую роль; государственная цель; предоставлять
товары и услуги; основные права и обязанности; преследовать цели; иметь
наибольшее влияние на…; Билль о правах; устанавливать границы (пределы);
экономический рост; подходящий для всех целей.
Ex. 4 Answer the following questions:

1. What is the American national government responsible for?
2. What are state and local governments in charge of?
3. Why do we need classifications of policies?
4. What are the three common classifications of policies employed by political
scientists?
5. Why can we group policies into classifications based on purpose?
6. What are the four purposes of government?
7. Why does government exist, according to the text?
8. How do modern democratic nations place limits on government?
9. What members of society are considered citizens?
10. All citizens are equal in their fundamental rights and responsibilities, aren’t they?
11. What do American citizens expect the national government to do?
Part IV
Policies involved in policymaking
Certain kinds of policies affect the types of political activity involved in poli-
cymaking. One influential classification divides policies into distributive, regulatory,
self-regulatory, and redistributive.
117
Distributive policies allocate benefits from government to certain segments of
the population. The more widely the benefits are distributed, the more popular the
policy is likely to be. These benefits may be in the form of subsidies (agriculture
price supports) or contracts (for aircraft carriers). They can also come in the form of
direct government provision of services (public schools) or direct payments to indi-
viduals (Social Security checks).
Regulatory policies impose constraints on individuals and groups. They reduce
liberty of action. Some set up rules for the entire society, criminal justice laws, for
example, or speed limits. Civil rights laws also regulate standards of employment,
public accommodation, and housing. Other regulations are more particular. Regulato-
ry policies may be highly conflictual. Yet, often businesses lobby government for
regulations that might protect them from competition.
Self-regulatory policies are similar to regulatory, except that the persons or
groups regulated possess considerable authority to formulate and police the regula-
tions governing them. Attorneys, physicians, engineers, for example, receive authori-
ty from government to license practitioners, determining who may and who may not
practice the profession. Such groups often also develop and administer their own
codes of ethics.
When issues of redistribution take the stage, politics becomes highly ideologi-
cal. Redistribution involves not only the allocation of benefits or services to certain
parts of the population, but the taxing of other parts of the population to generate the
funds. Those who possess the funds, or the rights and powers, seldom give them up
willingly. Policies that help to meet needs or to guarantee equal membership are often
classified as redistributive. These involve taxing more affluent members of society in
order to provide income assistance, food, housing, or health insurance to the less af-
fluent. The perception makes redistributive policymaking highly contentious. The re-
distribution of scarce resources by government always generates intense opposition.
A third classification is collective or public goods and private goods. Some
policies involve the provision of collective goods, that is, goods that cannot be divid-
ed. Thus, if the good is provided, it has to be provided to everyone. Examples are na-
118
tional defense, clean air, and traffic control. Of course, providing such goods may in-
volve regulation or redistribution of funds. But the goods themselves cannot be divid-
ed.
Private goods are the opposite. These are goods that can be divided and given
to some persons, but not others. Most distribution and redistribution policies fall into
this classification. Liberals, conservatives, and other ideological groups strongly dis-
agree about the range of private goods that it is appropriate for government to distrib-
ute.
Ex. 1 Pronounce the following words:

Regulatory; appropriate; redistribution; scarce; competition; influential; entire;
guarantee; resources; conservatives; affluent; license; ideological; attorneys; assis-
tance; ethics; intense.
into Russian:
Intense opposition; certain segments of the population; to fall into this classifi-
cation; to be appropriate; to be involved in policymaking; to provide income assis-
tance; public goods; to generate the funds; to possess considerable authority; to de-
velop one’s own codes of ethics; license practitioners; lobby government.
into English:
Решительно не соглашаться с кем-то; перераспределение фондов; обеспе-
ченные члены общества; гарантировать равнозначное членство; устанавливать
правила для всего общества; определенные сегменты населения; вводить огра-
ничения; распределение услуг; устанавливать правила для всего общества;
национальная оборона; прямые выплаты.

1. What are kinds of policies that impact the types of political activity involved in
policymaking?
119
2. What policies does one influential classification include?
3. In what way do distributive policies allocate their benefits?
4. What constraints do regulatory policies impose and why?
5. How are self-regulatory policies different from regulatory ones?
6. What does redistribution involve?
7. What does the notion ‘collective goods’ mean?
8. What is meant by private goods?
Part V
Models of the Policy Process
Making public policy is extraordinarily complex. It involves public opinion,
media attitudes, expert ideas, active citizens, business and labor leaders, elected rep-
resentatives, presidents and governors, judges, and bureaucrats. Policymaking calls
on political resources, economic and international conditions, popular cultural atti-
tudes. When political scientists attempt to understand public policy, they try to reduce
the complexity of the policymaking process. They create models of policymaking.
None of these models is complete. No one model best describes the features of poli-
cymaking.
The institutional model stresses the opportunities and constraints on policy
that are part of the structure of the American constitutional order: judiciary, bureau-
cracy, executives, legislatures, separation of powers, and federalism.
The elite model focuses on the influence over policy exercised by powerful in-
dividuals or groups. This model contrasts with the pluralist model, which stresses that
many groups and individuals have an influence in the American democratic system.
Each of these group’s interests and ideas must be taken into account. Both of these
models picture these individuals and groups being active and influential across many
policy areas.
Some political scientists model policy as a rational process. Policymakers in
the rational-comprehensive model take account of all information about the policy
120
problems and of all policy options, then select the options that best fulfill the policy-
maker’s goals. They select policy options that help them realize their interests.

Media; bureaucracy; legislatures; extraordinarily; judiciary; influential; plural-
ist; constitutional; structure; features; attitudes; individuals; comprehensive; contrast
(v.); areas.
into Russian:
To fulfill the policymaker’s goals; to be taken into account; pluralist model;
popular cultural attitudes; expert ideas; reduce the complexity; executives; constitu-
tional order; active citizens; select policy options.
into English:
Разделение властей; делать попытки понять что-то; взывать (апеллиро-
вать) к…; создавать модели; обладать влиянием; составлять контраст (контра-
стировать, противопоставлять); целесообразный процесс; лейбористские лиде-
ры; избранные представители.

1. Is making public policy an easy matter?
2. What does making public policy involve?
3. What does policymaking call on?
4. Who creates models of policymaking?
5. Which of the models best describes the features of policymaking?
6. Why are models of policymaking created?
7. How many policymaking models are outlined in the text? What are they?
8. What does the institutional model emphasize?
9. What is the focus of the elite model?
10. What is the rational-comprehensive model?
121
Part VI
Policy Analysis
Policy analysis is concerned with describing and investigating how and why
particular policies are proposed, adopted, and implemented. A policy option must be
evaluated with regard to its chances of being adopted, the probable effectiveness, and
the difficulties of implementation. Policy analysts want to discover which policy pro-
posals best fulfill important public values. Thus, policy analysis invokes such princi-
ples as freedom, equality, justice, decency, and peace. Indeed, politics often concerns
debates about the very meaning of these terms.
Those who would separate policy analysis from fundamental social values
make a grave mistake. Policy analysis without awareness of ethical perspectives is
lame. This is particularly true when evaluating the impact of policy. Ethical princi-
ples must be brought to bear on the discovery of the good and bad effects of policy.
Such principles not only measure success and failure; they also provide insight into
consequences.
Policy analysis done by political scientists can be distinguished from policy
advocacy by politicians, partisans, or interest groups. Advocacy differs from analysis.
It begins from commitment to economic interests or to principles interpreted by spe-
cific ideological systems, such as liberalism, conservatism, and environmentalism.
Nevertheless, both advocacy and analysis draw upon similar principles and goals, and
the two intertwine in the real world of politics. Policy advocates are more concerned
to advance their ideology than to understand the policy process, which is the goal of
policy analysis.
Analysis; values; specific; measure (v.); awareness; distinguished; effects; ide-
ological; failure; perspectives; particularly; decency; consequences; analysts; inter-
preted; equality; intertwine; principles; implementation; impact; insight; advocacy;
commitment; to concern debates.
122
Ex.2 Translate the following words and word combinations from English
into Russian:
Social values; to be distinguished from; to evaluate the impact; to invoke some
principles; with regard to; the real world of politics; to advance one’s ideology; to
bear on the discovery; to provide insight into consequences.
Ex.3 Translate the following words and word combinations from Russian
into English:
Вероятная эффективность; хорошие и плохие результаты; отличаться
от…; деятельность по охране окружающей среды; экономические интересы;
схожие цели; измерять (оценивать) успех и неудачу; осознание (осведомлен-
ность); значение термина; совершать серьезную ошибку.

1. What is policy analysis concerned with?
2. What does a policy option evaluation depend on?
3. What do policy analysts try to do?
4. What does policy analysis invoke?
5. Why is it wrong to separate policy analysis from basic social values?
6. What can be used to help discover the good and bad effects of policy?
7. What is policy analysis distinguished from?
8. What do advocacy and analysis have in common?
9. In what way do they differ?
10. What is the goal of policy analysis, according to the text?
REVISION
Scan the texts once again and do the following exercises.
Ex. 1 Fill in the gaps with the following prepositions - to, on, under, for, in-
to, from, up:
1. To begin with, classification of policies allows political scientists to test which
features of policy have the most influence ………. the politics of the policy pro-
cess.
123
2. However, there is no single classification suitable ………. all purposes.
3. Actually, three common classifications focus ………. different aspects of public
policy.
4. In fact, the policies discussed in this text can be categorized ………. four head-
ings.
5. Sometimes the debate focuses ………. who is eligible for citizenship.
6. The thing is, some regulatory policies set ………. rules for the entire society.
7. As a matter of fact, self-regulatory policies are similar ………. regulatory.
8. A third classification is collective or public goods and private goods. So, most
distribution and redistribution policies fall ………. this classification.
9. Undoubtedly, each of group’s interests and ideas must be taken ………. account.
10. Needless to say, advocacy differs ………. analysis.
Ex. 2 Guess the meaning of the italicized words from the context:
1. Members of a political society are citizens, who enjoy certain rights.
to enjoy (verb)
a) to get pleasure from something;
b) to have something as an advantage or a benefit.
2. Policy analysis without awareness of ethical perspectives is lame.

lame (adj.)
a) weak and not convincing;
b) unable to walk normally, e.g. because of an injury to one’s leg.
3. Finally, government helps people to meet needs.

to meet needs (verb)
a) to come together in the same place;
b) to do, fulfill or satisfy what is required.
4. Those who would separate policy analysis from fundamental social values make a
grave mistake.
grave (adj.)
a) serious and important; giving course for worry;
124
b) solemn in manner.
5. Policy analysis done by political scientists can be distinguished from policy advo-
cacy by politicians, partisans, or interest groups.
partisan (noun)
a) a member of an armed group formed to fight secretly;
b) an enthusiastic supporter of a person, group or cause.
Ex. 3 Translate the derivatives:

1. classification, classify, classificatory, classifiable, classified;
2. ideological, ideology, ideologically;
3. debate (n), debate (v.), debater, debatable;
4. analysis, analyse, analyst, analytic, analytical, analytically;
5. describe, description, descriptive.
6. distribute, distribution, distributive, distributor;
7. environmentalism, environment, environmental, environmentally, environmental-
ist;
8. represent, representation, representational, representative (adj.), representative
(n.);
9. government, governmental, intergovernmental, governor, govern, governance;
10. popular, unpopular, popularly, popularity, popularize, popularization.
1. Their _______ differ widely. (IDEOLOGICAL)
2. The _______ is considering further tax cuts. (GOVERN)
3. _______ are calling for the new pesticide regulations. (ENVIRONMENTAL)
4. We must try to _______ the causes of the strike. (ANALYSIS)
5. It is _______ whether or not the reforms have improved conditions. (DEBATE)
6. Her articles have done much to _______ the sport. (POPULAR)
7. He is our _______ in the House of Commons. (REPRESENTATION)
8. The company is a major _______ of electrical goods. (DISTRIBUTE)
125
Ex. 4 Fill in the gaps with the missing words from the box:
employment constitutions distributive religious purposes

well-being threats clearly responsibilities features
1. We need classifications of policies into different types to discuss them ……….

