Machine Learning For Decision Makers Cognitive Computing Fundamentals For Better Decision Making 2Nd Edition Patanjali Kashyap Full Chapter

Machine Learning for Decision Makers:
Cognitive Computing Fundamentals for

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Patanjali Kashyap
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Machine
Learning for
Decision Makers
Cognitive Computing Fundamentals
for Better Decision Making
―
Second Edition
―
Dr. Patanjali Kashyap
Machine Learning for
Decision Makers
Cognitive Computing
Fundamentals for Better
Decision Making
Second Edition

Machine Learning for Decision Makers: Cognitive Computing
Fundamentals for Better Decision Making, Second Edition
Bangalore, Karnataka, India
ISBN-13 (pbk): 978-1-4842-9800-8 ISBN-13 (electronic): 978-1-4842-9801-5

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9801-5
Copyright © 2024 by Dr. Patanjali Kashyap

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Table of Contents
About the Author��xix
About the Technical Reviewer��xxi
Chapter 1: Let’s Integrate with Machine Learning��1

Your Business, My Technology, and Our Interplay of Thoughts��2
General Introduction to Machine Learning��5
The Details of Machine Learning��9
Quick Bytes��12
Supervised Learning��14
Unsupervised Learning��15
Characteristics of Machine Learning��18
Current Business Challenges for Machine Learning��18
Handling, Managing, and Using Complex and Heterogeneous Data��18
Dynamic Business Scenarios, Systems, and Methods��19
Unpredictable System Behavior��20
The Needs and Business Drivers of Machine Learning��21
What Are Big Data and Big Data Analytics?��22
The Major Sources of Big Data��25
The Three Vs of Big Data��26
What Is Analytics?��28
What Is Cloud Computing?��34
Essential Characteristics of Cloud Computing��35
Cloud Computing Deployment Methodologies��37
iii
Table of Contents
Cloud Computing Service Models��39

Challenges of Cloud Computing��41
What Is IoT?��43
Evolution, Development, and the Future of IoT��46
Jargon Buster��46
Characteristics of IoT��47
Challenges with the Internet of Things��49
How IoT Works��51
What Is Cognitive Computing?��53
How Cognitive Computing Works��55
Characteristics of Cognitive Computing��57
Nervana Systems: A Machine Learning Startup��58
How the Cloud, IoT, Machine Learning, Big Data Analytics, and Cognitive
Computing Work Together��59
Video Link��63
Summary��63
Mind Map��64
Chapter 2: The Practical Concepts of Machine Learning��65

Linking History, Evolution, Machine Learning, and Artificial Intelligence��66
Machine Learning, AI, the Brain, and the Business of Intelligence��72
General Architecture of Machine Learning��74
Machine Learning: You and Your Data��80
Technology Related to Machine Learning��80
The Need for Machine Learning��84
Machine Learning Business Opportunities��86
iv
Table of Contents
Customer Experience Enrichment��93

Automated Machine Learning Based Customer Support Systems��93
A Tale of Customer Support and Automation��94
Machine Learning Customer Retention Systems��96
Business Success, Customer Engagement, and Machine Learning��97
Customer Segmentation Applications and Products��100
Intelligent Customer Prioritization and Classification Products,
Applications, and Services (APS)��101
Autonomous and Intuitive Systems��102
How Are Big Language Models Like ChatGPT Using RLHF?��108
Deep Learning and Simulated Neuron Based APS��110
Emotions and Sentiment Analysis Based APS��110
Other Intuitive Applications, Products, and Services��111
Prediction, Digital Assistance, and Recommendation APS��111
Recommendations Based Applications, Products, and Services��112
Virtual Digital Assistance��112
Advertising��113
Phototagging��113
Domain-Specific APS��113
Financial and Insurance Services��114
Telecom Network, Products, and Services��115
Professional Services��116
Public Sector and Government Initiatives��116
Retail and Wholesale��117
Transport��118
Utilities, Oil, and Gas��119
Manufacturing��120
Machine Learning for Legal Activities��121
v
Table of Contents
Machine Learning to Prevent Money Laundering��122

Improving Cybersecurity��122
Science and Technology��123
Medical Science��124
Space Science��125
Physics��126
Biology��127
Types of Machine Learning��128
Reinforcement Learning��128
Supervised Learning��131
Unsupervised Learning��131
Semi-Supervised Learning: A Quick Look��131
Machine Learning Models��132
Training ML Models��133
Different Types of Algorithm-Based Models for Machine Learning��133
Tools for Machine Learning��135
Frameworks for Machine Learning��139
Distributed Machine Learning��141
Large-Scale Machine Learning��142
Programming Languages for Machine Learning��144
R��146
Scala��148
Python��153
The Latest Advancements in Machine Learning��155
Image-Based Recognition��155
Case Study: Face Recognition��156
Healthcare��156
vi
Table of Contents
Travel and Communications��157

Advertising��157
More Case Studies��159
Case Study: Machine Learning Text Analytics��159
Case Study: Automation Reduces Resolution Time by 50 Percent��160
Audio and Video Links��161
Summary��162
Mind Map��162
Reference, Web Links, Notes, and Bibliography��163
Chapter 3: Machine Learning Algorithms and Their Relationship

with Modern Technologies��165
Algorithms, Algorithms, Everywhere��166
Machine Learning Algorithm Classifications��169
Clustering��171
Regression��172
Classification��174
Differences Between Classification and Regression��175
Anomaly Detection��177
Building a Machine Learning Model��180
Selecting the Right Algorithm/Model for Your Requirements��180
Approaching the Problem��181
Choosing the Correct Algorithm��182
Expert Opinion��187
A Review of Some Important Machine Learning Algorithms��188
The Random Forest Algorithm��190
vii
Table of Contents
The Decision Tree Algorithm��192

Logistic (Classification) and Linear Regression��196
Support Vector Machine Algorithms��201
Naïve Bayes Algorithms��204
k-Means Clustering Algorithms��208
Apriori��212
Markov and Hidden Markov Models��214
Bayesian Networks and Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs)��216
Machine Learning Application Building��220
Agility, Machine Learning, and Analytics��222
Why Do You Need Agile?��223
Show Me Some Water Please��224
Agile’s Disadvantages��225
Agile Usage��225
Some Machine Learning Algorithm-Based Products and Applications��226
Algorithm-Based Themes and Trends for Businesses��231
The Economy of Wearables��232
New Shared Economy-Based Business Models��232
Connectivity-Based Economies��233
New Ways to Manage in the Era of the Always-On Economy��233
Macro-Level Changes and Disrupted Economies��234
The Marriage of IoT, Big Data Analytics, Machine Learning, and
Industrial Security��234
Startup Case Study: Belong��235
Industry 4.0: IoT and Machine Learning Algorithms��237
Review: Generative AI: A Miracle Lead by Machine Learning Technologies��240
ChatGPT in the Corporation��241
Risks with ChatGPT��242
viii
Table of Contents
Trustworthy AI��243
The Audio and Video Links��243
Before Winding Up��244
Summary��245
Mind Map��245
Chapter 4: Technology Stack for Machine Learning and

Associated Technologies��247
Software Stacks��249
Chapter Map��250
The Internet of Things Technology Stack��255
IoT, You, and Your Organization��256
The Device and Sensor Layer��257
Facts for You��258
The Communication, Protocol, and Transportation Layer��262
The Data Processing Layer��265
The Presentation and Application Layer��267
IoT Solution Availability��268
Real-Life Scenarios��269
The Big Data Analytics Technology Stack��272
The Data Acquisition Integration and Storage Layer��277
Hadoop Distributed Filesystem (HDFS)��278
Amazon Simple Storage Service (S3)��281
The Analytics Layer��281
Hadoop MapReduce��283
Pig��286
Apache Hive��286
HBase��289
ix
Table of Contents
MangoDB��295
Apache Storm��296
Apache Solr��296
Apache Spark��297
Azure HDInsight��298
Offerings from Vendors in the Big Data Space��303
The Machine Learning Technology Stack��306
The Connector Layer��309
The Storage Layer��312
The Processing Layer��312
The Model and Runtime Layer��312
Role of Cloud Computing in the Machine Learning Technology Stack��320
The Cognitive Computing Technology Stack��322
Cognitive Computing vs Machine Learning��323
Use Cases��327
The Cloud Computing Technology Stack��329
Audio and Video Links��330
The Latest Research��330
Summary��332
Mind Map��332
x
Table of Contents
Chapter 5: Industrial Applications of Machine Learning��333

Abstract��333
Data, Machine Learning, and Analytics��335
What Is Machine Learning Analytics?��337
The Need for Machine Learning Analytics��338
Challenges Associated with Machine Learning Analytics��339
Business Drivers of Machine Learning Analytics��340
Industries, Domains, and Machine Learning Analytics��341
The Case of SCADA and PLC��344
Tools for Data Analysis��344
Machine Learning-Based Finance and Banking Analytics��350
Machine Learning-Based Healthcare Analytics��361
Machine Learning-Based Marketing Analytics��375
Audio and Video��383
Machine Learning-Based Analytics in the Retail Industry��384
Customer Machine Learning Analytics��389
Machine Learning Analytics in Real Life��395
Machine Learning Analytics in Other Industries��396
A Curious Case of Bots and Chatbots: A Journey from Physicality to
Mindfulness��401
How Bots Work��405
Usability of Bots��406
Bots and Job Loss��407
Summary��408
Mind Map��409
xi
Table of Contents
Chapter 6: I Am the Future: Machine Learning in Action��411

State of the Art Examples��413
Siri��414
Alexa��415
Google Assistant��417
IBM Watson��418
Microsoft Cortana��421
Connected Cars��424
Driverless Cars��425
Machine and Human Brain Interfaces��429
Virtual, Immersive, Augmented Reality��430
Mixed Reality��431
The Metaverse��432
Startup Case Study: Absentia��435
Google Home and Amazon Alexa��436
Google Now��437
Brain Waves and Conciseness Computing��438
Machine Learning Platforms and Solutions��439
SAP Leonardo��439
Salesforce Einstein��441
Security and Machine Learning��443
The Indian Software Industry and Machine Learning��444
Use Cases for These Products��446
Quantum Machine Learning��447
Practical Innovations��449
xii
Table of Contents
Machine Learning Adoption Scorecard��450

Summary��456
Mind Map��457
Chapter 7: Innovation, KPIs, Best Practices, and More for