2. Classification of policies allows political scientists to test which ………. of poli-
cy have the most influence on the politics of the policy process.
3. The following test summarizes three classifications employed by political sci-
entists: ………., types, goods.
4. Government exists to provide security from internal and external ………. to the
lives, liberties, and properties of its members.
5. Modern democratic nations enhance security by placing limits on government it-
self through ………. and bills of rights.
6. Members of a political society are citizens, who enjoy certain rights and bear cer-
tain ………..
7. Racial, ………. difference and gender historically have divided citizens into dif-
ferent groups with different political rights and social opportunities.
8. One of the purposes of government is helping to ensure the material ……….of its
members.
9. State and local officials are often judged by their ability to attract ………. and
economic development to their cities or states.
10. One influential classification divides policies into ………., regulatory, self-
regulatory, and redistributive.
Ex. 5 Study the following word combinations from the texts. Make up
your sentences based on the ideas of the texts:
1. to achieve certain goals
2. to group policies into classifications
3. to enjoy certain rights
4. to raise significant equality challenges
126
5. to take a leading role
6. to set up rules for the entire society
7. to guarantee equal membership
8. to measure success and failure;
9. to evaluate the impact of policy
10. to realize their interests
Ex. 6 Complete the sentences with the missing information from the texts:
1. Classification of policies allows political scientists to test which features of policy
………………………………………
2. Government exists to provide security from internal and external threats to
……………………………………………..
3. Members of a political society are citizens, who ………………………………….
4. Racial, religious difference and gender historically have divided citizens into
……………………………………………..
5. Distributive policies allocate benefits from government to ………………………
6. Businesses often lobby government for regulations that might …………………..
7. Attorneys, physicians, engineers, for example, receive authority from government
to license practitioners, determining ………………………………………………….
8. Liberals, conservatives, and other ideological groups strongly disagree about
………………………………………………
9. Policymaking calls on political resources, ………………………………………..
10. Policymakers in the rational-comprehensive model take account of all infor-
mation about ……………………………………………………………………
11. The elite model focuses on the influence over policy exercised by ……………..
12. A policy option must be evaluated with regard to its ……………………………
Ex. 7 What do the texts say about the following points:

 The way the policies discussed in this text are categorized;
 Distributive policies;
 Redistribution;
127
 Regulatory policies;
 Self-regulatory policies;
 The institutional model;
 The elite model;
 The rational-comprehensive model;
 Policy analysis vs. advocacy.
Ex. 8 Report back to the class what you have learnt about:
1. Classifications of policies
2. Policies involved in policymaking
3. Models of the Policy Process
4. Policy Analysis
Part VII
STAGES OF POLICY DEVELOPMENT
Political scientists often use a model of the policymaking process that focuses
on the stages through which ideas and proposals move before becoming public poli-
cy.
The development of a public policy begins with a public belief that a problem
exists. The three pre-policy stages are (1) problem definition or issues formation, (2)
policy demands, and (3) agenda formation.
Before a policy issue is defined or adopted, a problem of public concern must
be perceived. Ethical and ideological perspectives play an important role during this
problem perception stage because different perspectives will see and define problems
differently. For example, imagine how the same social phenomenon, the pornography
industry, might be viewed by people of differing moral values. Some might view
sexually explicit literature as a manifestation of a socially open and healthy attitude
toward sexuality. Others might see it as a symptom of an unhealthy obsession with
sex and a rejection of higher values. Due to the contrasting opinions of the two
groups, different formulations of the issue will result.
128
Thus, the issues formation stage leads to the next stage, policy demands: Op-
posing demands are now made for government action. For example, some people
want the smut shops closed down and the owners thrown in jail. Others want the au-
thorities to keep out of what they see as the private business of individual citizens (a
demand for government nonaction). The various demands and perspectives create an
agenda of alternative proposals for dealing with the issue. Some proposals and de-
mands never make it to the agenda; others are put on the agenda in altered form.
Agenda-setting is always a political process; that is, groups struggle for power
to control the agenda. Because all legislative and executive bodies are limited in the
issues they can address at any given time, the power to have attention paid to “your”
issue on the agenda is invaluable. Therefore, ideological and interest groups compete
to broaden the agenda to include their issues or to narrow it by excluding issues that
they do not want considered. Such groups may be elected officials, bureaucrats re-
sponsible for policy administration, public interest groups, or groups directly affected
by particular policies.
Following the pre-policy stages, the next major stage in the development of a
public policy is deliberation and policy adoption. From the policy agenda, decision
makers, with the input of interest groups, policy experts, and constituents, debate and
bargain over alternative policy formulations, settling on an alternative or a combina-
tion of alternatives to respond to the problem. Decisions are made; policies are for-
mulated; and policy statements are issued, taking such forms as orders, regulations, or
laws. Clearly, the same kinds of considerations of power as in the policy agenda stage
are relevant here. Also important is the constitutional and statutory structure of the
institution that makes the policy decision. Structure often determines which outcomes
have a greater chance of success in the political struggle.
Policy statements and lawmaking are not the whole of policymaking. Policy
decisions must be implemented ‒ a concept defined earlier as putting the policy into
effect. Policy implementation means money spent, laws enforced, employees hired,
and plans of action formulated. A law against theft would hardly be a policy if no
public resources were devoted to preventing thefts and apprehending thieves. In im-
129
plementation, the intent of the policymakers is often distorted. Even programs involv-
ing little conflict can be difficult to implement if there are numerous participants with
differing perspectives and if many particular decisions have to be made before the
policy is fully implemented. The more complex the implementation process, the more
likely that the intent of the policy will become distorted or lost. Successful achieve-
ment of policy goals depends upon the tractability of the problem being addressed by
the policy; that is, how possible is it really to make a change. Implementation de-
pends as well upon the clarity of the law, the talents and financial resources available
to those administering it, and a variety of political factors, such as public support,
media attention, socioeconomic conditions, and the attitudes and resources of groups
affected by the policy.
Policy implementation produces impacts. Policy impact refers to what actually
happens when the policy is implemented. Policy impact is a major component of an
important focus of this text, the evaluation of public policy. Policy evaluation focuses
principally on the impact of policy, because it is largely from the performance and
consequences of policy that we assess its success or failure. Evaluation attempts to
assess the outcomes of policies (the effects on society) in order to compare the out-
comes with the policies’ intended goals while balancing the actual benefits of a poli-
cy with its cost. It asks whether the goals have or have not been met, with what costs,
and with what unintended consequences. Moreover, evaluation leads back to issue
formation and policy deliberation in a (nearly) endless loop. Evaluations of policy in-
evitably produce advocates for change and other advocates for maintaining the poli-
cy. The social problems that stimulate policy responses can seldom be completely
fixed. "Policy is more like an endless game of Monopoly than a bicycle repair".
Ex. 1 Pronounce the following words correctly:

Agenda; ethical; ideological; perspectives; industry; to view; sexually; alterna-
tive; bureaucrats; statutory; to determine; intent; socioeconomic; impact (n); evalua-
tion; component; failure; consequences; inevitably.
130
into English:
Сконцентрировать внимание на ч-л; проходить через стадии; повестка
дня; включить в повестку дня; быть на повестке дня; постигать/воспринимать;
точка зрения/ракурс; социальное явление; рассматривать ч-л как … (2); отно-
шение к ч-л; нездоровая одержимость ч-л; приводить к ч-л; отправить к-л в
тюрьму; частное дело каждого гражданина; альтернативное предложение; за-
ниматься проблемой; быть ограниченным в ч-л; бесценный; расширять ч-л;
сужать ч-л; чиновники; принятие политики; вклад к-л по ч-л; договариваться о
ч-л; определять (исход); вводить в действие/приводить в исполнение; реализа-
ция политики; предотвращать ч-л; намерение к-л; искажать ч-л; зависеть от ч-л;
быть доступным к-л; оказывать влияние на ч-л; воздействие/влияние; эффек-
тивность и последствия политики; оценивать ч-л; выгода; бесконечный цикл;
неизбежно.
Ex. 3 Explain the meaning of the words in English:

1. agenda
2. deliberation
3. bureaucrat
4. to bargain
5. statutory
6. outcome
7. to implement
8. intent
9. impact (n)
10. in a loop
Ex. 4 Match the two parts to form word-combinations:

1) healthy a) opinions
2) political b) structure
3) media c) achievement
131
4) contrasting d) consequences
5) constitutional e) attitude
6) financial f) proposals
7) executive g) struggle.
8) alternative h) industry
9) social i) action
10) government j) resources
11) unintended k) conditions
12) successful l) attention
13) socioeconomic m) bodies
14) pornography n) phenomenon
Ex. 5 Insert the correct prepositions:

1. No doubt, it is a symptom of an unhealthy obsession …… sex.
2. In fact, policy impact refers …… what happens when the policy is implemented.
3. In other words, evaluation leads back …… issue formation.
4. To cut a long story short, successful achievement of policy goals depends ……
many aspects.
5. Needless to say, elected officials are responsible …… policy administration.
6. Actually, the policymaking process focuses …… the three stages.
Ex. 6 Fill in the gaps with the missing word:

1. Political scientists use a model of the policymaking process that focuses on the
………. through which ideas and proposals move before becoming public policy.
2. The three pre-policy stages are (1) problem definition or ………. formation, (2)
policy ………, and (3) ………. formation.
3. The various demands and perspectives create an agenda of alternative ………. for
dealing with the issue.
4. Policy implementation means ………. spent, ………. enforced, ………. hired,
and ………. of action formulated.
132
5. Successful achievement of policy goals depends upon the ………. of the problem
being addressed by the policy.
1. What does the development of public policy begin with?
2. What are the three pre-policy stages?
3. Why do ethical and ideological perspectives play an important role during the
problem perception stage?
4. What do various demands and perspectives create? Do all demands and proposals
make it to the agenda?
5. Why is agenda-setting a political process? What do ideological and interest
groups compete to do?
6. What is the major stage in the development of a public policy? Why?
7. What does policy implementation mean?
8. What does successful achievement of policy goals depend on? Why?
9. What does policy implementation produce? What is understood by policy impact?
10. What does policy evaluation attempt to do?
Ex. 8 Complete the sentences:

1. The development of a public policy begins ………………………………………
2. Agenda-setting is always ………………………………………………………….
3. Before a policy issue is defined, a problem of public concern …………….……
4. Policy impact refers to …………………………………………………………..
5. Evaluations of policy inevitably produce ……………………………………….
Ex. 9 Look through the list of some key phrases from the text. Compose
your sentences making use of them:
1. to make the policy decision
2. to put the policy into effect
3. to assess one’s success or failure
4. to stimulate policy responses
5. to use a model of the policymaking process
133
6. to play an important role
7. to dealing with the issue
8. to create /broaden/ control the agenda
9. to fully implement the policy
10. to be responsible for policy administration
11. to assess the outcomes of policies
12. to include / exclude issues
13. to debate over alternative policy formulations
14. to meet goals
15. to have a greater chance of success in the political struggle
16. to issue policy statements
17. to respond to the problem
18. to maintaining the policy
19. to focus on the impact of policy
Part VIII
Aspects of Policy Evaluation
Policy evaluation involves collecting and analyzing information about the effi-
ciency and effectiveness of policies. The purpose is to determine whether goals of
policy have been achieved and to improve policy performance. Evaluating policy has
both normative and empirical dimensions. The normative dimension refers to values,
beliefs, and attitudes of society as a whole, of particular groups and individuals in so-
ciety, and of the policy evaluators themselves. Persons of different values and ideolo-
gies use different normative concepts to evaluate policy. Evaluation, therefore, is al-
ways political. Normative perspectives come into play, not only in assessing the goals
of policy but also in analyzing how well policy accomplishes the desired goals.
Normative evaluation, however, is not enough. The empirical dimension ‒ that
is, understanding the facts ‒ must precede judgment. Policy evaluation without em-
pirical analysis of policy content, output, and impact is like voting for a baseball all-
star team without information on players’ batting, earned-run, or fielding averages.
134
Specifically, policy evaluation is used to
1. Determine which goals are being met and to what degree (including unin-
tended consequences)
2. Identify reasons for success and failure
3. Allocate (or reallocate) resources
4. Make changes to improve policies or decide to end policies that are not
working.
Through these efforts, policymakers can make sure that policies accomplish
what they are intended to and are responsive to the public and elected leaders.
Policy evaluation normally focuses on programs that are the result of policy
processes. Policies create programs that tend to be the focus of evaluation, called
program evaluation. Evaluation assesses the actual or likely outcomes or impacts of
the policy. It takes place after the policy or program has been implemented.
Evaluations may be process (often called formative) or outcome (often called
summative) evaluations. Process evaluation assesses the activities and structures of
the policy implementation. Outcome evaluations focus on the impact of the policy or
program. Both forms of evaluation are necessary for a complete assessment of the
policy.
In order to conduct an evaluation, it is necessary to plan ahead. Thus, it is nec-
essary to decide what purpose the evaluation serves. Is it to focus on process or out-
come? What is the goal of the policy or program? What does the evaluation need to
determine? What assumptions are being used? How much money, time, and people
resources are available for the evaluation? What indicators or measures are going to
be used? How will the information be collected? How will unexpected circumstances
be handled? What is the schedule for completion? What use will be made of the re-
sults? These essential questions need to be thought through before beginning the
evaluation.
Once they have been addressed, the evaluator needs to decide on the evaluation
method or tool to use. One popularly used technique is cost-benefit analysis. It com-
pares the benefits or outcomes of the program with the costs of implementing it.
135
While on the surface, it may seem easy to determine costs and benefits, it is much
more complicated. Direct costs and benefits may be easy to determine. However, in-
direct costs and benefits are another matter. Direct costs and benefits relate to the
specific allocation of resources and the impact on the intended population. Thus, a
plan to develop a light rail system in an urban area presumably would be designed to
improve commuting. It might also have the goals of reducing pollution and decreas-
ing the need for roads and highways. The amount of money spent on the system and
the disruption to residents and businesses along the route are direct costs. Indirect
costs might include the loss of business to areas not served by the light rail line and
the increase in time needed for delivery of goods to businesses along the lines be-
cause of more limited access. The increase in the value of property along the route
may be an indirect benefit to owners of the property but a negative, indirect impact
on those who rent the property. Indirect costs and benefits are also called externali-
ties, or spillover effects. In evaluating a program or policy, it is necessary to consider
all the costs and benefits, not just the obvious direct costs and benefits.
Intended and unintended impacts of the policy or program also must be consid-
ered. Intended impacts are the stated goals or outcomes of the policy. Unintended im-
pacts are those not anticipated as the policy or program was developed. For example,
the indirect costs and benefits of the light rail system in our example might be con-
sidered unintended impacts while the direct benefits would be intended impacts.
Policies also have long-term effects and short-term impacts. Both need to be
considered in evaluation. Similarly, some policies have symbolic importance. The
decision to build a new football stadium for a professional team may have great sym-
bolic importance to the residents of a city. The stadium project may have been justi-
fied in part on the basis of making a world-class city and thus would be an intended
symbolic benefit. Unintended and long-term costs can be illustrated by the Iraq War.
With one out of six soldiers who served in Iraq suffering some degree of post-
traumatic stress disorder or major health problem, likely long-term increases in health
care costs, drug abuse, family violence, suicide, mental illness, and crime must be
considered a long-term cost.
136
Policies do not go on forever (though some appear to). Policies change over
time. Sometimes they are terminated. The processes involved in changing and termi-
nating policies are the same as those involved in policymaking: problem definition,
agenda-setting, adoption, and evaluation.
Ex.1 Pronounce the following words correctly. Consult the dictionary if

necessary:
Implementation; consequences; dimensions; purpose; attitudes; efforts; identi-
fy; assessment; externalities; presumably; post-traumatic; circumstances; major; simi-
larly; resources; access; enough; judgment; efficiency; purpose; determine; area; pre-
cede; indirect; impact; technique; symbolic; empirical; whole; available; measures;
summative; assumptions; perspectives; ideologies; achieve; anticipate; specific; per-
spectives; content; urban.
into Russian:
Agenda-setting; long-term effects; evaluation method; implementation; drug
abuse; unexpected circumstances; complete assessment; to determine; empirical di-
mensions; the increase in the value; to go on forever; assumptions; to accomplish; to
improve policy performance; to allocate resources; specific allocation of resources;
short-term impacts.
into English:
Вносить изменения; ограниченный доступ; вероятный исход (результат);
планировать заранее; важность; важные вопросы; домашнее насилие; разные
ценности; прямые издержки; определить (установить) причины; анализ эконо-
мической эффективности; кратковременное воздействие; профессиональная
команда; рассматривать (принимать во внимание); ценность собственности;
намеренный (заданный, предполагаемый).
137
Ex. 4 Fill in the gaps with correct prepositions:
1. to focus ……. sth;
2. to be the result ……. policy processes;
3. to relate ……. sth;
4. to decide …….. sth;
5. to be the focus ……..sth;
6. to be necessary …….. sth;
2. impact ……..sth;
3. …….. the basis …….. sth;
4. to be illustrated …….. sth;
5. to be responsive …….. sth.
Ex. 5 Complete the chart forming the indicated parts of speech (if possi-
ble). Read and translate them:
Noun Verb Adjective Adverb
intend
similarly
essential
performance
assessment
presumably
involve
evaluation
disruption
reduce
compare
illustrate
structure
138
Ex. 6 Match the words on the left with their definition on the right. Fill in
the gaps with the suitable words:
1) to evaluate a) a condition or fact connected with an event or action;
2) to implement b) the action or process of completing sth;
3) effective c) to assess or form an idea of the amount, quality or value of
sth;
4) circumstance d) having the desired effect; producing the desired result;
5) completion e) to put sth into effect; to carry sth out.
1. He has now taken …..…. control of the company.

2. Several other proposals are still being…..….
3. The manager coped well with the …..….
4. This political party is willing to ……... a modified programme of economic re-
forms.
5. The project is nearing …..….
Ex. 7 Explain the meaning of the following words. Give as many synonyms
as possible:
1. outcome
2. impact
3. benefit
4. to accomplish
5. to intend
6. to improve
7. major
8. essential
9. goals
10. available
139
Ex. 8 Match the two columns to form word combinations. Find, read out
and translate the sentences with them in the text:
1) normative a) outcomes
2) elected b) circumstances
3) likely c) consequences
4) unintended d) leaders
5) complete e) concepts
6) unexpected f) assessment
Ex. 9 Complete the sentences with some missing information from the text:
1. Policy evaluation involves collecting and analyzing information about ………
2. Persons of different values and ideologies use………
3. Policy evaluation without empirical analysis of policy content, output, and impact
is like ………
4. Policy evaluation normally focuses on ………
5. In order to conduct an evaluation, it is necessary ………
6. In evaluating a program or policy, it is necessary to consider ………
7. The processes involved in changing and terminating policies are the same as those
involved in policymaking: ………
Ex. 10 Work in pairs and discuss the functions of policy evaluation:

Policy evaluation is used to
1. Determine ___________.
2. Identify ___________.
3. Allocate ___________.
4. Make changes ___________.
Ex. 11 Answer the following comprehension questions:

1. What does policy evaluation involve?
2. What is the purpose of policy evaluation?
3. What dimensions does evaluating policy have?
140
4. What does the normative dimension refer to?
5. When do normative perspectives come into play?
6. Is policy evaluation of policy content, output, and impact possible without empiri-
cal analysis?
7. What are the specific functions of policy evaluation?
8. What does policy evaluations generally focus on?
9. What is program evaluation?
10. What does evaluation assess?
11. When does the process of evaluation take place?
12. What types of evaluation are outlined in the text?
13. What is the role of process evaluations?
14. What is the major focus on outcome evaluations?
15. What are the significant questions to be thought through before beginning the
evaluation?
16. Is it easy to determine direct costs and benefits? What can be done to do that?
17. What examples of direct and indirect costs and benefits are given in the text?
18. What is the difference between intended and unintended impacts of the policy?
19. What can be considered a long-term cost?
20. Policies do not change over time, do they?
Ex. 12 Summarize the main ideas of the text. Report them back to the
class.
141
INTEREST GROUPS
Part I
Interest groups: definition
Interest group, also called special interest group or pressure group, any asso-
ciation of individuals or organizations, usually formally organized, that, on the basis
of one or more shared concerns, attempts to influence public policy in its favour. All
interest groups share a desire to affect government policy to benefit themselves. Their
goal could be a policy that benefits group members or one segment of society (e.g.,
government subsidies for farmers) or a policy that advances a broader public purpose
(e.g., improving air quality). They attempt to achieve their goals by lobbying ‒ that is,
by attempting to bring pressure to bear on policy makers to gain policy outcomes in
their favour. Interest groups are a natural outgrowth of the communities of interest
that exist in all societies, from narrow groups such as the Japan Eraser Manufacturers
Association to broad groups such as the American Federation of Labor – Congress of
Industrial Organizations and to even broader organizations such as the military.
Politics and interests are inseparable. Interests are a prevalent, permanent, and
essential aspect of all political systems ‒ democratic, authoritarian, and totalitarian
regimes alike. Furthermore, interest groups exist at all levels of government ‒ nation-
al, state, provincial, and local ‒ and they have occupied an important role in interna-
tional affairs. The common goals and sources of interest groups vary widely in their
form and lobbying strategies both within and across political systems. This text pro-
vides a broad overview that explains these differences and the role that interest
groups play in society.
An interest group is usually a formally organized association that seeks to in-
fluence public policy. One problem with such a narrow definition is that many for-
mally organized entities are not private. The most important lobbying forces in any
society are the various entities of government: national, regional, and local govern-
ment agencies and institutions such as the military. Another reason to opt for a broad
definition is that in all societies there are many informal groups that are interest
142
groups but would not be covered by the narrower definition. For example, in all polit-
ical systems there are influential groups of political and professional elites that may
not be recognized as formal groups but are nonetheless crucial in informally influenc-
ing public policy. Some interest groups consist of individuals such as ranchers or fruit
growers who may form farm commodity organizations. In other instances, an interest
group consists not of individuals but of organizations or businesses, such as the His-
tadrut (General Federation of Labour) in Israel and the Andean-Amazon Working
Group, which includes environmental and indigenous organizations in several South
American countries. These types of organizations are called peak associations, as
they are the major groups in their area of interest in a country. The term is often used
to denote broad or less-formalized political constituencies, ‒ segments of society that
may include many formal interest groups. Similarly, it is often used when considering
government entities working to influence other governments (e.g., a local government
seeking to secure funding from the national government).