Machine Learning��459
Abstract��459
IT, Machine Learning, Vendors, Clients, and Changing Times��460
Designing Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) for Machine Learning
Analytics-Based Domains��465
The KPI and ML Teams��467
Monitoring the KPIs��468
Designing Effective KPIs Using a Balanced Scorecard��469
Preparation��472
Measurement Categories��473
Benefits of KPIs��475
Some Important KPIs from Specific Organization and Industry Perspectives�� 476
Organization/Enterprise Specific Machine Learning KPIs��476
Industry-Specific KPIs��477
Stock and Customer Analytics KPIs��477
Differences Between KPIs and Metrics��479
Risk, Compliances, and Machine Learning��479
Risk and Risk Management Processes for Machine Learning Projects��483
Risk Identification��483
Risk Assessment��484
Risk Response Plan��485
Monitoring and Controlling Risks��485
Best Practices for Machine Learning��487
xiii
Table of Contents
Evolving Technologies and Machine Learning��489

Summary��492
Mind Map��492
Chapter 8: Do Not Forget Me: The Human Side of Machine

Learning��493
Economy, Workplace, Knowledge, You, and Technology��494
Key Characteristics of Intellectual Assets��498
Bottom-Up Innovation��499
Teamwork and Knowledge Sharing��499
Adaptability to Change��499
Customer Focus��500
Spirituality��500
Key Performance Drivers of Individuals��501
Measuring Intelligence��501
Benefits of the Intelligence Competencies��512
Gamification��513
Comics and Gamification��514
Corporate Storytelling��514
Building an Efficient ML Team in Relation to EQ, SQ, MQ, and Social Q��515
Team Leader��518
Technology Manager��519
Team Members��519
Organizational Leader��520
The Differences Between a Leader and a Manager��521
How to Build a Data Culture for Machine Learning��522
Questions for Bringing Transparency to the Team and Enterprise��525
xiv
Table of Contents
Machine Learning-Specific Roles and Responsibilities��527

Role 1: Deep Learning/Machine Learning Engineer��527
Role 2: Data Scientist��530
Other Important Roles��533
Lean Project Management and Machine Learning Projects��536
How to Do the Right Resourcing and Find the Best Match��540
DevOps��542
The Need for DevOps��543
The Benefits of DevOps��543
Summary��544
Mind Map��545
Chapter 9: Quantum Computers, Computing, and Machine

Learning: A Review��547
Introduction��547
Quantum Computers and Computing��549
The Wave of Quantum��550
Fundamentals of Quantum Computing��551
Traditional Quantum Calculations��556
Logic Gates��557
Universal Computing Machine��559
Quantum Mechanics��562
Further Advancements of Quantum Theory��564
The Structure Blocks of Quantum Mechanics��566
Quantum Entanglement in Detail��567
Superposition and Entanglement in a Quantum Computer��569
Quantum Computing, Classical Computing, and Data Innovation��570
Quantum Programming��574
xv
Table of Contents
Algorithmic Complexity��578
Quantum Gates��581
The Quantum Gate Is a Unitary Matrix��584
Quantum Algorithms��585
Quantum Circuits��587
Computations��587
Quantum Registers vs Classical Registers��589
Quantum Computer Algorithms��590
Main Classes of Quantum Algorithms��591
Important Quantum Algorithms��592
Translating Algorithms Into Programming Languages��594
Qubit Details��596
General Structure of a Quantum Computer System��599
Quantum Software Example: Qiskit Aqua��600
Debugging a Quantum Program��602
Quantum Simulators and Computers��604
Quantum Computing, Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning:
The Basics��605
The Interface Between Machine Learning and Quantum Computing��607
Artificial Quantum Intelligence��608
Quantum Machine Learning (QML)��609
Machine Learning with Quantum Computers��609
Quantum Neural Networks��610
Quantum Computing Applications��613
Cloud Quantum Computing��615
Quantum Computing as a Service (QCaaS)��617
xvi
Table of Contents
Amazon Web Services (AWS) Runs Braket, A Quantum Computer as a

Service��618
The Current State of Quantum Computing��619
Summary��620
Chapter 10: Let’s Wrap Up: The Final Destination��621
Index��627
xvii
About the Author
Dr. Patanjali Kashyap PhD works as a
technology manager at a leading
American bank. He deals with high-impact,
mission-critical financial and innovative
new-generation technology projects on a
day-to-day basis. Dr. Kashyap has worked
with technology giants such as Infosys and
Cognizant Technology Solutions. He is
an expert in the Agile process, machine learning, Big Data, and cloud
computing. He understands Microsoft Azure and cognitive computing
platforms such as Watson and Microsoft Cognitive Services. Dr.
Kashyap confesses .NET technologies to be his first love to his friends
and colleagues. He has worked on a spectrum of .NET and associated
technologies, such as SQL Server and component-based architectures,
from their inception. He also loves to work with SharePoint (and with
content management in general), knowledge management, positive
technology, psychological computing, and UNIX. Dr. Kashyap is
experienced in software development methodologies, application support,
and maintenance. He has published several research and whitepapers
on multiple topics. He is involved in organizational initiatives, such as
building world-class teams and dynamic cultures across enterprises. And
he is the go-to person for incorporating “positivity and enthusiasm” in
enterprises.
xix
About the Technical Reviewer
Krishnendu Dasgupta is currently the head
of machine learning at Mondosano GmbH,
leading data science initiatives focused on
clinical trial recommendations and advanced
patient health profiling through disease and
drug data. Prior to this role, he co-founded
DOCONVID AI, a startup that leveraged
applied AI and medical imaging to detect lung
abnormalities and neurological disorders.
With a strong background in computer science engineering,
Krishnendu has more than a decade of experience in developing solutions
and platforms using applied machine learning. His professional trajectory
includes key positions at prestigious organizations, such as NTT DATA,
PwC, and Thoucentric.
Krishnendu’s primary research interests include applied AI for graph
machine learning, medical imaging, and decentralized privacy-preserving
machine learning in healthcare. He also had the opportunity to participate
in the esteemed Entrepreneurship and Innovation Bootcamp at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, cohort of the 2018 batch.
Beyond his professional endeavors, Krishnendu actively dedicates
his time to research, collaborating with various research NGOs and
universities worldwide. His focus is on applied AI and ML.
xxi
CHAPTER 1
Let’s Integrate with

Machine Learning
Dr. Patanjali Kashyapa*
a
Bangalore, Karnataka, India
In this chapter, I present a holistic synopsis of how machine learning
(ML) works in conjunction with other technologies, including IoT, Big Data
analytics, and cloud and cognitive computing. Technically, machine learning
cannot and never should be understood in isolation. It is a multi-disciplinary
subject. This is why you need an integrated view of the suite of concepts and
technologies before you can understand the technical landscape of machine
learning. Even for academic purposes, if someone wants to understand the
workings of machine learning, they have to learn the nuts and bolts in detail.
Hence, it is important for business leaders and managers to have a holistic
and integrated understanding of machine learning to properly grasp the
subject. It becomes more important if they are interested in the subject for
business reasons. Because you are reading this book, I assume that you want
to become acquainted with the concepts of machine learning.
During my endeavor to provide a conceptual foundation of machine
learning and its associated technologies, I address multiple business
questions, including these:
• What is machine learning?
• What is the business case for machine learning?
© Dr. Patanjali Kashyap 2024 1

P. Kashyap, Machine Learning for Decision Makers,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9801-5_1
Chapter 1 Let’s Integrate with Machine Learning
• How do we use machine learning?
• What are the key features of machine learning?
• Where can we implement machine learning?
• What are the major techniques/types used in machine

learning?
• Why is machine learning required in business?
These questions are answered in detail in this and the following

chapters. The key business benefits and values of successful machine
learning implementations are also discussed in the appropriate places.
Almost the same set of questions, thoughts, and concepts are
addressed for associated technologies as well. This chapter explores the
core concepts behind advanced analytics and discusses how they can
be leveraged in a knowledge-driven, cognitive environment. With the
right level of advanced analytics, the system can gain deeper insights
and predict outcomes in a more accurate and insightful manner. Hence,
it is essential to study these concepts in a practical way. This chapter
introduces the knowledge platform and provides you with the practical
knowledge you are looking for.
our Business, My Technology, and Our

Y
Interplay of Thoughts
My argument is very simple and you will find it conveyed throughout
the book. I argue that technologies—like the cloud, Big Data analytics,
machine learning, and cognitive computing—enable growth, profit, and
revenue. My focus is not to explain the model and its benefits in a stepwise
fashion but to explain the technologies behind it.
2
In any business scenario, results and outcomes have multiple

dimensions. But what is important for the enterprises, business leaders,
and stakeholders is to know how they impact their business strategies.
The outcome depends on multiple factors, such as how quickly the
infrastructure is ready, the cost per transition, the implementation time
for the new applications, and even how partners, including suppliers, are
integrated in the overall supply chain and decision-making processes.
Another important factor is the level of automation the enterprise has
(from bottom to top).
Machine learning—or, in other words, the “automation of
automation”—and cognitive computing are changing the way decisions
are made. Monotonous, repetitious, and less skilled human intervention
is being replaced with “intelligent” automation. That’s changing the
dynamics of decision making. The result is increased efficiency and
effectiveness of overall business processes and decision making. Its
impact will be felt on enterprise profit, revenue growth, and operational
efficiency. Enterprises will appreciate business value at all levels and areas
of their investments, whether it’s IT infrastructure, IT application, business
processes, operations, or finance. If they adopt the right context-based
approach to technology, benefits are bound to come.
Adopting the cloud enables companies to quickly provision their
resources and reduce costs per transition and per workstation. Most of
the requirements for application development are available on-demand
in a cloud-based environment, so implementing a new application is
fast. Suppliers have access to the robust supply chain, so integrating their
services and logistics becomes easy. The cloud provides on-demand
data analytics and machine learning-based, context-oriented cognitive
computing functionalities in an automated fashion. This enables
enterprises to enjoy high revenue growth and increased return on
investment.
3
If you have followed the trends and direction of the IT industry in the
last couple of years, one signal is clear—industries are betting heavily on
this new generation of technologies. Old thoughts and technical pillars
are getting destroyed and new ones are piling up rapidly. IBM, Microsoft,
Google, and Facebook patents filled in recent years show the direction
of the industry. Microsoft is the leader in patent filing, with over 200
artificial intelligence-related patent applications since 2009. Google is in
second place, with over 150 patent filings. Patents include elements of
cloud computing, cognitive computing, Big Data analytics, and machine
learning. The following links provide a snapshot of the patent landscape in
recent years:
• https://www-03.ibm.com/press/us/en/
presskit/42874.wss
• https://cbi-blog.s3.amazonaws.com/blog/
wp-content/uploads/2017/01/1-ai-patents-
overall.png
The cloud, the Internet of Things (IoT), Big Data, and analytics enable
effective and appropriate machine learning implementation and focused
strategies. Machine learning is at the core of cognitive computing, which
provides the power of real-time, evidence-based, automated decision-
making capabilities to enterprises. You will be able to combine all the
pieces and visualize the complete picture. This is a journey from data to
wisdom. You get data through IoT systems and other sources of data, store
that data in a cloud-based data store, and then apply analytics techniques
to the data to make sense of it. Then you automate the analytical process
by applying machine learning techniques to find patterns and make
accurate predictions. You refine the results by iteratively running the
models/algorithms. The options are backed by a confidence level and by
evidence. An end-to-end solution!
4
It is worth mentioning here that this separation of technology and