Crucial; associations; entities; indigenous; strategies; regimes; authoritarian;
pressure; constituencies; environmental; elites; agencies; private; provincial; purpose;
inseparable.
Ex. 2 Translate the following word combinations from English into Rus-
sian:
Influential groups; broad definition; segment of society; lobbying forces; peak
associations; professional elites; to opt for; prevalent aspect; government agencies;
indigenous organizations; totalitarian regimes.
Ex. 3 Study the following word combinations and use them in the sentenc-
es based on the ideas of the text:
1. to benefit group members
2. to affect government policy
3. to attempt to achieve goals (by lobbying)
4. to gain policy outcomes
143
5. to occupy an important role in international affairs
6. to provide a broad overview
7. to explain the role that interest groups play in society
8. to seek to influence public policy
9. to opt for a broad definition
10. to include many formal interest groups

1. What is an interest group? Define the term giving its possible synonyms.
2. What do all the interest groups have in common?
3. What is their general goal?
4. Are interests dominant and significant aspects of all political systems?
5. What are the levels of government at which interest groups exist?
6. What are the most important lobbying forces in any society?
7. What is lobbying? Define the notion.
8. In what way do interest groups try to achieve their goals?
9. What examples of broad interest groups are given in the text?
10. Do political regimes influence the general nature of interest groups?
11. What is the problem with a narrow definition of interest group?
12. What is the reason to opt for a broader definition of the term?
Ex. 5 Summarize the main points of the text.
Part II
Types of interest groups
Interests and interest groups in all types of political systems can be placed
broadly in five categories: economic interests, cause groups, public interests, private
and public institutional interests, and non-associational groups and interests. Econom-
ic interest groups are ubiquitous and the most prominent in all countries. There are
thousands of them with offices in national capitals from London to Ottawa to New
Delhi to Canberra. There are several different kinds of economic interests: business
144
groups (e.g., the Canadian Federation of Independent Business), labour groups (e.g.,
the Trades Union Congress in the United Kingdom), farm groups (e.g., the Irish
Farmers’ Association in the republic of Ireland), and professional groups (e.g., the
Czech Chamber of Doctors).
Cause groups are those that represent a segment of society but whose primary
purpose is noneconomic and usually focused on promoting a particular cause or val-
ue. This category is wide-ranging, including churches and religious organizations
(e.g., Catholic Action in Italy), veterans’ groups (e.g., the French Union of Associa-
tions of Combatants and Victims of War), and groups supporting the rights of people
with disabilities (e.g., the Spanish National Organisation for the Blind (ONCE)).
Some cause groups are single-issue groups, focusing very narrowly on their is-
sue‒such as those favouring or opposing abortion rights or foxhunting. Whereas eco-
nomic interests and most cause groups benefit a narrow constituency, public interest
groups promote issues of general public concern (e.g., environmental protection, hu-
man rights, and consumer rights). Many public interest groups operate in a single
country (e.g., the Federal Association of Citizen-Action Groups for Environmental
Protection in Germany). Others, such as the Sierra Club, which has chapters in the
United States and Canada, may operate in only a few countries. Many public interest
groups have a much broader international presence, with activities in many countries
(e.g., Amnesty International and the International Campaign to Ban Landmines).
Private and public institutional interests constitute another important category.
These are not membership groups but private organizations such as businesses or
public entities such as government departments. However, similar to interest groups,
they attempt to affect public policy in their favour. Private institutional interests in-
clude think tanks such as the Adam Smith Institute in the United Kingdom; private
universities; and various forms of news media, particularly newspapers that advocate
on behalf of a particular issue or philosophy.
But by far the largest component of this category is government in its many
forms. At the national level, government agencies, such as the British Department for
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, lobby on their own behalf to secure funding or
145
to prioritize certain issues; at the regional level, public universities lobby the appro-
priate government (e.g., provincial governments in Canada and state governments in
the United States) for funding or legislation that benefits them; at the local level,
school boards may lobby the local government for money for a new school gymnasi-
um or for more funding for educational programs. At the international level, the Unit-
ed Nations may lobby its members to pay their outstanding contributions to the or-
ganization or to carry out Security Council resolutions. Governmental institutional
interests are often the most important interests in authoritarian regimes, where private
interest groups are severely restricted or banned. In communist countries (both before
and since the fall of the Soviet Union and its satellites in Eastern Europe), such gov-
ernmental interests have included economic planning and agricultural agencies and
the secret police. In some Muslim countries (e.g., Iran and Saudi Arabia), religious
institutions are prominent interests. Although formally organized associations play a
predominant role in traditional lobbying efforts, non-associational groups and inter-
ests often have an important influence. Such interests lack a formal organization or
permanent structure. They include spontaneous protest movements formed in reaction
to a particular policy or event and informal groups of citizens and officials of public
or private organizations. For example, French farmers have sometimes held up traffic
in Paris to protest government agricultural policy. Political systems at different levels
of development and with different types of regimes manifest different combinations
and varying ranges of these five types of interest groups. In Western Europe, Canada,
the United States, and Japan, for example, each of the five types of interests are rep-
resented in large numbers and have developed sophisticated strategies and tactics. In
developing countries and in those with authoritarian regimes, there is a much narrow-
er range of economic groups, very few – if any – public interest and cause groups,
and some government interests.
146
Ex. 1 Make sure you can pronounce the following words:
Category; purpose; private; ubiquitous; primary; issue; constituency; environ-
mental; advocate; prioritize; component; predominant; assemblies; governmental;
major; appropriate; movements; regional; concern; regime; tactics; efforts.
Ex. 2 Translate the following from English into Russian:

Labour groups; primary purpose; public concern; consumer rights; internation-
al presence; agricultural policy; government agencies; severely restricted; land re-
forms; varying ranges; informal interests; think tank.
Ex. 3 Translate the following from Russian into English:

Экономические интересы; защита окружающей среды; различные формы
СМИ; местные органы власти; авторитарные режимы; негосударственные орга-
низации; протестные движения; образовательные программы.
Ex. 4 Make up your sentences with the following word combinations:

1. to be placed in categories
2. to promote issues of general public concern
3. to affect public policy in one’s favour
4. to prioritize certain issues
5. to advocate on behalf of a particular issue or philosophy
6. to play a predominant role in traditional lobbying efforts
7. to develop sophisticated strategies and tactics

1. What are the five categories interest groups in all political systems can be placed
in?
2. What are the most widespread and prominent interest groups across the globe?
3. Can you single out all the essential facts concerning cause groups?
4. What do they mostly focus on?
5. What kind of issues do public interest groups promote?
147
Part III
Common characteristics and the importance of interest groups
Most interest groups are not formed for political purposes. They usually devel-
op to promote programs and disseminate information to enhance the professional,
business, social, or avocational interests of their members. Much of this activity is
nonpolitical, as when the American Automobile Association negotiates discounts
with service providers for its members. But many such interest groups enter the polit-
ical arena when they believe there is no other way to protect their interests or because
they want to secure government funding.
In their nonpolitical role, interest groups may have several functions, but, when
they become enmeshed in the political sphere, they have one overriding goal: to gain
favourable outcomes from public policy decisions. In the political realm, interest
groups perform important functions. These include aggregating and representing the
interests of groups of individuals in a way that a single individual would not be able
to do, helping to facilitate government by providing policy makers with information
that is essential to making laws, and educating their members on issues and perhaps
giving them political experience for entering politics. In addition to providing this po-
litical experience, groups sometimes actively recruit candidates for public office, with
the hope that once elected these individuals will support their cause. Interest groups
in most democracies are also a source of financial support for election campaigns. In
Western Europe, campaign funding is provided by many interest groups, particularly
trade unions for social democratic parties as in Sweden and Germany. Mass parties in
authoritarian regimes also often rely on interest groups for support. For example, in
Argentina Juan Perуn used the General Confederation of Labour (CGT), the trade un-
ion peak association, to gain and maintain the presidency of that country from 1946
to 1955. In addition to financial resources, members of interest groups are important
resources for grassroots campaigning, such as operating telephone banks to call pro-
spective voters, canvassing neighbourhoods door-to-door, and organizing get-out-the-
vote efforts on Election Day.
148
Ex. 1 Make sure you can pronounce the following words:
Financial; to maintain; to enmesh; to disseminate; campaigns; democracies; to
recruit; sphere; overriding; avocational; to aggregate; to enhance; resources; deci-
sions; to negotiate; candidates; particularly; arena; efforts; presidency; neighbour-
hoods; to canvass.
Ex.2 Fill in the gaps with correct prepositions:

1. Policy makers can be provided ………. some relevant information. 2. Most
interest groups are not formed ………. political purposes. 3. Interest groups are often
relied ………………. support. 4. Interest groups ………. most democracies are also
a source of financial support ………. election campaigns. 5. Mass parties ………. au-
thoritarian regimes also often rely ………. interest groups for support. 6. In addition
………. providing this political experience, groups sometimes actively recruit candi-
dates ………. public office. 7. These include aggregating and representing the inter-
ests of groups of individuals in a way that a single individual would not be able to do,
helping to facilitate government by providing policy makers ………. information
that is essential to making laws, and educating their members ………. issues and per-
haps giving them political experience ………. entering politics.
149
Ex. 3 Match the two parts to form word combinations. Make up five sen-
tences with any of them.
1) to promote a) the political arena
2) to make b) candidates
3) to have c) interests
4) to disseminate d) the presidency
5) to enhance e) campaign funding
6) to enter f) laws
7) to gain g) information
8) to recruit h) government funding
9) to provide i) programs
10) to maintain j) favourable outcomes
11) to secure k) sb’s interests
12) to protect l) several functions
Ex. 4 Explain the meaning of the following phrases. Consult the dictionary
if necessary.
 financial resources;
 nonpolitical activity;
 authoritarian regimes;
 political experience;
 overriding goal.

1. What purposes are interest groups formed for?
2. What interests are promoted by their members?
3. When do usually such groups enter the political arena?
4. What is the overall goal that interest groups have in the political sphere?
5. What are the important functions they perform?
6. Why do interest groups sometimes recruit candidates for public office?
7. Who helped gain and maintain the presidency of Argentina from 1946 to 1955?
8. What does grassroots campaigning involve?
150
Part IV
Factors shaping interest group systems
Various factors shape the environment in which interest groups operate. They
also provide a foundation for understanding similarities and differences in types of
interest group systems. The level of socioeconomic development within a society
usually can inform observers about how highly developed and represented society’s
interests are. In more economically prosperous societies, the number of interest
groups and the people belonging to them is usually quite extensive. By contrast, in
less affluent countries, the number of interest groups is usually quite limited, and
their level of sophistication is usually lower. In democracies, lobbying is more for-
malized and wide-ranging than in authoritarian and developing countries, where it is
largely informal, with only a small segment of society having access to government.
In democratic systems, interest groups are generally free to operate, though the scope
of their activity by the general public and politicians may vary. In contrast to democ-
racies, authoritarian regimes often restrict and may even ban group formation and
lobbying. A country’s political culture varies from country to country. In all political
systems, be they democratic or authoritarian, the ideological underpinnings of society
influence the pattern of interest group involvement in the political process. In Swe-
den, for example, where there exists a broad social democratic consensus that be-
lieves all interests should be taken into account in the policy-making process, the
government actually organizes and funds groups (e.g., immigrant workers). In par-
liamentary systems, such as Canada and New Zealand, the executive is chosen from
the legislature, and, because of party discipline, power tends to be concentrated in the
executive, which therefore becomes the focus of lobbying. In presidential systems,
particularly the United States, where there is a separation of powers between the ex-
ecutive and legislative branches, a lobbying strategy must focus on both branches of
government. In addition, in some countries, power is divided among multiple layers
of government. In unitary systems, where central government is the locus of policy
making, lobbying efforts can concentrate on that level of government.
151
Ex. 1 Check your pronunciation:
Legislative; discipline; parliamentary; immigrant; to fund; consensus; pattern;
access; sophistication; executive; affluent; prosperous; to vary; similarities; ideologi-
cal; segment; wide-ranging; particularly; multiple; socioeconomic; prosperous; disci-
pline; involvement.
Ex. 2 Translate the following words and word-combinations from English

into Russian:
Понимать различия; сосредоточить внимание на…; вовлеченность в по-
литический процесс; изменяться (разниться) от страны к стране; формировать;
запрещать (налагать запрет); парламентские системы; развивающиеся страны;
процветающее общество.
into English:
To be taken into account; multiple layers of government; the legislature; ideo-
logical underpinnings; to have access to government; democratic consensus; the gen-
eral public; lobbying strategy; political culture.
Ex. 4 Answer the questions:

1. What shapes the environment in which interest groups operate?
2. What informs us about how highly developed society’s interests are?
3. Does the number of interest groups and the people belonging to them depend on
the way society functions?
4. What kind of lobbying do democracies have?
5. What does a lobbying strategy focus on in the countries with separation of powers
between the executive and legislative branches?
Ex. 5 Point out all the factors that shape the environment in which interest
groups operate.
▪ Dwell upon similarities and differences in types of interest group systems.
▪ Think of what can be understood by “policy-making process”?
152
Part V
The role of interest groups in public policy making: pluralist and neo-
corporatist theories
Ex. 1 Pronounce and translate the following word combinations:

Primary theories; diverse interests; perfect competition; affluent professions;
to achieve policy changes; cited by scholars; elitist perspective; prime movers; rare-
ly neutral; the advent of hyperpluralism.
Ex. 2 Skim the text and tell the class what it is about:
Pluralism and neo-corporatism are the two primary theories that have been put
forward to explain interest group influence on public policy. Pluralists argue that the
most realistic description of politics and policy making is a marketplace with more or
less perfect competition. In theory, in this political marketplace many (or plural) per-
spectives – as represented by individuals, political parties, and interest groups and in-
terests – compete to have their views heard by government and their favoured poli-
cies enacted. According to this conception, because of competition between the var-
ied and diverse interests, no single interest is likely to have its views win consistently
over others. The United States is invariably cited by scholars as the country coming
closest to this model in practice, though other democracies also qualify, particularly
those in the Anglo-American tradition such as Canada and Australia. In practice,
however, pluralism is often less than an ideal system of representation for achieving
policy changes. First, different groups have different resources; some interests, such
as those representing businesses or affluent professions, are well-organized and well-
financed, while others, such as those for the poor or for immigrant workers, are not.
Second, the government is rarely neutral in the conflict-resolution process: it often
favours some groups over others because it depends on them. These concerns have
led to modifications of the pluralist model; an elitist perspective, such as that ad-
vanced by American political scientist Theodore Lowi, considers groups, interests,
and individuals that are well-connected to government policy makers and well-
financed as prime movers in interest-group activity and policy making. The ad-
153
vantage of such elites is enhanced in many Western democracies because of the ad-
vent of hyperpluralism ‒ a development of the late 20th century, particularly in the
United States. As so many groups have entered the lobby game, the competition for
the attention of policy makers has become intense. Those groups with resources and
connections–the elite groups–have an advantage in the fight to be heard by policy
makers.
Ex. 3 Match the word with its definition:
1) advantage a) the forming of a basic idea; an idea, a plan, or an in-
tention;
2) marketplace b) the existence in one society of a number of groups that
have different political or religious beliefs;
3) conception c) a condition or circumstance that puts one in a favour-
able position compared to other people;
4) perspective d) the system of buying and selling goods under com-
petitive conditions;
5) pluralism e) a particular attitude towards sth; a point of view.
Ex. 4 Complete the ideas with the missing parts:

1. Pluralism and neo-corporatism are………………………………………………...
2. Pluralists argue that the most realistic description of politics and policy making
is……………………………………………………………………………………….
3. In theory, in this political marketplace many perspectives compete to ……………
4. In practice, pluralism is often less than an ideal system of representation …………
5. Different groups have ……………………………………………………………...
6. The government is rarely neutral in the conflict-resolution process: it often ……….
7. Many groups have entered the lobby game, that’s why the competition for the at-
tention of policy makers ………. ……………………………………………………
8. The elite groups have………. ………………………………………………………
Ex. 5 Reread the text and point out its main ideas.
154
Part VI
Neo-corporatism and state corporatism
Neo-corporatism is a much more structured theory of interest group activity
than pluralism. It is a modern version of state corporatism, which emerged in the late
19th century in authoritarian systems and had several manifestations in the first half
of the 20th century–for example, in Adolf Hitler’s Germany and Francisco Franco’s
Spain. In this system, society is seen as a corporate–that is, united and hierarchical–
body in which the government dominates and all sectors of society (e.g., business, the
military, and labour) are required to work for the public interest as defined by the
government. Whereas state corporatism is coercive, neo-corporatism is, in theory,
based on voluntary agreement between government and labour and business interests.
The goal is primarily economic; the neo-corporatist model focuses on keeping costs
and inflation in check so that the country can be competitive in international trade
and maintain and enhance the domestic standard of living. Some argue that it is not a
distinct interest group system at all but rather just another form of pluralism. This is
because it still functions within a pluralist political environment and only major
groups are involved in this special relationship with government; all other groups and
interests compete in the same way that they would in a pluralist system such as the
United States. In addition, critics also claim that neo-corporatism is so varied in actu-
al practice as to lack distinct core characteristics. The Scandinavian countries are
highly neo-corporatist, but countries such as France and Belgium are interest group
much less so. Similar to pluralism, neo-corporatism operates differently in different
countries depending on sociopolitical and historical circumstances.

Circumstances; structured; within; distinct; standard; characteristics; hierar-
chical; voluntary; required; varied; core; coercive; to lack; version; sociopolitical;
practice; major.
155
Ex. 2 Translate the following words from Russian into English:
Фактический (существующий); не хватать (недоставать); обстоятельства
(положение дел); инфляция; уровень жизни; особый; принудительный; очень
(чрезвычайно); увеличивать (усиливать); основной (центральный); иерархиче-
ский; утверждать (доказывать).
Ex. 3 Insert correct prepositions. Find the sentences with these preposi-
tions in the passage:
1. to be involved ……;
2. to depend ……;
3. to be based ……;
4. to emerge ……;
5. to focus ……
Ex. 4 Complete the ideas with the missing words:

1. Neo-corporatism is a much more structured ………. of interest group activity
than pluralism.
2. The Scandinavian countries are very …………………………………………….
3. Critics believe that neo-corporatism is so varied in actual practice as to lack dis-
tinct ………. characteristics.
4. In this system, society is seen as a corporate body in which the government
………. and all sectors of society are required to work for the ………. interest.
5. All other groups and interests ………. in the same way that they would in a plu-
ralist system such as the United States.
Ex. 5 What is Neo-corporatism? Reread the text and find the answer to this
question.
Part VII
Lobbying strategies and tactics
As discussed above, lobbying involves working to bring pressure to bear on
policy makers to gain favourable policy outcomes. In order to accomplish their goals,
156
interest groups develop a strategy or plan of action and execute it through specific
tactics. The particular strategies developed and the specific tactics used vary widely
both among and within political systems. Three factors are of particular importance in
shaping lobbying strategies and tactics. One is whether the political system is demo-
cratic or authoritarian. Because there generally are few restrictions on interest groups
in democratic societies, they have more options available (e.g., hiring lobbyists, using
the press, and staging public demonstrations). Thus, strategies and tactics are more
formalized and open than in authoritarian societies.
A second factor is the structure of the policy process. In democratic parliamen-
tary systems, where the executive is drawn from the major political party or party co-
alition in the parliament (e.g., Finland, India, and the republic of Ireland), the legisla-
tive branch is less important than the prime minister and the cabinet in policy making.
In contrast, because of the power placed in the U.S. Congress and state legislatures,
the United States is one of the few countries in which legislative lobbying is a major
strategy of interest groups.
A third factor is political culture as it relates to group activity and lobbying. In
the United States, for example, the use of contract lobbyists is much more accepted
than in most other Western democracies, including those of the European Union,
where public officials usually prefer to deal directly with the members of the con-
cerned group, organization, or business. Three major factors can also be identified to
explain why lobbying strategies and tactics vary within a political system. One is the
nature of the group and its resources. Second, whether the purpose is to promote or
defeat a legislative proposal helps to explain variations in strategies and tactics across
different political systems. Third, a country’s political climate influences strategies
taken by interest groups. Which party is in power (such as one favourably disposed to
an interest group’s agenda), the major issues facing the government, and the coun-
try’s budget circumstances will influence the types of strategies an interest group us-
es.
157
Proposal; parliament; major; agenda; influence; favourably; legislative; wheth-
er; concerned; tactics; organization; lobbyists; minister; republic; resources; budget.
Ex. 2 Translate the following word combinations into Russian:

Major strategy; to promote a legislative proposal; party coalition; to bring pres-
sure; favourable outcomes; political culture; to be of particular importance; develop a
strategy.
Ex. 3 Think of synonyms to the given words:

1. to accomplish
2. to gain
3. to help
4. to influence
5. power
Ex. 4 Explain the meaning of following word combinations:

1. political climate
2. policy making
3. party coalition
4. legislative lobbying
5. policy outcomes
Ex. 5 Discuss the following points in small groups and report your ideas
back to the class:
1. What does lobbying involve?
2. How do interest groups execute the strategy they develop?
3. What are the significant aspects in shaping lobbying strategies and tactics?
4. Does it matter a lot for interest groups special tactics whether the political system
is democratic or authoritarian?
5. How does the structure of the policy process affect the way interest groups imple-
ment their strategy?
158
6. Why is it essential to identify the three factors mentioned above?
7. What influences strategies elaborated by interest groups?
Part VIII
Interest of Influence groups
Research conducted in the United States provides major insights into the fac-
tors that determine interest group influence. Money is important in explaining the in-
fluence of interest groups, but it is not simply money that determines political clout.
Factors determining the influence of individual interest groups include the group’s
financial resources, the managerial and political skills of its leaders, the size and co-
hesiveness of its membership, and political timing–presenting an issue when the po-
litical climate is right.
Three factors appear to be of particular importance: Interest groups have long
been active in international affairs, but the level of that activity has increased signifi-
cantly since World War II and particularly since the late 1960s. A confluence of fac-
tors accounts for the explosion in international lobbying activities. These include: the
increasing importance of international organizations, such as the United Nations
(UN) and its various agencies, and regional organizations, such as the European Un-
ion (EU); the fact that many issues (e.g., environmental protection) require an inter-
national approach; and increasing awareness of issues because of advances in com-
munications and the adoption of many international causes in Western democracies
(where most international interests originate and operate).
How much influence a group has depends on the extent to which government
officials need the group. The more elected or appointed public officials who rely on
an interest, business, or organization, the greater its leverage will be over govern-
ment.
Lobbyist – policy-maker relations are also important in explaining the relative
power of an interest group, since it is at this point that the demands of the group are
conveyed to government. The more skillful the lobbyists are, the more successful the
group is likely to be.
159
The relative level of organized opposition to a group is essential to understand-
ing the success or failure of that group. The more intense the opposition to a group’s
cause, the more difficult it will be to achieve its goals. Some groups have natural po-
litical enemies (e.g., environmentalists versus developers and corporations versus la-
bour unions). Other interests, such as those advocating stricter laws against domestic
violence and child abuse, have little opposition, though such groups may be limited
by the other factors, such as a lack of financial resources.