division of layers is logical. That is, there is no “hard” boundary defined
in the standard and professional literature. For example, a lot of technical
literature couples Big Data analytics and machine learning together.
Some treat machine learning and cognitive computing as one. However,
segregation organizes the thought process; hence, I take this approach.
By studying the five technical pillars of the current and future
innovative and knowledge-based business ecosystem (the cloud, Big
Data, IoT, machine learning, and cognitive computing), you will be able
to draw correct inferences and make suitable business decisions for your
enterprise. By the end of the chapter, you will understand what these
technologies are all about, what they mean, and how they matter to the
business ecosystem.
General Introduction to Machine Learning

The input-process-output model—which states that inputs enter the
system, are processed, and then output is produced—forms the foundation
of most information and data processing technologies. As an illustration,
consider a word processing program where each keystroke results in a
letter output that appears on the screen. The actions that must be taken
are obvious when someone presses a letter in a word processing program.
Therefore, it is simple to design a process that takes into account which
input values should result in which output values.
Let’s say you want to create a program that would say “This is a picture
of a horse” and you have an image of a horse. The fundamental issue for
computers now arises from their inferior ability to recognize patterns
compared to humans. A picture is nothing more than the combination
pixels composed of vectors to a computer. It is exceedingly challenging
to solve if you attempt to do so using typical programming methods.
However, it is a simple task with Big Data, statistics, and analytics
techniques. In later sections, you’ll learn about this in more detail.
5
Here is where ML and AI enter the picture. Artificial intelligence (AI)

refers to computer programs that quickly complete tasks on their own,
mimicking human intelligence. The formal concept of programmable
“artificial neurons” by McCulloch and Pitts, published in 1943, is the
key piece of work now typically recognized as AI. At a workshop held at
Dartmouth College in 1956, the phrase “artificial intelligence” was coined.
This event is frequently cited as the beginning of the field of AI.
As discussed earlier, the term “machine learning” (ML) was created
three years later by a pioneer in this subject. An artificial system learns
from examples and can simplify them after the learning phase is through.
This process is known as machine learning, which is a broad term for the
“artificial” generation of knowledge from experience. An ML algorithm
creates a statistical model based on training data (more on this later). This
means it does not just learn the examples by heart but identifies patterns
and regularities in the learning data. In this way, the system can also
measure unidentified data, although it may also fail to do so.
Machine learning is a fascinating concept these days, and nearly
everyone in the business world is talking about it. It’s a promising
technology that has the potential to change the prevalent business
environment and bring disruption in action. Decision-makers have
started considering machine learning a tool to design and implement
their strategies and innovative thoughts. Implementing machine learning
in organizations or enterprises is not easy. One of the reasons for this
is the lack of useful and reliable data. Having relevant data is essential
for effective machine learning implementation. But, getting relevant
and accurate data is a big challenge. Riding on recent advancements
and developments in the field of IoT-enabled technologies and Big Data
analytics, it is comparatively easy for enterprises to store and analyze
data efficiently and effectively. This luxury of the availability of Big Data
on-demand and in real time leads to the successful implementation of
machine learning projects, products, applications, and services.
6
This also empowers decision-makers to create some great strategies.

Because of this, we started seeing and realizing results and success stories
regarding machine learning. The concept of machine learning is not recent
and can be traced back and is linked with the artificial intelligence and
expert systems. As mentioned, in recent times, it has been getting a lot of
attention and traction because of some path-breaking achievements. For
example, IBM Watson’s capabilities to predict oncological outcome better
than doctors or Facebook’s success at accurately identifying the faces
of humans.
In the era of machine learning and Big Data analytics, generalized
prediction is at the heart of almost every scientific/business decision.
The study of generalization from data is the central topic of machine
learning. In current and future business scenarios, predicting outcome
is the key to the organization’s success. Decision-makers want to see
and allow strategies to be made and implemented that not only look at
historical data but also make sense of it. Optimistically, they want that to
happen automatically. The expect system would “predict” the behavior
of customer and their future needs. Companies can then make effective
decisions based on the reports and dashboards in real time. For example,
in investment banking, decision-makers want to build software that
would help their credit risk officer predict most likely customer defaults. A
telecom company wants to predict a customer’s inclination to default on a
bill based on the behavioral analysis of the customers. This would provide
them with future projections of payment liabilities in real time. Based on
historical payment details of a customer and machine learning, it is well
possible.
In fact, decision-makers are not satisfied only with the prediction;
they are more interested in understanding why someone is going to do
something. Decision-makers want to explore the “why” of the story and
build their strategies around that mindset or behavior. Technically as we
know, machine learning learns from the data. The outcome of learning
depends on the level of analytics done on the data set. Therefore, it is
7
important to take a look at the level of learning analytics. I give a brief

primer of the concept here and come back to this in the later chapters,
where it needs further elaboration.
Typically, there are four levels of learning analytics associated with
machine learning:
• Descriptive: What has happened and what is

happening? This generally looks at facts, data, and
figures and provides detailed analysis. It is used for
preparing data for advanced analysis or for day-to-day
business intelligence.
• Diagnostic: Why did this happen? This examines the

descriptive elements and allows for critical reasoning.
• Predictive: What will happen? This provides different

elements and focus on what the outcome would be.
It proves future possibilities and trends and uses
statistical techniques such as linear and logistic
regression to understand trends and predict future
outcomes.
• Prescriptive: What should I do and why should I do

it? This determines how a specific result or outcome
can be achieved through the use of a specific set of
elements. Its focus is on decision making and efficiency
improvements. Simulation is used to analyze complex
system behavior and identify uses.
Recent developments in the field of cognitive computing have

encouraged cognitive analytics, and its output is more human like, so it is
more beneficial. Cognitive analytics takes perspective analytics to the next
level. Companies essentially need prescriptive analytics to drive insights,
recommendations, and optimizations. Cognitive analytics actually test,
8
learn, and adapt over time and derive even greater insights. It bridges the
gap among machine learning, Big Data, and practical decision making in
real time with high confidence and provides contextual insights.
Based on the outcome of the level of analytics performed on the data
set, companies encourage or discourage particular behavior according to
their needs. This triggered a new era of human-machine collaboration,
cooperation, and communication. While the machine identifies the
patterns, the human responsibilities are to interpret them and put them
into different micro-segments and recommend and suggest some course
of action. In a nutshell, machine learning technologies are here to help
humans refine and increase their potential.
The Details of Machine Learning

Machine learning is known for its multi-disciplinary nature. It includes
multiple fields of study, ranging from philosophy to sociology to artificial
intelligence. However, in this book, machine learning is treated as a
subfield of artificial intelligence, which is explained as the ability of
machines to learn, think, and solve a problem or issue in the way that
humans do. It helps computers (software) act and respond without being
explicitly programmed to do so.
Here are some formal definitions of machine learning:
• Machine learning is concerned with the design and

development of algorithms and techniques that allow
computers to learn. The major focus of ML is to extract
information from data automatically, by computational
and statistical methods. It is thus closely related to data
mining and statistics. (Svensson and Soderberg, 2008)
9
• Machine learning inherited and borrowed on concepts

and results from many fields; for example, artificial
intelligence, probability and statistics, computational
complexity theory, control theory, information theory,
philosophy, psychology, neurobiology, and other fields.
(Mitchell, 1997, p. 2)
Here are some important highlights about machine learning:
• Machine learning is a kind of artificial intelligence

(AI) that enables computers to learn without being
explicitly programmed.
• Software learns from past experiences through

machine learning.
• Software can improve its performances by use of

intelligent programs (machine learning) in an iterative
fashion.
• Machine learning algorithms have the ability to

learn, teach, adapt to the changes, and improve with
experience in the data/environment.
• Machine learning is about developing code to enable

the machine to learn to perform tasks.
• A computer program or algorithm is treated as a

learning program if it learns from experience relative
to some class of tasks and performance measure
(iteratively).
• A machine learning program is successful if its

performance at the tasks improves with experiences
(based on data).
10
Machine learning is focused on using advanced computational

mechanisms to develop dynamic algorithms that detect patterns in data,
learn from experience, adjust programs, and improve accordingly.
The purpose of machine learning is to find meaningful simplicity
and information/insights in the midst of disorderly complexity. It tries to
optimize performance criteria using past experience based on its learning.
It is actually data-driven science that operates through a set of data-driven
algorithms. Machine learning provides power to the computers to discover
and find patterns in huge warehouses of data.
Rather than using the traditional way of procedural programming (if
condition A is valid then perform B set of tasks), machine learning uses
advanced techniques of computational mechanism to allow computers
to learn from experience and adjust and improve programs accordingly.
See Figure 1-1. Traditional programming is a manual process—meaning
a person (the programmer) creates the program. But without anyone
programming the logic, the programmer has to manually formulate or
code the rules. In machine learning, on the other hand, the algorithm
automatically formulates the rules from the data.
Figure 1-1. Traditional programming compared to machine

learning
11
Quick Bytes
When do you apply machine learning?
• When the system needs to be dynamic, self-learning,

and adaptive.
• At the time of multiple iterative and complex

procedures.
• If a decision has to be made instantly and in real time.
• When you have multiple, complicated sources and a

huge amount of time-series data.
• When generalization of observation is required.
Applications of machine learning:
• Machine insight and computer vision, including object

recognition
• Natural language processing and syntactic pattern

recognition
• Search engines, medical analysis, and brain-machine

interfaces
• Detecting credit card fraud, stock market analysis, and

classifying DNA sequences
• Speech and handwriting recognition, adaptive

websites, and robot locomotion
• Computational advertising, computational finance,

and health monitoring
12
• Sentiment analysis/opinion mining, affective

computing, and information retrieval
• Recommender systems and optimization of systems
Machine learning fundamentally helps teach computers (through data,

logic, and software) “how to learn and what to do.” A machine learning
program finds or discovers patterns in data and then behaves accordingly.
The computation involves two phases (see Figure 1-2):
• In the first phase of computations, the specified data

is recognized by machine learning algorithms or
programs. On the basis of that, it will come up with
a model.
• The second phase uses that model (created in the first

phase) to make predictions.
This sequence continues to iterate and the user gets refined results.
Learning through iterations is a basic characteristic of a machine learning
algorithm and program. To achieve this, machine learning uses two main
methods, called supervised learning and unsupervised learning.
13
Figure 1-2. The machine learning process
Supervised Learning
Supervised learning is the learning process where the output variable is
known. The output evidence of the variable is explicitly used in training.
In supervised learning, data has “labels.” In other words, you know what
you’re trying to predict. Actually, this algorithm contains a target or
outcome variable that’s to be predicted from a given set of predictors
(independent variables). Using these set of variables, a function is
generated that maps inputs to anticipated outcomes. The training process
continues until the model attains an anticipated level of correctness on
the training data (see Figure 1-3). In machine learning-related issues or
problems, a train set to test set ratio of 80:20 is acceptable. In today’s world
14
of Big Data, 20 percent amounts to a huge data set. You can easily use this
data for training and help your model learn better. However, this ratio
changes based on the size of the data.
1. Learning or training: Models learn using

training data.
2. Test the model using unseen test data, to test the

accuracy of the model.
Figure 1-3. Supervised learning
Unsupervised Learning
In unsupervised learning, the outcomes are unknown. Clustering is
happening on the available data set to revel meaningful partitions and
hierarchies. Unlike supervised learning, unsupervised learning is used on
data that does not have history. In unsupervised learning, the algorithm
has to find the surpassed data. Also, it has to find any hidden structure
in the data set. The class level of data is unknown. There is no target or
outcome variable present to predict/estimate in unsupervised leaning. See
Figure 1-4 for an illustration of unsupervised learning.
15
Figure 1-4. Unsupervised learning
Unsupervised learning is used to populate specific clusters out of

different available clusters. This technique is best suited for segmenting
customers into different clusters for specific involvement. Some of its
areas of application are self-organizing maps, nearest neighbor mapping,
singular value decomposition, and k-means clustering. E-commerce
companies like Amazon use this technique for online recommendations,
identification of data outliers, and segment text topics.
Machine learning changed the way data extraction and its
interpretation happen. It uses automatic sets of generic methods and
algorithms. Previous to this, traditional statistical techniques were used for
similar types of analyses. Companies are using these new set of learning
theories and practices for revenue generation. Therefore, machine
learning has already started impacting many business and research
organizations. Products and services are built around machine learning to
achieve market leadership.
16
Because disruption and innovation are the mantra for success of most
business strategies, machine learning and its related technologies take
central stage. This is the main reason that the data-intensive machine-
learning methods have been adopted in the field of science, technology,
commerce, and management. This revolution is leading industry to more
evidence-based decision making with the help of computers across many
walks of life. The five steps of evidence-based decision making are:
1. Ask: Translate a practical issue into an answerable

question.
2. Acquire: Systematically search for and retrieve the

evidence.
3. Appraise: Critically judge the trustworthiness of the

evidence.
4. Apply: Incorporate the evidence into the decision-

making process.
5. Assess: Evaluate the outcome of the decision.
Machine learning has a strong scientific foundation, which

includes studies of pattern reorganization, mathematical optimization,
computational learning theory, self-optimizations, nature-inspired
algorithms, and others. Machine learning is so pervasive that we are
all using it dozens of times a day without knowing it. We are using it for
online entertainment (Netflix), practical speech recognition (Apple’s
Siri), effective web searching, and improving our understanding of the
human genome. Machine learning answered the questions of how to
build intelligent computers and software that improve their capabilities by
themselves through self-learning and assisting humans in all walks of life.
17
Characteristics of Machine Learning

Now is a good time to look at the characteristics of machine learning.
Understanding these characteristics will give you a compressive outlook of
the technology. Let’s take a look at the characteristics:
• Ability to automatically adopt and modify behavior
based on users’ needs. For example, personalized email
or news.
• Ability to discover new knowledge from large databases

of facts.
• Ability to assist humans and replace monotonous tasks,

which require some intelligence.
• Ability to generate “insight” by iteratively operating on

data and learning from mistakes.
urrent Business Challenges for

C
Machine Learning
Implementing machine learning has many challenges. Its application
areas and scope are wide, so the challenges are also multifaceted. Let’s
take a look at them.
andling, Managing, and Using Complex

H
and Heterogeneous Data
Huge volumes of complex data are being generated every day (every
second, to be precise) from multiple heterogeneous sources of data
about the customer. However, getting insight from this data is one of the
challenges. Also, the availability of data makes business requirements/
18
decisions more complex and time consuming because the demands and
expectations of customers are extraordinarily high. Fulfilling customers’
expectations is a challenging task.
Typically, unknown relationships and correlations are hidden within
a large amount of multi-sourced (complex, heterogeneous, dynamic,
distributed, and very large) and multi-structured data (a variety of data
formats and types that can be derived from interactions between people
and machines, such as web applications or social networks). By running
machine learning models on muti-sourced and multi-structured data sets
of varying quality and availability, you can better understand the behavior
of products and applications and therefore develop products/applications
of a higher quality. However, developing algorithms that detect meaningful
regularities from such data is another challenge. But machine learning’s
marriage with advanced computational, data crunching, and analytics
techniques makes it possible. For instance, Microsoft Azure cloud
infrastructure provides its “data factory.” This is a type of cloud-based
integration tool helps integrate multi-sourced and multi-structured data.
Storing, managing, and analyzing large volumes of data is another
challenge. However, recent advancements in machine learning, Big Data,
and storing technologies provide humans with an array of solutions to
managing this challenge. The good thing is these offered solutions are
scalable, custom built, quick, automated, accurate, and efficient. They also
support real-time environments.
ynamic Business Scenarios, Systems,

D
and Methods
New knowledge and insights about tasks, activities, and business are
constantly being discovered, generated, and created by humans. Hence,
it is difficult to continuously redesign or re-create systems and models
“by hand,” which will be in synchronization if frequent changes are
19
happening, including business environments from the organization

perspective on a dynamic basis. Therefore, the complex data and changing
business scenarios need some methods and techniques to teach systems
(computers) to do this on their behalf. However, creating this type of
dynamic system is not easy. To cope with this challenge, machine learning
is one of the most important tools. The ML systems make predictions
based on defined methodologies that are self-dynamic and adaptive in
nature (I will discuss these in the next few chapters). Their computational
efficiency can be improved, as they are dynamic and flexible systems.
Unpredictable System Behavior

System designers and technology specialists often produce machines
that do not work as desired. Even when they work at their fullest capacity,
they are less effective in providing real-time assistance and decision-
making support. However, business typically need efficient, focused, and
accurate systems that fulfill their requirements with ease and efficiency.
Therefore, systems that can learn to derive conclusions and assist in
making decisions with a very little or no human intervention is the need of
the hour. But designing a system that potentially resolves the prevalence
of unpredictability is a challenging task. With the suite of traditional
technologies, this become more tedious. Machine learning technologies
can accomplish this by analyzing data without any prior assumptions
about the structure of the data. Hence, to encounter the challenge of
unpredictable system behavior, ML is the best available technology in
the pack.
20
T he Needs and Business Drivers

of Machine Learning
ML is today’s fastest growing field, functionally and technically, lying
at the intersection of computer science, statistics, artificial intelligence,
and data science. Decision-makers, data scientists, software developers,
and researchers are using machine learning to gain insights and be
competitive. They are trying to achieve goals that were previously out
of reach. For instance, programs/software/machine that learn from
experiences and understand consumer behavior were just not possible
some years back. However, system that make purchase recommendations,
recognize images, and protect against fraud are now part of life.
Recent progress in machine learning has been driven by the
development of new learning algorithms and innovative researches,
backed by the ongoing explosion in online and offline data. Also, the
availability of low-cost computation plays an important role. Here are just
a few driving forces that justify the need for machine learning and look at
its business drivers:
• Diversity of data: Data is being generated from different

channels and its nature and format are different.
• Capacity and dimension: The increase in the number

of data sources and the globalization of diversification
of businesses have led to the exponential growth of
the data.
• Speed: As data volume increases, so must the speed at

which data is captured and transformed.
• Complexity: With the increasing complexity of data,

high data quality and security is required to enable data
collection, transformation, and analysis, in order to
achieve expedient decision making.
21
• Applicability: These aforementioned factors can

compromise the applicability of the data to the
business process and improve performance.
What Are Big Data and Big Data Analytics?

Big Data offers significant assistance in overcoming obstacles and
generating novel business concepts. The difficulties persist because of how
much data is now being gathered by technology. Big Data technologies
have the capacity to properly collect and analyze that data. New computer
models that can handle distributed and parallel computations with
incredibly scalable storage and performance are part of the Big Data
infrastructure.
The principles of analytics and machine learning are essential to the
Big Data lifecycle. Unstructured textual data is the subject of text analytics,
a particular type of analysis. Text analytics has become increasingly
important as social media has grown. The text data “pulled out” from
various online sources, including social media, online retailing websites,
and e-commerce transitions, is used to predict customer behavior and
analyze consumer interests. Text analytics is now possible thanks to
machine learning. By using visualization tools like Tableau, the analyzed
data is graphically represented so that end users can quickly understand it
and make decisions.
The compound annual growth rate of data is approaching 60 percent
annually. Studies show that 70 percent of this data is unstructured.
Video files, social networking data, and other types of unstructured data
are examples. The difficulties are revealed by looking at the diversity of
the data itself. Big Data is a hot topic in the commercial and IT worlds.
Although various people have varying perspectives and thoughts, everyone
concurs that
22
• Big Data refers to a huge amount of unstructured or

semi-structured data.
• Storing this mammoth data is beyond the capacity

of typical traditional database systems (relational
databases).
• Legacy software tools are unable to capture, manage,

and process Big Data.
Big Data is a relative term, and it depends on an organization’s size.