Versus; violence; financial; relative; officials; to originate; leverage; to require;
regional; awareness; approach; adoption; cohesiveness; confluence; insights; envi-
ronmental; to determine; advances; failure; abuse; advocating; increasing.
Ex. 2 Translate the following word combinations from English into Rus-
sian:
Labour unions; organized opposition; domestic violence; appointed public offi-
cials; increasing awareness; major insights; international lobbying activities; advanc-
es in communications; political clout.
Ex. 3 Match the two columns and complete the sentences below with the
word combinations you get:
1. political a) skills
2. major b) resources
3. financial c) organizations
4. managerial d) enemies
5. regional organizations e) approach
6. international approach f) insight
1. Many groups are often limited by various factors, for instance by a lack of
……………
2. It is natural for some groups to confront ……………
160
3. …………. of interest groups leaders can be among those factors that determine
the interest of individual interest groups.
4. Many issues (e.g., child labour) require an …………… of the world community.
5. Research carried out in the United States provides us with …………. into the fac-
tors that lay down interest group influence.
6. Some important ………….. are on the increase.

1. What provided major insights into the factors that determine interest group influ-
ence?
2. What are the factors that determine the influence of individual interest groups?
3. What does a group’s influence depend on?
4. Why are lobbyist – policy-maker relations so important?
5. What is essential to understanding the success or failure of that group?
Ex. 5 Act out a dialogue. Outline different factors that determine interest
group influence.
Part IX
Interest groups in international politics. The regulation of interest groups.
Interest groups have long been active in international affairs, but the level of
that activity has increased significantly since the late 1960s. A confluence of factors
accounts for the explosion. These include: the increasing importance of international
organizations, such as the United Nations (UN) and its various agencies, and regional
organizations, such as the European Union (EU), with jurisdictions that extend be-
yond national borders; the fact that many issues (e.g., environmental protection, wild-
life management) require an international approach; and increasing awareness of is-
sues because of advances in communications and the adoption of many international
causes in Western democracies (where most international interests originate and op-
erate). According to American political scientist Howard Tolley, an authority on in-
ternational interest groups, without political parties and elections to voice concerns at
161
the international level, nongovernmental pressure groups are even more vital in world
politics than interest groups are at the domestic level. There are thousands of interna-
tional lobbies, but four broad categories constitute the vast majority. Even though in-
terest groups are indispensable to the operation of government in both democracies
and authoritarian systems, they have the potential to promote the interests of a small
segment of society at the expense of society as a whole. Consequently, there is criti-
cism of interest group activity in both democracies and authoritarian regimes. How-
ever, views of the negative effects of interest groups and ways of attempting to deal
with them are different in democracies and authoritarian systems. In pluralist systems
there is a great degree of concern with how interest groups might undermine democ-
racy. Groups in such systems often claim to pursue an agenda that is “in the public
interest,” but in practice they often serve rather narrow interests. In non-pluralist sys-
tems it is sometimes feared that interest groups will undermine the national interest or
major government plans and commitments that are often expressed by a country’s of-
ficial ideology or through the statements of national officials. To deal with potential
problems of interest group activity, many democratic governments and all authoritar-
ian regimes adopt some form of regulation on interest groups. In all systems, the goal
of regulation is to promote the public interest. In its specific form, however, regula-
tion varies considerably in scope, focus, and form between democratic and authoritar-
ian regimes. Regulations in authoritarian systems are usually quite wide-ranging and
are focused on controlling group formation and channeling the modes of activity that
groups can pursue. In such systems, activity by particular interest groups may be pro-
hibited (e.g., in communist systems in eastern Europe during the Cold War, nearly all
private associations were banned), or groups may be allowed to form and participate
but be co-opted and have their activities heavily circumscribed by the government. In
democracies the underlying principle of the regulation of interest groups is that it en-
hances democracy. However, few, if any, restrictions are placed on group formation
and the right to lobby government. Indeed, these are rights guaranteed in many
1. Foreign governments and international organizations. Countries maintain a
wide array of embassies and consulates in foreign countries, and they often use these
162
and hired lobbyists to work for such benefits as foreign aid and military support, as
well as to boost the country’s image abroad. International organizations (e.g.,
UNESCO, the Arab League) use their resources in manners similar to governments.
2. Multinational corporations (e.g., McDonald’s, Coca Cola, Volvo) and busi-
ness trade associations. These often have extensive global or regional reach. Their
major concerns in lobbying relate to similar issues that they have within individual
countries and include ensuring favourable labour codes and tax structures, making
trade as free as possible, ensuring favourable laws regarding government regulation
of their product (e.g., food and drink) or service (e.g., telecommunications). They are
often successful in achieving their lobbying goals.
3. Special interest and cause groups. These include the World Council of
Churches, the Baptist World Alliance, the Anglican Communion, international net-
works of gay-rights groups. Such groups and organizations are involved in interna-
tional lobbying for a variety of reasons and with mixed success. Some, such as
churches, often lobby simply for the right to operate in a country and on behalf of
human and civil rights and the poor.
4. International public interest groups (nongovernmental organizations
[NGOs]). NGOs embrace a wide range of groups that focus on issues of broad public
concern, such as human rights, child welfare. Significant among the multitude of
NGOs operating in world politics today are Human Rights Watch, Greenpeace, the
World Wildlife Fund, and the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom.
NGOs enjoy mixed success in their political activities, partly because governments
rarely rely on these groups to maintain themselves in office. Most operate far from
public view, and their successes may receive little publicity. Some, however, such as
Greenpeace, receive major publicity for their campaigns.
Even though interest groups are indispensable to the operation of government
in both democracies and authoritarian systems, they have the potential to promote the
interests of a small segment of society. Consequently, there is criticism of interest
group activity in both democracies and authoritarian regimes. However, views of the
163
negative effects of interest groups and ways of attempting to deal with them are dif-
ferent in democracies and authoritarian systems.

Campaigns; consequently; effects; indispensable; league; range; variety; criti-
cism; circumscribed; similar; to pursue; multitude; confluence; wide-ranging; among;
jurisdictions; categories; council; nongovernmental.
Ex. 2 Choose one abstract for good reading and one abstract for good
translation.
Ex. 3 Join the two parts of the chart to form the key word combinations
from the text. Use them in sentences of your own.
1. to promote the interests of a) problems of interest group activity
2. to focus on issues of b) range of groups
3. to operate on behalf of c) a small segment of society.
4. to pursue an agenda that is d) image abroad
5. to extend beyond e) human and civil rights and the poor
6. to embrace a wide f) regional reach
7. to have extensive global or g) the international level
8. to boost the country’s h) national borders
9. to voice concerns at i) broad public concern
10. to deal with potential j) “in the public interest”
Ex. 4 What do these names and abbreviations refer to?

Coca Cola; Howard Tolley; the United Nations (UN); the Cold War;
UNESCO; the World Wildlife Fund; NGO.
Ex.5 Make a report/write an essay about one of the interest groups that
has been active in international affairs.
164
Part IX
The future of interest groups and interest group systems
As long as human beings engage in politics, interest groups will be a part of the
political process. Moreover, interest group activity will definitely increase in all polit-
ical systems in the future. First, government activity is likely to expand and affect ex-
isting interests more extensively and new interests in various ways, thereby forcing
individuals and organizations to become politically active to protect or promote their
interests. Second, globalization will likely increase international interest group activi-
ty and result in an increasing interdependence between many domestic and interna-
tional interests. This expansion will produce some homogenization in the organiza-
tion of interests and the techniques they use to gain access and exert influence. How-
ever, specific governmental structures, political culture, deep-rooted ideology, histor-
ical practice, and short-term political circumstances will likely always work to give
interest group activity many unique elements.

Homogenization; unique; techniques; to affect; extensively; to engage; to exert;
expansion; to increase; interdependence; globalization; process.
into Russian:
Deep-rooted ideology; increasing interdependence; homogenization; affect ex-
isting interests; short-term political circumstances; historical practice; extensively;
definitely.
Ex. 3 Translate the following word combinations from Russian into Eng-
lish:
Получить доступ; оказывать влияние; уникальные компоненты; внутрен-
ние и международные интересы; стать политически активным; защищать и
продвигать свои интересы; существующие интересы; стать частью политиче-
ского процесса.
165
Ex. 4 Fill in the gaps with correct prepositions and find the sentences with
them in the text:
- to result …….. increasing interdependence;
- to engage …….. politics;
- to be a part …….. the political process;
- to affect existing interests and new interests …….. various ways.
Ex. 5 Talking points

1. Why will interest groups be always a major part of political process?
2. What are the reasons why interest group activity is likely to increase?
3. How is globalization going to affect international interest group activity?
4. What spheres of human life have already been affected by globalization?
5. What makes individuals become engaged in politics?
6. Does political process really help interest groups promote their interests?
Ex. 6 Make sure you can summarize the main points on each issue:
 Definition of interest groups
 Types of interest groups
 Common characteristics of interest groups
 Factors shaping interest group systems
 The role of interest groups in public policy making: pluralist and neo-corporatist
theories
 Neo-corporatism and state corporatism
 Lobbying strategies and tactics
 Influence and importance of interest groups
 Interest groups in international politics
 The regulation of interest groups
 The future of interest groups and interest group systems
166
SUPPLEMENTARY READING
Public Policies, Made to Fit People

Economic View
By RICHARD H. THALER AUG. 24, 2013
Read the article paying special attention to the underlined parts.