Big Data does not just refer to traditional data warehouses, but it includes
operational data stores that can be used for real-time applications. Also,
Big Data is about finding value from the available data, which is the key
to success for businesses. Companies try to understand their customers
better, so that they can create more targeted products and services for
them. To do this they are increasingly adopting analytical techniques
for doing analysis on larger sets of data. To perform operations on data
effectively, efficiently, and accurately, they are expanding their traditional
data sets. They integrate traditional data with social media data, text
analytics, and sensor data to get a complete understanding of their
customers’ behaviors.
Data can potentially give accurate insight once analytics are performed
on it. Therefore, Big Data can also be a weapon for optimizing business
processes. Companies started using it to create new processes or to fine-
tune existing ones. For example, retailers optimize their stock based on
the recommendation of predictive model, which generates “insight” from
the analysis of social media, web search trends, and weather forecast data.
Leaders understand that it is just the beginning of the era of Big Data and
analytics and if they are not aware or willing to take advantage of it, they
will definitely be left behind and lose their competitive advantage. This is a
huge risk for them!
23
Here are a few formal definitions and some insight about Big Data:
• Big Data refers to data sets whose size is beyond the

ability of typical database software tools to capture,
store, manage, and analyze.
• The analyst firm IDC defines it as follows: Big Data

technologies describe a new generation of technologies
and architectures, designed to economically extract
value from very large volumes of a wide variety of data,
by enabling high-velocity capture, discovery, and/or
analysis.
• David Kellogg defines Big Data in very simple language,

as “too big to be reasonably handled by current/
traditional technologies,” and the consulting firm
McKinsey & Company agrees with this.
• Big Data technologies describe a new generation

of technologies and architectures, designed to
economically extract value from very large volumes of a
wide variety of data, by enabling high-velocity capture,
discovery, and/or analysis. Big Data plays a role in
creating superior business value in today’s world.
These days, this includes a plethora of data generated
from diverse data sources, like enterprise-
wide transaction systems, machine logs, RFID systems,
sensor data sources, customer call centers, web logs,
and social media logs.
• Big Data is a high-volume, high-velocity data resource

that mandates cost-effective, innovative ways of
information processing for greater insight and effective
decision making.
24
The Major Sources of Big Data

• Black box data: This is the data generated by aircraft,
including jets and helicopters. Black box data contains
flight staff voices, microphone recordings, and aircraft
performance-related information.
• Social media data: The data generated by social media

sites such as Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest,
and Google+.
• Stock exchange data: This typically contains

information about share selling and buying decisions
taken by traders or individual customers.
• Power grid data: This contains information

about nodes based on usage information, power
consumption details, and so on.
• Transport data: This contains information about

possible capacity, vehicle model, availability of vehicle,
and distance covered by a vehicle. Because vehicles
have built-in intelligent systems and are connected
through IoT, the amount of information they generate
is huge.
• Search engine data: This is one of the major causes

and sources of Big Data. Search engines have massive
databases and information repositories from which
they get and store this type of data.
There are a few important technologies used to realize Big Data,

which I discuss in detail in the coming sections. However, one important
one is Hadoop and HDFS. HDFS is used for storage, while MapReduce is
used for processing. It gathers data from many sources and in different
25
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
persons working in lead, as to whether this particularly well-marked
sign is to be regarded as a diagnostic symptom of lead poisoning or
not.
For a long time it was regarded, and by many is still regarded, as
sufficient evidence in itself to determine that a person is suffering
from lead poisoning. On the other hand, those who have had
considerable experience of industrial lead poisoning, particularly in
the routine examination of workmen occupied in various lead
industries, do not regard the occurrence of the Burtonian line as of
more value than that the person showing such pigmented gums has
been exposed to lead absorption.
There are two kinds of Burtonian line:
1. A fine bluish line is seen around the gingival margins, more
pronounced on the interdental papillæ of the gum, and always more
marked around such teeth as are coated with a deposit of tartar than
around teeth which are clean. This line is undoubtedly due to the
decomposition of the lead salts which have gained access to the
mouth, by the sulphuretted hydrogen produced by the decomposition
and putrefaction of food, epithelial débris, and other materials, which
have accumulated around the edges of the teeth and in the
interdental spaces. Peculiar evidence of this may often be seen in
the mouths of certain persons whose parotid glands are discharging
saliva which promotes deposits of calculus. Thus, one may often find
merely the two first upper molar teeth on both sides of the upper jaw
coated with tartar, no other teeth in the upper jaw being similarly
affected. This deposit of calcium phosphate and carbonate is
exceedingly porous, and becomes saturated with the products of
decomposition, evolving sulphuretted hydrogen in fairly large
quantities. In the mouths of such persons working in lead factories a
dark bluish staining of the cheek in apposition to the filthy tooth may
be frequently seen, and where the rest of the teeth are free from
deposit no such staining is observable. Viewed with a hand-lens, the
blue line is seen to be made up of a large number of minute granules
of dark colour which are deposited, often deeply, in the tissue. It is a
matter of importance to note that a blue line is rarely seen in the
mouths of those persons who pay attention to dental hygiene; where
the teeth are clean, the gums closely adherent to the teeth, and
entire absence of pus and freedom from deposit we have never seen
a Burtonian line produced. Many of the so-called healthy mouths
with perfect teeth have yet infected gums.
On examining sections of such a line, it is interesting to note that
at first sight the particles appear to be situated deeply in the tissue,
and mainly in relation to the bloodvessels supplying the gum. A little
closer attention shows that the particles are really aggregated,
particularly in the deficiencies between the epithelial cells which are
constantly thrown off from the surface of the gum, a process which
has its origin in an inflammatory condition, the whole gum becoming
hypertrophied, with numerous small areas of ulceration. In these
positions a certain amount of direct absorption of dust and fine
particles takes place from the ulcerated surface, and becomes
converted into lead sulphide by the sulphuretted hydrogen produced
locally from the decomposing tissue. A certain amount of
pigmentation is also referable to the mucous glands. It is well known
that, in infections of the mouth of the type of pyorrhœa alveolaris or
of rarefaction of the alveolar process, a good deal of infection
coexists in the mucous glands of the buccal membrane, especially
along the gum margins themselves, and the lead dust also becomes
deposited in these glands, and later forms a sulphide. It is possible
that some blue lines are due to excretion of lead from the blood.
Some little care is required to differentiate between the early lead
Burtonian line and the curious bluish-grey appearance of the gum
edges in cases of pyorrhœa alveolaris; when once the two
conditions have been studied, little difficulty exists, but the use of a
hand-lens will at once settle the matter. The bluish appearance of the
gum in many cases of gum disease is due to local cyanosis. A few
other forms of pigmentation of the gum edges exist, such as an
occasional blue line seen in workers with mercury, a black line in
coal-miners, and so on, but these hardly call for discussion in the
present instance. Any pigmentation of the nature discussed above is
to be regarded as a sign that the worker has been subjected to the
inhalation of lead dust, and is therefore suspect of lead absorption, in
whom definite symptoms of lead poisoning may be expected to
occur if the exposure to the harmful influence be long-continued.
2. In the second variety of blue line the pigmentation is not
confined to the gum edge or to a band rarely exceeding a millimetre
in width, as is the ordinary common blue line. In this case the whole
of the gingival mucous membrane from the edges of the teeth, and
extending some way into the buccal sulcus, five or six millimetres or
even a centimetre wide, may be seen.
When this phenomenon is present, it is always associated with a
marked degree of pyorrhœa alveolaris, the gums are soft,
œdematous, and pus oozes from their edges, the teeth are
frequently loose, and the other symptoms of disease of the os
marginum are present.
Sections made from such a case suggest still more that some
excretion of lead has taken place from the bloodvessels, as the lead
particles may be seen closely related to the capillaries; but here
again there is little doubt that it is due to absorption from the
externally inflamed surfaces of the gum rather than excretion of the
vessels themselves. It is interesting to note that, in all the
experimental animals, in no instance has any Burtonian line been
observed, although the animals (cats and dogs) have been fed upon
cat’s meat, which readily undergoes putrefaction, and organisms
capable of producing sulphuretted hydrogen are invariably present in
the mouths of such animals. Notwithstanding this, the blue line has
not been observed, because the animals’ gums were entirely free
from infection or pathological changes. By causing an artificial
inflammation around the canine teeth of an animal exposed to lead
infection, a definite blue line was produced in two weeks. This line
had all the characteristics of the common Burtonian line.
This form of blue line with a deep pigmentation of the whole of the
gums, although in itself not to be regarded as diagnostic of lead
poisoning alone, rarely occurs unless the person has been subjected
to such long-continued poisoning that other symptoms have already
made their appearance.
The blue line, then, whichever type is observed, cannot in our
opinion be regarded as a diagnostic sign of lead poisoning, but is
merely an indication that the person who exhibits the phenomenon
has been at some time or other subjected to lead absorption.
There is no evidence to show that lead is excreted by the salivary
glands. A number of cases of poisoning certainly complain of a
metallic taste in the mouth, and, judging from the analogy of
mercury, it is possible that excretion of small quantities of lead may
take place through the saliva; but such a point is merely of scientific
interest, and has no practical bearing on the question of lead
poisoning. Pigmentation in the salivary glands suggesting excretion
of lead has not been observed, notwithstanding the constant
presence of potassium sulphocyanide in the parotid saliva. The blue
line of Burton may occasionally be observed, in other regions of the
body. From time to time the intestine is found stained with a bluish-
black deposit of lead sulphide, and in a case of acute poisoning
following the ingestion of a large quantity of lead acetate, and in the
cases described by Oliver of the ingestion of lead oxide (litharge),
black staining of the intestines was peculiarly well marked. In all the
animals referred to it forms a constant feature in the large intestine,
and in the chapter on Pathology this blue staining of the large
intestine is more minutely described. We have met with it once in the
post-mortem examination of a man who died of lead poisoning, and
when found it may, we think, be regarded as a diagnostic sign.
Macroscopical evidence is not sufficient; it is necessary to make a
histological examination of the tissues, when the stained areas are
seen to be associated with the lymphoid tissue in the intestinal wall,
and not only interstitial portions, but actually the interior of the cells
themselves, are found to be packed with small bluish granules. Such
a histological finding would be highly characteristic of an extreme
case of lead poisoning.
Where considerable quantities of lead have been taken into the
gastro-intestinal canal, a blue ring has occasionally been described
surrounding the anus.
About 85 per cent. of cases of lead poisoning with colic show
obstinate constipation as a leading symptom. The constipation
generally exists for several days preceding the onset of the colic,
and may persist for as long as twelve to fourteen days, while six to
seven days is a common period. There is very little that is
characteristic about the constipation other than its intractability;
indeed, it is frequently of the greatest difficulty to relieve this
symptom. No doubt the direct origin is due to the excretion of lead
into the large intestine (see p. 94).
Palpation of the colon often shows distension, with a good deal of
pain on pressure at both the hepatic and splanchnic flexures, more
particularly the latter. Distinctly painful spots may be found in the
length of the intestine, due to small ulcers, or more probably to the
minute hæmorrhages which we have elsewhere described as
associated with lead poisoning. The remaining 15 per cent. of cases
have as a prodromal symptom diarrhœa. Further, diarrhœa is not
uncommon amongst persons who are working in a lead factory, and
who do not show other signs of poisoning; and as lead taken into the
body in various ways is excreted through the fæces in common with
other heavy metals, such as iron, bismuth, nickel, as well as arsenic,
the occurrence of diarrhœa should suggest to the surgeon the
possibility of considerable lead absorption having taken place.
REFERENCES.
[1] Zinn: Berl. Klin. Woch., No. 50, 1899.
[2] Collis, E. L.: Special Report on Dangerous or Injurious Processes in
the Smelting of Materials containing Lead, p. 6. 1910.
[3] Grissolle: Thèse, Paris, 1835.
[4] Meillère, G.: Le Saturnisme, p. 122. Paris, 1903.
[5] Amino: Archiv. Ital. di Clin. Med., 1893.
[6] Chatin: Province Méd., Lyon, No. 4, 1892.
[7] Harnack: Deutsch. Med. Woch., 1897.
[8] Mayer: Virchow’s Archiv, 1881.
[9] Hunter, John: Observations of the Diseases of the Army in Jamaica.
London, 1788.
[10] Mott, F.: Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, vol. iv., p. 117.
CHAPTER VIII
EXCRETION OF LEAD
Symptomatology and Diagnosis (Continued)—Excretion of