I have written here before about the potential gains to government from involv-
ing social and behavioral scientists in designing public policies. My enthusiasm
comes in part from my experiences as an academic adviser to the Behavioral Insights
Team created in Britain by Prime Minister David Cameron.
Thus I was pleased to hear reports that the White House is building a similar
initiative here in the United States. Maya Shankar, a cognitive scientist and senior
policy adviser at the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy, is coor-
dinating this cross-agency group, called the Social and Behavioral Science Team; it is
part of a larger effort to use evidence and innovation to promote government perfor-
mance and efficiency. I am among a number of academics who have shared ideas
with the administration about how research findings in social and behavioral science
can improve policy.
It makes sense for social scientists to become more involved in policy, because
many of society’s most challenging problems are, in essence, behavioral. Using so-
cial scientists’ findings to create plausible interventions, then testing their efficacy
with randomized controlled trials, can improve ‒ and sometimes save ‒ people’s
lives, all while reducing the need for more government spending to fix problems lat-
er.
Here are three examples of social science issues that have attracted the team’s
attention:
THE 30-MILLION-WORD GAP One of society’s thorniest problems is that
children from poor families start school lagging badly behind their more affluent
classmates in readiness. By the age of 3, children from affluent families have vocabu-
167
laries that are roughly double those of children from poor families, according
to research published in 1995.
The research found that one of many reasons that poor children often have dif-
ficulty learning to read is that they suffer at home from what might be called a “word
deficiency.” The caregivers of these children simply don’t speak or read to them as
often as those in better-off families. The study estimated that by age 3, a poor child
would have heard 30 million fewer words than a child growing up in a family of
higher socioeconomic status.
Until recently, this word gap has been hard to address. One promising new ap-
proach is being tested by Dr. Dana Suskind, a professor of surgery and pediatrics at
the University of Chicago. Parents or caregivers who want to improve their children’s
language skills can be coached to improve their interactions with them. (For example,
interactive exchanges are better than soliloquies.)
New technologies, like the digital language processor developed by the LENA
Research Foundation, whose work focuses on language problems in young children,
can aid in this effort by letting parents receive feedback on the frequency and nature
of their verbal interactions with their children. (Think of it as a box score for those
interactions.) Providence, R.I., has won a $5 million grant from the Bloomberg
Philanthropies for a Providence Talks program to use these kinds of techniques to
improve school readiness for low-income children.
In this domain, the team’s role is multifaceted. There is no silver bullet for
closing the word gap, but by encouraging more trials nationwide, providing evalua-
tion expertise and distributing results, we can help give poor children their best
chance to succeed.
DOMESTIC VIOLENCE The team will primarily lend support and expertise
to federal agency initiatives. One example concerns the effort to reduce domestic vio-
lence, a problem for which there is no quick fix. But a good place to start is to ensure
that each component of a victim’s support system works as well as it can. One such
component is the National Domestic Violence Hotline, which victims can call for ad-
168
vice and support. Like other call-in centers, it can become busy and put callers on
hold. Many victims hang up before they’ve had a chance to speak with a counselor.
In this case, the Administration for Children and Families is building an alli-
ance of call centers to collaborate on experimental trials to see how best to keep call-
ers on the line long enough to get assistance. Avoiding long periods of silence with
callers, and offering an estimate of the waiting time, can help achieve that goal. So
can composing the initial message in a way that maximizes the chances that a caller
won’t hang up.
HEALTH COMPLIANCE One reason for high health care costs is that pa-
tients fail to follow their treatment regimen.
A good way to approach this problem is via a behavioral assessment, identify-
ing obstacles to that compliance. As Sendhil Mullainathan, a Harvard economist, dis-
cussed in this space recently, one such obstacle is the co-payment, the patient’s share
of a treatment’s cost. He sensibly suggests that for some highly effective treatments,
there should be no co-payment at all. That’s a good place to start.
A thorough assessment could also uncover other factors that reduce patients’
adherence to best medical practices. If forgetting to take a medicine is the problem, a
variety of interventions can help ˗ from changing the medication’s design (a once-a-
day dose is easier to remember than one taken three times a day) to using technology
that reminds patients to take their pills.
Similarly, offering phone or text reminders of medical appointments can re-
duce no-shows and ensure that lab tests are done on time. Information technology
makes these mental crutches easy to use, and is the focus of the team’s collaboration
with the National Coordinator for Health Information Technology.
All of these examples show that the role of behavioral science in policy isn’t
for the government to tell people how to think or act. It is to help them achieve their
own goals. Parents want their children to excel, callers to a victims’ hot line want
help, and sick people want to get well. Offering aids is like providing an alarm clock:
it may help people get to an appointment on time, but no one is forcing them to use it.
169
Richard H. Thaler is a professor of economics and behavioral science at the
Booth School of Business at the University of Chicago. He has informally advised the
Obama administration.
Ex.1 Introduce the article with the following phrases:

 The article is entitled……..
 The author of the article is ……..
 The article is taken from ……..
 The article was published ……..
 The article deals with ……..
 The author describes ……..
 The author analyses ……..
 The author draws the readers’ attention to ……..
Ex.2 Explain the following word combinations:

1. better-off families;
2. thorough assessment;
3. higher socioeconomic status;
4. silver bullet;
5. low-income children.
Ex.3 Look through the list of helpful phrases.

a) Find them in the context.
b) Make up five sentences with any of them.
Helpful vocabulary:
-to build a similar initiative;
- to promote government performance and efficiency;
- to share ideas with the administration;
- to improve policy;
- to become more involved in policy;
- to test their efficacy;
- to fix problems;
170
- to improve one’s interactions with sb;
- to focus on language problems;
- to improve school readiness for low-income children;
- to improve language skills;
- to reduce domestic violence;
- to call for advice and support;
- to speak with a counselor;
- to build an alliance;
- to collaborate on experimental trials;
- to approach a problem;
- to identify obstacles;
- to achieve one’s own goals;
- to offer aids;
- to receive feedback.
Ex. 4 Comprehension questions:

1. What kind of initiative is the White House building?
2. What are the potential gains to government from involving social and behavioral
scientists in designing public policies?
3. How can research findings in social and behavioral science improve policy?
4. Why does it make sense for social scientists to become more involved in policy?
5. What are the three examples of social science issues that have attracted the au-
thor’s attention?
6. What strategies does the author point out for solving the above mentioned prob-
lems?
Ex.5 Summarize the ideas of the articles briefly.
171
Public policy priorities for 2018
Corinne Ruff@corinnesusan
Jan. 30, 2018
 The Retail Industry Leaders Association released a list of top public policy priori-
ties for 2018 ahead of President Donald Trump's State of the Union address to-
night, according to a press release emailed to Retail Dive.
 This year, the trade association said it is focused on four broad topics: ensuring
competition throughout the industry; empowering consumers and driving innova-
tion; promoting employee flexibility and mobility; and securing and growing the
global value chain.
 Among other things, RILA also aims to help members navigate tax reform im-
plementation and push for sales tax parity between brick-and-mortar and e-
commerce businesses, an issue that is currently under the review of the Supreme
Court.
Dive Insight:
RILA is starting off the year on a big win ˗ the first tax reform in more than 30
years, which notably chisels down the corporate tax rate from 35% to 21%. But the
trade group's work is far from over ˗ now many retailers will be looking for guidance
on how to best use those tax reductions.
While many are expected to invest in employees, how exactly retailers direct
those funds depends on the company's growth strategy, Scott Ziemer, managing part-
ner in BDO's Tax office and the former director of tax for two multibillion-dollar re-
tailers, told Retail Dive.
"Some will go to employees, some will take this into pricing to be more com-
petitive, get more people in the door. Some people will use this for buybacks and in-
creased dividends. It's going to be on the company and what their growth strategy is,"
he said. "The bigger winners are going to be companies that are growth oriented,
companies that are profitable, because now they have better cash flow. Those disad-
172
vantaged are retailers owned by private equity groups with a lot of debt, because of
interest expense limitations."
Taxes aside ˗ it comes as little surprise that driving innovation is also high on
RILA's priority list. Just about a year ago, the trade association launched the Tech
Center for Innovation, an initiative that aims to bridge the gap between retailers and
startups as well as provide guidance for how retailers can drive tech innovation. Em-
ployees will also be central to RILA's public policy strategy for the year, including
the issue of last-minute scheduling and wage increases. Trade will also continue to be
a hot topic, especially when it comes to lobbying against withdrawal from NAFTA or
other free trade agreements or programs that impact U.S. jobs and retail prices.
Ex. 1 Before you discuss the article make sure you know how to pronounce
the following words:
Scheduling; association; equity; growth; guidance; reductions; initiative; pri-
vate; competitive; multibillion; parity; tech; launch; increase (v.); increase (n.); strat-
egy.
Ex. 2 Read the word combinations and give their Russian equivalents:
Press release; sales tax; retail prices; wage increases; cash flow; e-commerce
businesses; tax reform implementation; global value.
Ex. 3 Introduction. Complete the sentences:

 The article under discussion is ……….
 The author of the article is ……….
 The article was published ……….
Ex. 4 Study the following useful word-combinations:

- to focus on broad topics;
- to ensure competition;
- to empower consumers and driving innovation ;
- to promote employee flexibility and mobility;
- to secure and grow the global value chain;
173
- to help members navigate tax reform implementation;
- to invest in employees;
- to direct funds;
- to depend on the company's growth strategy;
- to bridge the gap between retailers and startups;
- to provide guidance;
- to impact jobs and retail prices.
Ex. 5 Complete the sentences making use of some of the expressions above:
1. The subject of the article is ……….
2. The author informs the readers that ……….
3. The author comments on ……….
4. The author analyses ……….
5. The author highlights ……….
Ex. 6 Scan the article to answer the following questions making use of
some of the expressions in Ex. 4:
1. What was released by the Retail Industry Leaders Association?
2. What was the major focus of the trade association in 2018?
3. What were the other company goals?
4. What is Scott Ziemer by profession?
5. How are retailers planning to direct their funds, according to him?
6. What kind of companies are going to be ‘bigger winners’, according to the expert?
7. What does the new initiative of the Tech Center for Innovation aim at?
Ex. 7 Report back to the class what you have found out about the Retail
Industry Leaders Association and its public policy priorities for 2018.
174
Career Tips for Public Policy Students
April 10, 2019 05:04 PM
by Sourav Chatterjee, American University graduate student
At APPAM's Regional Student Conference in DC, I had the pleasure of sitting
in on the Job and Career Tips panel on Saturday Morning. In attendance were 4
speakers representing the spectrum of policy work: Adam Briskin-Limehouse from
Optimal Solutions Group, Liana Fox from the U.S. Census Bureau, Katie Gan from
the Lab@DC, and Sarah Tahamont from The University of Maryland at College Park.
As the panelist's first speaker, Adam had some great advice from the perspec-
tive of an outside consultant: Namely, read your work and speak with your audience
in mind. To quote him specifically, “English is a terrible language… Don’t get lost in
the weeds.”
Adam elaborated: When working with technical material, speak in plain Eng-
lish, keep in mind units of scale such as those between billions and trillions of dollars,
and ultimately don’t shy away from grunt work. It can help you to build up a sense of
the public policy industry and may open up opportunities. One especially great sug-
gestion he offered was to have an industry outsider proof read your technical work to
help highlight writing shortfalls.
Next to speak among the panelists was Liana Fox, offering government work
insights based on her experience at the U.S. Census Bureau and in past positions. Her
advice centered on where you see yourself within an organization and the source of
your happiness. She asked us to question our motivations and to understand what
drives us. If we feel that we need credit or affirmation as opposed to a sense of pur-
pose while doing work that may not result in credit, then ˗ according to Liana ˗ that
will determine our ideal placement. Additionally, Lina suggested finding the best
people you can to work with and finally, always negotiate your starting salary. She
notes that this may not always be possible in the realm of government work but it can
be managed in other ways, often through perks/benefits or advancement in GS scales.
Something that may help in this area is to have other competing offers - though that
175
may not always be possible.
After Liana spoke, Katie Gan from the Lab@DC presented two key points of
advice:
1. Do (or see) it yourself.
2. Make it easy to say yes.
Elaborating on those pieces of advice bit, she explains that the best thing one
can have is first hand data or experience. Often people may sell themselves short or
may focus on the negative rather than on the positive. Frame the issue in a way that
makes it easy for them to give you what you need, Katie says. The mantra “keep it
simple stupid” came to mind as I listened to Katie.
And, from academia, we had Sarah from the University of Maryland as the fi-
nal panelist. Her advice was to grow your network, though to not necessarily by aim-
ing for the older or more established industry players but on your peers. She explains
that many times we may find ourselves following much more experienced and re-
nowned leaders in the field when in reality the best potential growth may happen
when we collaborate with peers in different areas of expertise that overlap with our
own. She gave an example of a peer reaching out when they needed assistance with a
grant proposal involving research in a complimentary field. In keeping with this
theme, she also suggested that we dig deep in understanding where we see ourselves
making a home and what we feel constitutes success.
In all, much of the advice revolved around a key concept, one that appeared
simple on the surface but has depth: Ultimately, we need to address what our motiva-
tions and needs are, and to build on our strengths while not just identifying our weak-
nesses. We must find the best people to complement us while acknowledging our
own weaknesses.
Finally, during the Q&A, an audience member asked the question of whether
one should prioritize internship opportunities or if they are really just opportunities to
explore the breadth and depth of the industry. The panelists made arguments in sup-
port of affirmative answers to both parts of that question: Internationships allow that
exploration and more, and they can also just be an opportunity for us to better under-
176
stand our own needs. The panelists also highlighted the benefits of going on a “walk
about” at organizations and further applying what we learn to what we do. In short,
there are no bad opportunities for early career professionals in public policy - just
more opportunities for learning.
Ex. 1 Introduce the article:

 The title of the article is ……….
 The author of the article is ……….
 The article was written ……….
Ex. 2 Read out and translate the underlined parts with prepositions.
Ex. 3 Study the following helpful word combinations:

- to build up a sense of the public policy industry;
- to open up opportunities;
- to be based on one’s experience;
- to question one’s motivations;
- to have a sense of purpose;
- to negotiate one’s starting salary;
- to present key points (of advice);
- to have other competing offers;
- to have one’s first hand data / experience;
- to focus on the positive rather than on the negative;
- to follow much more experienced / renowned leaders;
- to need assistance with a grant proposal;
- to collaborate with peers in different areas of expertise;
- to dig deep in understanding where we see ourselves;
- to identify our weaknesses;
- to build on our strengths;
- to prioritize internship opportunities;
- to better understand our own needs;
- to explore the breadth and depth of the industry.
177
Ex. 4 Complete the sentences with some missing information from the ar-
ticle:
1. The first speaker claims that ………. and advises other young people entering the
profession to ……….
2. The second panelist focuses on ………. and wants others to ………. She also
suggests ……….
3. The third panelist stresses ………. and gives explanation saying that ……….
4. The fourth speaker puts emphasis on ………. She adds that… The panelist con-
cludes saying that ……….
Ex. 5 Answer the questions making use of the word combinations from Ex.3:
1. Where did the conference take place?
2. Who are its participants?
3. How many speakers are mentioned in the article?
4. What are their names?
5. What educational institutions are they the delegates of?
6. What pieces of advice are given by them?
7. Who do they address their recommendations to?
8. Which tips seem really helpful and why?
9. Whose speech impressed the author of the article most?
10. What conclusion does Sourav Chatterjee make?
Ex. 6 Explain the following words and word combinations:

1. first hand data;
2. a key concept;
3. the best potential growth;
4. more established industry players;
5. to dig deep;
6. perks.
Ex. 7 Summarize the career tips outlined in the article. Add your own ad-
vice to Public Policy students.
178
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Масионис, Дж. Социология: Sociology. 9-е изд. / Дж. Масионис, З. Зам-

чук, С. Комаров, А. Смирнов. ‒ Санкт-Петербург: Питер, 2004. – 752 с. :
ил. – ISBN 5-94723-649-4.
2. Cochran, Clarke E. American Public Policy: An Introduction, 10 ed. / Clarke
E. Cochran, Lawrence C. Mayer, T. R. Carr, N. Joseph Cayer, Mark McKen-
zie, Laura R. Peck. ‒ Wadsworth Publishing, 2011. ‒ 576 p. ‒ ISBN 978-1-
111-34288-3
3. Giddens, Anthony. Sociology, 6 ed. / Anthony Giddens, Philip W. Sutton. ‒
Wiley, 2009. ‒ 1000 p. ‒ ISBN 978-0-7456-4358-8
4. Macionis, John J. Sociology, Global Edition, 16 ed./ John J. Macionis. ‒ Pear-
son Higher Ed, 2018. ‒ 744 p. ‒ ISBN 978-1-292-16147-1
5. Assosiation for Public Policy Analysis and Management /
https://www.appam.org/career-tips-for-public-policy-students---appam19dc-
retrospective/
6. Encyclopedia Britannica / www.britannica.com
7. The Constitution of the Russian Federation /
http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-01.htm
8. The New York Times / https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/25/business/public-
policies-made-to-fit-people.html
9. RBC /
https://www.rbc.ru/opinions/politics/06/02/2020/5e3acbce9a79473df27d5b81
10.Reatildive / https://www.retaildive.com/news/4-public-policy-priorities-for-
2018/515817/
179
CONTENTS
THE ECONOMY: HISTORICAL OVERVIEW .................................................... 1

Part I ........................................................................................................................... 3
Part II .......................................................................................................................... 5
Part III The Industrial Revolution ............................................................................. 7
Part IV The Information Revolution and Postindustrial Society ............................. 11
ECONOMIC SYSTEMS .......................................................................................... 18
Part I Capitalism ....................................................................................................... 18
Part II Socialism ....................................................................................................... 22
Part III Socialism and Communism ......................................................................... 27
POWER AND AUTHORITY................................................................................... 33
Part I Defining Power and Authority ....................................................................... 33
Part II Traditional Authority .................................................................................... 36
Part III Rational-Legal Authority ............................................................................. 39
Part IV Charismatic Authority ................................................................................. 44
POLITICAL SYSTEMS ........................................................................................... 48
Part I Political Systems: Historical Overview.......................................................... 48
Part II Monarchy ...................................................................................................... 51
Part III Democracy ................................................................................................... 54
Part IV Authoritarianism and totalitarianism ........................................................... 59
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CHANGE. POWER BEYOND THE RULES ...... 68
Part I What are social movements? .......................................................................... 68
Part II Revolution ..................................................................................................... 73
Part III Terrorism ..................................................................................................... 80
RUSSIA: POLITICAL SYSTEM ............................................................................ 87
Part I Government and Politics ................................................................................ 87
Part II Regional and Local Government .................................................................. 94
Part III Political Process ........................................................................................... 99
PUBLIC POLICY ................................................................................................... 107
180
Part I American Public Policy: An Introduction .................................................... 107
Part II Why Study Public Policy? .......................................................................... 111
Part III Categories of Public Policy ....................................................................... 115
Part IV Policies involved in policymaking ............................................................ 117
Part V Models of the Policy Process ...................................................................... 120
Part VI Policy Analysis .......................................................................................... 122
Part VII STAGES OF POLICY DEVELOPMENT .............................................. 128
Part VIII Aspects of Policy Evaluation .................................................................. 134
INTEREST GROUPS ............................................................................................. 142
Part I Interest groups: definition ............................................................................ 142
Part II Types of interest groups .............................................................................. 144
Part III Common characteristics and the importance of interest groups................ 148
Part IV Factors shaping interest group systems ..................................................... 151
Part V The role of interest groups in public policy making: pluralist and neo-
corporatist theories ................................................................................................. 153
Part VI Neo-corporatism and state corporatism…………………………………155
Part VII Lobbying strategies and tactics ................................................................ 156
Part VIII Interest of Influence groups .................................................................... 159
Part IX Interest groups in international politics. The regulation of interest groups.
................................................................................................................................ 161
Part IX The future of interest groups and interest group systems ......................... 165
Supplementary reading .............................................................................................. 167
Public Policies, Made to Fit People ....................................................................... 167
Public policy priorities for 2018 ............................................................................ 172
Career Tips for Public Policy Students .................................................................. 175
Bibliography ………………………………………………………………………179
181
Учебное издание
Ланская Юлия Сергеевна;

Ремаева Юлия Георгиевна
PUBLIC POLICY
учебно-методическое пособие
по практике английского языка
Отпечатано с авторского оригинал-макета
Издательская лицензия № 04568 от 20 апреля 2001 г.

Полиграфическая лицензия № 18-0140 от 8 октября 2001 г.
Подписано в печать 26.08.2021.
Формат 60×84/16. Печать офсетная. Бумага офсетная.
Тираж 250 экз. Зак. 7180.
Нижегородский институт управления – филиал Российской академии народ-
ного хозяйства и государственной службы при Президенте РФ
603950, Нижний Новгород-292, пр. Гагарина, 46
тел.: (831)412-33-01
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УДК 811.111 (775.8)

ISBN 978-5-00036-266-2 © Ланская Ю.С., 2021

Ex. 4 Answer the following questions.

Ex. 5 Complete the sentences below.

b) Look at the phonetic spelling of some of the words. Practise saying

Ex. 4 Fill in the charts below.

Ex. 5 Answer the following questions.

Ex. 6 Complete the sentences below.

Ex. 6 Fill in the correct preposition.

Ex. 7 Explain the meaning of these words and word combinations.

Ex. 8 Answer the following questions.

Ex. 9 Complete the sentences below.

Ex. 2 Match the words to their definitions.

2) significant b) material, having actual form and substance

3) require c) an important discovery or development that helps solve a

4) tangible d) the ability to read and write

5) blur e) important or noticeable

6) literacy f) to make the difference between two things less clear

Ex. 5 Answer the questions below.

Ex. 6 Complete the sentences below.

Ex. 8 Translate the derivatives.

Ex. 9 Make up a story using the words below.

Ex. 10 Develop a dialogue.

Ex. 11 Translate the following sentences from Russian into English.

Ex. 4 Fill in the correct preposition.

Ex. 5 Translate the derivatives.

Ex. 6 Explain the meaning of the following terms:

Ex. 7 Answer the questions below.

b) Look at the phonetic spelling of some of the words. Practise saying

Ex. 5 Fill in the correct preposition.

Ex. 6 Find antonyms in A and B.

3. “Granddaughter, please explain Communism to me,” an old Russian woman asks

Ex. 2 Match the words to their definitions.

2) wither away b) in a situation where you have to obey a rule or a law;

Ex. 6 Fill in the correct preposition.

Ex. 7 Answer the questions below.

Ex. 8 Translate the following sentences from Russian into English.

Ex. 9 Discuss the following questions.

Politics is the social institution through which a society distributes power,

Ex. 5 Fill in the correct preposition.

2. resistance _______ sb 6. to bring sb _______ sth

3. _______ the part of sb 7. to transform sth _______ sth

4. to keep sth _______ long 8. to point _______ sth

Ex. 6 Translate the derivatives.

Ex. 5 Fill in the correct preposition.

Ex. 6 Find antonyms in A and B.

B to weaken, individual, to relinquish power, disrespect, to flourish, out of step

Ex. 8 Complete the sentences below.

a) relying upon sth;

a) rooms where people work, usually sitting at desks;

Ex. 6 Translate the derivatives.

Ex. 7 Answer the following questions.

Ex. 8 Complete the sentences below.

According to Weber, rational-legal authority leads (1) __________ to the for-

3) obedience c) to refuse to accept that something is right, fair, or legal;

4) to challenge d) to make something a normal accepted part of a social

5) ancestry e) the state of a situation as it is;

6) to routinize f) a natural ability to attract and interest other people and

8) to institutionalize h) to make something regular and usual.

2. resistance _ sb 6. to bring sb _ sth

3. _ the part of sb 7. to transform sth _ sth

4. to keep sth _ long 8. to point _ sth

2. to require ___ sth; 11. (to be) _ power;

3. to give way _ sth; 12. to vote _ sth

4. to vest sth ___ sb; 13. to oppose _ sth;

5. to participate ___ sth; 14. to extend sth _ sb;

6. a right _ sth; 15. to belong _ sth;

7. in opposition _ sb/sth; 16. freedom _ arrest;

8. to hold ___ power; 17. to set limits _ sth;

9. to be limited _ sth; 18. access _ sth