Lead.
—The two chief channels for excretion of lead are the urine and the
fæces, while some include the saliva and the sweat.
In the case of the sweat there is not much evidence, but a few
observers, mainly French, claim to have discovered traces of lead in
the skin of lead-workers. In such a case, however, it is exceedingly
difficult to eliminate the question of surface contamination; and
although brisk peripheral circulation and transudation may possibly
carry off a certain amount of lead, the chance of this is highly
improbable.
There seems rather more evidence that the salivary glands may
eliminate lead, as a number of other substances are undoubtedly
passed in this way. Mercury certainly undergoes excretion through
the salivary glands and the mucous glands of the mouth, and it is
therefore not improbable that a metal so closely related in its
chemical, and perhaps physiological, relations may be excreted in a
similar fashion. Meillère[1] cites three instances of parotitis which
were considered to be of lead origin, and further quotes an instance
where, in chemical examination of the salivary glands after death,
lead was found in small quantities.
Chronic parotitis is not infrequently cited as a symptom in cases of
reported industrial lead poisoning, and may owe its origin to
impairment of the salivary gland by the passage of the metal.
Chronic parotitis, or even tenderness of the parotid glands, does not
occur frequently among lead-workers with symptoms of lead
absorption. Excretion, however, of lead through the salivary glands is
not of great importance, except from the occasional complaint of a
metallic taste in the mouth in chronic lead poisoning, and in such
instances possibly definite excretion of lead is taking place through
the parotid glands. A case may be cited which rather supports the
view that lead may be excreted through the salivary glands. A certain
worker engaged in a dangerous lead process from time to time, but
never as a constant symptom, showed distinct pigmentation in the
internal surfaces of both cheeks in the region of the buccal papillæ of
the parotid duct. The pigmentation was intermittent; at times a large
patch of deep blue-black pigmentation was found in the situation on
both sides, with no staining of the cheeks around or of the gum
margins, although his teeth in these regions were coated with foul
tartar. If the lead in this instance gained access through the mouth,
why should it have been deposited merely upon the cheek in this
one situation, despite the fact that several other situations in the
mouth exhibited the same conditions of bacterial decomposition for
the production of sulphuretted hydrogen? We have not observed this
pigmentation in the neighbourhood of the ducts of the submaxillary
and sublingual glands, but only in the parotid.
By far the most important organ in the excretion of lead, from the
point of view of symptomatology and diagnosis, is the kidney. Lead is
not uncommonly found in the urine of lead-workers and in the urine
of those suffering from lead poisoning. The quantity present is
usually small and in a form in which it is exceedingly difficult to
detect. Yet very pronounced changes in the kidneys may take place,
with little evidence in the urine itself that pathological changes are
taking place.
The urine of workers in lead factories is frequently high-coloured;
in fact, as a general rule the degree of pigmentation is greater than is
normal, and in those persons who show some degree of icterus, with
the curious yellowish-brown colour of the conjunctivæ,
hæmatoporphyrin may be detected on applying suitable tests.
In well-established cases of chronic poisoning, albuminuria as a
rule is found, together with certain alterations in the other
constituents of the urine, such alteration frequently making its
appearance before the definite onset of albuminuria. Further, the
changes in the eye, referred to under a special heading, have been
frequently described as albuminuric retinitis of lead origin, it being
true that eye changes are often associated with chronic changes in
the kidney.
In acute poisoning lead is generally found in the urine, but in
chronic poisoning it is by no means a common occurrence. From
time to time small quantities are excreted, and in the chemical
analysis made of the kidneys in cases of fatal lead poisoning a
certain amount of lead has frequently been noted. Wynter Blyth[2]
found in the kidneys of two white lead workers a total of 0·003
gramme. Peyrusson and Pillault[3], quoted by Meillère, found a
similar quantity, 0·003 gramme, while in experimental animals
Meillère himself found considerably less, only 0·0001 gramme;
Stevenson, in a case reported by Newton Pitt[4], 0·0086 per cent. of
lead in the cæcum and colon. Notwithstanding a small quantity of
lead which may be determined by chemical methods as present in
the urine or the kidney, very definite nephritis is set up in these
organs, obviously due to the irritative effect of the metallic poison.
The Kidneys.—Kidney disease of several types has been
described as associated with poisoning by lead, particularly with
chronic lead poisoning, where large quantities of a soluble lead salt
have been ingested. Very considerable strain is thrown upon the
kidney, with the result that the lead salts themselves are passed
through; but, as has been pointed out when dealing with acute
poisoning, the passage of lead through the kidneys does not
continue for any considerable time, and in lead poisoning of an
industrial and chronic nature no lead at all has been found in the
urine in undoubted cases. Even when present, it may be difficult to
detect unless the electrolytic method is used (see p. 174). At the
same time kidney disease undoubtedly does occur in a very large
number of workers.
All heavy metals, of which silver, mercury, iron, zinc, and finally
lead, may be quoted as examples, appear to be eliminated by the
kidney when they are present in the body in toxic doses, and often
when in small non-toxic doses, but in the latter case to a greater
extent through the bowel than through the kidney. The lead
circulating in the blood, in common with other heavy metals, may be
found chemically in the kidney, but the quantity recovered is not as
large as one would expect from the considerable amount of
inflammation often present.
In the experiments on animals, subjected to poisoning over
considerable periods, the condition of the kidney in every instance
showed distinct histological changes; and the longer such animals
had been subjected to the poisonous effects of the metal, the more
advanced were the signs of degeneration in its structure. In the
earliest cases the disease partook much more of the nature of an
interstitial nephritis, and it was in the later and more chronic stages
only that changes in the glomeruli and fibroid degeneration were to
be found, but in even these earliest cases of poisoning definite
minute interstitial hæmorrhages were to be found scattered about
the kidney. These minute hæmorrhages did not cause symptoms of
hæmaturia, as in none of the experimental animals was bloody urine
observed. On the other hand, besides definite small areas of
hæmorrhage, patches were discoverable, indicative of hæmorrhage
which had undergone fibroid change. Even in the illustrations given
by Glibert[5], there appears to be evidence that hæmorrhage had
taken place and had undergone fibroid degeneration, and there is
very little doubt that in cases of kidney disease, the preliminary
action of the poison determines small local yieldings of the vessel
walls, with leakage, often hardly amounting to true hæmorrhage, at
such spots. There is nothing opposed to the theory in the findings of
other observers; in fact, if the preliminary gross effect be leakage of
the description given, all the other lesions described by various
observers follow as a corollary.
In the kidney, as in the other regions of the body, the venioles
rather than the arterioles appear to be the preliminary site of
destruction, and microscopical observation of the sections leads to
the view that the intima of the vessels and not the media or the
muscular coat is the one affected in the first place. Capillary
hæmorrhages under these conditions are easier to understand than
if the arterioles themselves or their muscular or middle coats were
primarily affected. As degenerative changes progress, the whole of
the vessel—external and middle coats and intima—undergoes
change, ultimately resulting in the extreme narrowing and
consequent blocking of the vessels themselves. Further shrinkage
taking place in this area produces the shrunken sclerosed kidney.
Zinc in the form of oxide behaves in very much the same way
upon the kidney as does lead. An experimental animal, which was
given 0·2 gramme of zinc oxide per kilogramme body weight by
hypodermic injection in the muscles of the back, died in fifteen days,
and the kidneys showed extensive hæmorrhages—not merely the
minute and capillary hæmorrhages found in lead poisoning, but
hæmorrhages extending right through from the cortex.
Clinically, kidney disease, unless albumin be detected in the urine,
is not a prominent symptom during the progress of an attack of
chronic lead poisoning, and is to be regarded as a late symptom,
developing as the result of long-continued irritation. The difficulty of
eliminating alcoholic complication has been discussed, and there are
no specific symptoms or post-mortem signs which enable one to
distinguish alcoholic nephritis from the nephritis of lead poisoning.
In the chapter on Pathology, the effect of alcohol on the kidney
was cited as a common predisposing cause of kidney disease in
lead-workers, and the effect of alcoholic excess in the case of a
person who is already the subject of chronic lead absorption may
determine the change from absorption to definite poisoning, because
of alteration in the excreting-power of the kidney. So long as the ratio
between ingestion and excretion is maintained the balance is kept
up, and, although the tissues of the body may show signs of a
certain amount of degeneration, no definite disease is produced; but
the gastric irritation and the work thrown upon the kidney in removing
from the blood large quantities of alcohol may be sufficient to alter
this absorption-excretory balance and determine the attack of
poisoning.
Acute nephritis is rare, and cannot be regarded as a sequela of
chronic lead poisoning. Acute nephritis occurring in a lead-worker,
with the associated symptoms of general œdema of the face, eyes,
hands, feet, is of the gravest possible moment, and such a sudden
appearance of nephritis is almost invariably fatal. In chronic
nephritis, to which most of the lead cases belong, the usual signs are
to be found in the urine. Pain is rarely a symptom; and although pain
in the back is often complained of by lead-workers, examination
rarely suggests that the backache is of kidney origin, but rather the
lumbago type associated with chronic constipation. Care, however,
must be taken, when backache is complained of, in eliminating
kidney disease as a possible origin of the pain. A quantitative
examination of the urine, with reference to the total acidity and
phosphate excretion, may assist; and although this is not possible in
a routine examination of cases of lead absorption, it may be useful in
cases of suspected poisoning, especially where there are evidences
of a good deal of blood-destruction.
For convenience of description, it is better to consider the action of
lead upon the blood under two headings:
1. That of the corpuscular and other changes.
2. The action on the vessel walls, and pathological changes
secondary to disease of the vessels.
The Anæmia of Lead Poisoning and Saturnine Anæmia.—
From the early days of medicine it has been known that lead
produces poverty of the blood, and the white or yellowish-white
appearance of persons who have been subjected to long-continued
inhalation of lead dust or fumes constitutes striking evidence of
blood-alteration. At the same time it is a common fact that the facial
pallor does not always go hand in hand with diminution in the
hæmoglobin. The conjunctiva may be observed as a test for colour,
and here may be seen the curious vaso-motor disturbances which
are partially responsible for the facial pallor.
Facial pallor in some forms of lead cachexia owes its origin to
interference with the nerve-supply to the vessel walls, and it is a
noticeable fact that a lead-worker whose face shows unmistakable
signs of pallor rapidly flushes when spoken to suddenly or if mentally
disturbed. The anæmia of lead poisoning is, however, a very definite
fact. All observers are agreed that a marked diminution in the
hæmoglobin of the blood takes place, to as low, often, as 35 per
cent., without necessitating abstention from work, and without any
serious interference with respiration, even when performing heavy
manual labour.
In persons in whom the hæmoglobin is diminished there is
frequently a yellowish or icterous hue of the skin, particularly the
conjunctiva, due to staining of the tissues with altered blood-pigment.
The hæmoglobin derivative—hæmatoporphyrin—can also be found
in the urine of persons suffering from a marked degree of reduction
in the blood-pigment, and may be taken as confirmatory evidence of
destructive or hæmolytic anæmia. The symptom is, however, a later
one than is frequently stated by the French observers, and can only
be regarded as a later and confirmatory symptom, and not as an
early one of diagnostic importance.
As would be expected from the destruction of blood-pigment, the
morbid process leaves its imprint upon the individual red cells, and
basophile staining of a number of the red corpuscles is to be found in
a very large proportion of persons poisoned by lead. Moritz[6] first
pointed out that these alterations in the red cells were present in lead
poisoning. The basophile granules are by no means confined to lead
anæmia, but are to be found in any severe secondary anæmia
where hæmolysis has taken place, as in nitrobenzene and aniline
poisoning, carbon bisulphide, etc. In addition to the basophile-
staining granules in the blood-cells, the whole corpuscle may take on
a bluish-grey tint when stained. The best stain to demonstrate these
bodies is Leishman’s modification of Romanowski’s, and there is no
occasion to stain the blood in the fresh condition, as the presence of
the granules may be demonstrated easily, even after two or three
months. Schmidt[7] thinks that if the basophile corpuscles reach 100
per million red cells the cause is undoubtedly lead poisoning.
Alterations are also to be observed in the structure of the red
blood-cells in addition to the basophile staining. Distinct vacuoles
appear, but as a general observation—first noted by Glibert[8]—the
blood appears to be more resistant to damage when making the
films, and the red corpuscles themselves seem to be more elastic
than normal (increased viscosity). Alteration in the shapes of the
corpuscles also takes place, and not only small varieties—
microcytes—but also the large macrocytes are to be found.
Nucleated red cells are rare.
The diminution in the number of the red cells is not so pronounced
as would be supposed from the diminution in the quantity of
hæmoglobin; but in the later stages, as in other secondary anæmias
of toxic origin, the total quantity of red cells sinks to a count of a
million or less per cubic millimetre.
According to Garrod, etc., the alkalinity of the blood is decreased
in lead absorption.
The white blood-corpuscles do not show any change in their
structure by the ordinary methods of staining, but they apparently
show, as do the red cells, more resistance to injury in spreading
blood-films—that is to say, the viscosity of the blood, which is
apparently increased in lead poisoning, is also exhibited by the white
cells. In the early stages of lead poisoning, more especially in acute
lead poisoning, distinct leucocytosis may be observed, such a
leucocytosis showing itself rather in relation to the lymphocytes than
to the polymorphonuclear cells. In addition, the large mononuclear
cells are also greatly increased, and a differential blood-count from a
case of lead poisoning which also shows the presence of basophile
granules in the cells invariably brings to light a definite increase in
the percentage number of lymphocytes, and a decrease in the
number of polymorphonuclears, and this even when the total
leucocyte count is not outside the ordinary limit of normal variation.
On the whole, the number of leucocytes present in the blood of
persons suffering from lead absorption will always be found to tend
rather towards the higher than the lower limit of normal variation.
At times a considerable increase in the number of eosinophile
cells is found in films made from persons suffering from lead
poisoning, particularly when there has been prolonged obstinate
constipation. The count is never high, and is rarely more than 5 or 6
per cent. It is not usual to find any of the other forms of white cells in
the blood, and in this way the anæmia of lead poisoning may be
easily differentiated from the other forms, such as pernicious
anæmia, lymphatic leucæmia, spleno-medullary lymphocythæmia.
By examining a number of blood-films derived from persons
subjected to lead absorption, and shuffled with a number of films
from normal persons, one of us (K. W. G.) has been able to separate
out, by the above method, the blood-films taken from the suspected
persons. The criteria in the determination were—
1. The presence of basophile granules.
2. Total basophile staining and size of corpuscles—poikilocytosis.
3. Differential count, showing increase in a number of lymphocytes
and large mononuclear cells.
Determination of the presence of lead poisoning from the
examination of the blood, therefore, receives considerable support;
but at the same time it is open to some objection from the fact that it
is not in lead poisoning alone that basophile granules make their
appearance in the blood. Any cause producing destruction of the red
blood-cells, and even their depletion by prolonged hæmorrhage, is
followed by an increase in the output of the red cells from the bone-
marrow[9]. During this output of extra blood-cells from the bone-
marrow, numerous cells gain entrance to the blood, in which the
nuclei are not entirely degenerated; and it is these particular cells
which give the phenomena of basophile staining, and their presence
is rather indicative of the increased blood-formation that is
progressing, following blood-destruction, rather than direct evidence
of blood-destruction itself.
In a number of forms of anæmia—in fact, in almost all forms of
severe secondary anæmia, and certainly all forms of anæmia
associated with hæmolysis—the presence of basophile granules
may be demonstrated. They are commonly found in pernicious
anæmia, secondary septic anæmia, and the anæmia of malaria.
Practically, the use of basophile granules in the presence of the
blood of lead-workers is being utilized in Leipzig for the early
detection of lead poisoning. By means of the Zeiss eyepiece
enumeration disc the relative number of basophile granule cells to
normal red cells is determined; and when the number of red cells
containing basophile granules exceeds 100 per million red cells, the
individual from whom the blood is derived is regarded as in a
presaturnine condition, and given proper treatment. By this means it
has been found possible to diminish the number of persons actually
suffering from lead poisoning.
The adoption of such a method has some drawbacks, especially in
view of the fact that substances other than lead may cause the
basophilia. At the same time there is no doubt that, if all persons
employed in lead trades who showed basophilia were suspended
from their employment at the present time, a very large number of
persons would be dealt with. Yet the practical application of this
method is by no means impossible under industrial conditions, and
would at any rate give a definite test upon which diagnosis could be
made, though it would be quite impossible to expect the general
practitioner or the certifying surgeon to estimate the basophilic
content. All such estimations would necessarily have to be
performed at some properly equipped pathological laboratory, such
as at the present time many municipal authorities possess.
These facts are of importance, as a differential count of the white
cells, together with a careful inspection of a blood-film for basophile
staining and alteration in the red cells, as well as other phenomena
noted, together with an estimation of the hæmoglobin contained in
the blood, are to our mind of considerably more value in the
diagnosis of lead poisoning than is the quantitative estimation of the
red or white cells. The following tables give a certain number of
enumerations, etc., made from the blood of lead-poisoned persons:
BLOOD-EXAMINATION OF LEAD ANÆMIA—DIFFERENTIAL
COUNT PER CENT.
No. Hb. R.B.C. W.B.C. Index. A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H. I. J. K. W

Per
Cent.
1 60 3,460,000 7,000 0·7 63 20 6 3 8 0 + - + - + Paint
2 45 1,707,000 9,000 1·4 46 38 8 1 7 0 + + + + + Paint
3 55 2,620,000 20,000 1·0 58 32 4 2 4 0 + - + - + Paint

4 60 1,334,000 10,000 3·0 55 35 8 0 5 0 + - + + + Pack
wh
lea
5 54 3,210,000 8,000 0·9 52 41 4 2 1 0 + + + - + Grind
6 60 1,347,000 10,000 3·0 59 32 3 2 3 1 + + + + + White
7 65 3,760,000 9,000 0·9 Press
sto
8 65 2,200,000 10,000 0·7 + + Zinc
dis
stil
9 50 3,860,000 8,000 0·6 - + + White
bed
10 60 3,420,000 9,000 1·0 76 16 13 3 0 0 + + Pack
A = Polymorphonuclears.
B = Lymphocytes.
C = Large hyaline.
D = Eosinophile.
E = Transitional.
F = Basophile.
G = Microcytes.
H = Megalocytes.
I = Poikilocytes.
J = Nucleated red.
K = Plehn’s bodies.
Corpuscles, Thoma-Zeiss.
Hæmaglobin, Haldane’s instrument.
Films, stained Leishman.
The form of lead inhaled is immaterial, and definite poisoning with

alteration in the blood may be occasioned, not only with white lead
and lead fume, but also even with lead sulphate and lead silicate.
The following table gives the result of blood-counts performed
upon the blood of persons employed in the manufacture of a paint
erroneously supposed to be innocuous, as the base consisted of
lead sulphate and oxysulphate:
Differential Counts per Cent. of Blood-Films from Lead
Sulphate Workers.
No. A.[A] B. C. D. E. F. G. H. I. J. K.
1 55 16 5 1 0 + + - + + +
3 57 16 26 1 0 + + - - + -
6 67 23 9 1 0 + + + + + +
7 72 18 5 5 0 + - - - + +
8 65 26 7 2 0 + + - - + +
Sand-papering surfaces of painted objects, walls, coaches, etc.,
also throws a definite amount of lead dust into the air whenever the
sand-papered paint contains lead. The following table gives the
differential counts of the blood of persons employed in the furniture-
painting trades:
Differential Counts per Cent. of Blood-Films from
Furniture-Makers (Sand-Paperers).
No. A.[A] B. C. D. E. F. G. H. I. J. K.
10 48 39 11 1 1 + + + + + +
13 54 35 9 2 0 + + + + + -
15 53 32 13 1 1 + - - - - -
16 58 30 9 3 0 + - - + - -
19 56 31 12 0 1 + - - + + -
[A]
A = Polymorphonuclears.
B = Lymphocytes.
C = Mononuclears.
D = Eosinophiles.
E = Myelocytes.
F = Basophiles.
G = Microcytes.
H = Megalocytes.
= Poikilocytes.
J = Vacuolated red cells.
K = Normoblasts.
Circulatory System.—A very large number of the symptoms

referable to chronic and well-defined lead poisoning are referable to
circulatory lesions, and, as has been elsewhere pointed out, the
ultimate nerve degeneration occurring in various parts of the body is
probably but a final symptom of the earlier hæmorrhage which has
taken place. Certain symptoms are, however, more closely related to
the circulation than others, and may therefore be more conveniently
grouped together under the present heading. The smaller changes,
many of them connected with special organs (such, for instance, as
the eye) or particular regions (as the mesenteric vessels), have been
already referred to in dealing with colic and eye changes. Vaso-
motor changes precede the actual change in the vessel walls
themselves. On the other hand, the alterations in the structure of the
liver, lung, spleen, and more especially the kidney, are secondary to
change in the structure of the walls of the vessels themselves.
Vaso-motor disturbances may or may not be of nervous origin,
although the former view is probably correct, and it is also equally
possible that the direct affection of the vessels is associated with the
nerve irritation. On the other hand, direct inflammation of the vessel
walls, resulting in obliterative arteritis, in arterio-sclerosis, and
degeneration and exudation in the kidney, lung, and liver, are
practically due to degenerative changes either in the intima or the
middle coats of the finer vessels. The common symptoms of arterio-
sclerosis, vertigo, headache, and pulsation in the vessels, and of the
persistent headache already referred to, all suggest changes taking
place in the vessels complicated by œdema. In the early stages of
kidney degeneration, however, it is common to find an interstitial
nephritis due apparently to exudation from the vessel walls. Such an
hypothesis is to some extent supported by the somewhat allied
condition of engorgement and fibroid change in the liver and lung,
and to a lesser extent in the spleen. In the lung, even in persons not
exposed to inhalation of lead, and in animals, as pointed out by
Glibert, secondary changes in the lung follow lead intoxication, such
changes taking the form of emphysema and generalized fibrosis;
whilst the liver is engorged with blood, and later undergoes similar
degenerative changes. The bloodvessels in these organs are found
to have lost a considerable amount of their elasticity, to have yielded
here and there, and in other places to be completely closed by
obliterative arteritis. Microscopical hæmorrhages are to be found
mainly in the veins leading from the capillaries. In the kidney such
vessel changes as are outlined are the precursors of disease, and
albumin is found in the urine, but the quantity is rarely very large.
Casts are not common, and the amount of lead present in the urine
may be exceedingly small, difficult to trace, and in many cases
entirely absent.
In the later stages of chronic saturnism the heart may show
degenerative changes. Microscopical examination of the heart
muscle shows that alteration of the fibres of the muscles takes place
in a manner similar to that of the voluntary muscles. Disease of the
heart valves is uncommon; alterations in the heart sounds are
infrequent; the clinical picture of the cardiac condition is that of a
“flabby” heart.
REFERENCES.
[1] Meillère, G.: Le Saturnisme. Paris, 1903.
[2] Blyth, Wynter: Proc. Chem. Soc, 1887-88.
[3] Peyrusson and Pillault: Meillère’s Le Saturnisme, chap. iv.
[4] Newton Pitt: Trans. Path. Soc, No. 42, 1891.
[5] Glibert: Le Saturnisme Expérimental: Extrait des Rapports Ann. de
l’Inspect. du Travail, Brussels, 1906.
[6] Moritz: Mediz. Woch., St. Petersburg, 1901.
[7] Schmidt: Arch. für Hygiene, vol. lxiii., p. 1, 1907.
[8] Glibert: Ibid.
[9] Boycott: Journal of Hygiene, 1910.
CHAPTER IX
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Symptomatology and Diagnosis (Continued)—The Nervous

System.
—The most definite objective symptoms of chronic poisoning by
means of lead are those of the nervous system. From the time of
Tanquerel[1] affections of the hands and fingers and the muscles of
the back have all been well known. Associated with the paralysis are
local vaso-motor effects, such as cyanosed condition of the skin over
the paralyzed muscles, cold hands, etc.; whilst later, if the paralysis
be severe and persists, atrophic changes take place in the skin,
muscles, bone, whilst definite contracture occurs from unopposed
contraction of the unaffected muscles. Paralysis will therefore be
associated with two of the great systems into which the body is
divided for the purposes of medical and physiological description—
namely, the muscular and the nervous—and, on account of the
similarity of the clinical symptoms of lead paralysis, attention has
been drawn rather to the nerve changes preceding muscular
paralysis and degeneration than to other influences affecting the
nerve inflammation.
Lancereaux[2] considered that lead poisoning resulting in paralysis
takes the form of a gradual impregnation of the nervous tissue with
lead salts, until such a time as degenerative effects are set up, and
with it muscular paralysis.
Meillère[3], who has given much attention to the ætiology of lead
poisoning, as well as to the clinical study of the disease, considers
that plumbism may be divided into three periods:
(a) Impregnation of the tissues of the body, the nervous tissue
being the chief one affected by lead salts.

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Cloud Computing Service Models������������������������������������������������������������������39

Chapter 2: The Practical Concepts of Machine Learning��������������������65

Customer Experience Enrichment�����������������������������������������������������������������������93

Machine Learning to Prevent Money Laundering����������������������������������������122

Travel and Communications������������������������������������������������������������������������157

Chapter 3: Machine Learning Algorithms and Their Relationship

The Decision Tree Algorithm������������������������������������������������������������������������192

Chapter 4: Technology Stack for Machine Learning and

Chapter 5: Industrial Applications of Machine Learning������������������333

Chapter 6: I Am the Future: Machine Learning in Action������������������411

Machine Learning Adoption Scorecard�������������������������������������������������������������450

Chapter 7: Innovation, KPIs, Best Practices, and More for

Evolving Technologies and Machine Learning��������������������������������������������������489

Chapter 8: Do Not Forget Me: The Human Side of Machine

Machine Learning-Specific Roles and Responsibilities������������������������������������527

Chapter 9: Quantum Computers, Computing, and Machine

Amazon Web Services (AWS) Runs Braket, A Quantum Computer as a

Chapter 10: Let’s Wrap Up: The Final Destination�����������������������������621

Let’s Integrate with

• What is machine learning?

• What is the business case for machine learning?

© Dr. Patanjali Kashyap 2024 1

• How do we use machine learning?

• What are the key features of machine learning?

• Where can we implement machine learning?

• What are the major techniques/types used in machine

• Why is machine learning required in business?

These questions are answered in detail in this and the following

 our Business, My Technology, and Our

In any business scenario, results and outcomes have multiple

It is worth mentioning here that this separation of technology and

General Introduction to Machine Learning

Here is where ML and AI enter the picture. Artificial intelligence (AI)

This also empowers decision-makers to create some great strategies.

important to take a look at the level of learning analytics. I give a brief

• Descriptive: What has happened and what is

• Diagnostic: Why did this happen? This examines the

• Predictive: What will happen? This provides different

• Prescriptive: What should I do and why should I do

Recent developments in the field of cognitive computing have

The Details of Machine Learning

• Machine learning is concerned with the design and

• Machine learning inherited and borrowed on concepts

Here are some important highlights about machine learning:

• Machine learning is a kind of artificial intelligence

• Software learns from past experiences through

• Software can improve its performances by use of

• Machine learning algorithms have the ability to

• Machine learning is about developing code to enable

• A computer program or algorithm is treated as a

• A machine learning program is successful if its

Machine learning is focused on using advanced computational

Figure 1-1. Traditional programming compared to machine

• When the system needs to be dynamic, self-learning,

• At the time of multiple iterative and complex

• If a decision has to be made instantly and in real time.

About the Technical Reviewer��xxi

Chapter 1: Let’s Integrate with Machine Learning��1

Cloud Computing Service Models��39

Chapter 2: The Practical Concepts of Machine Learning��65

Customer Experience Enrichment��93

Machine Learning to Prevent Money Laundering��122

Travel and Communications��157

The Decision Tree Algorithm��192

Chapter 5: Industrial Applications of Machine Learning��333

Chapter 6: I Am the Future: Machine Learning in Action��411

Machine Learning Adoption Scorecard��450

Evolving Technologies and Machine Learning��489

Machine Learning-Specific Roles and Responsibilities��527

Chapter 10: Let’s Wrap Up: The Final Destination��621

our Business, My Technology, and Our

General Introduction to Machine Learning

The Details of Machine Learning

Characteristics of Machine Learning

urrent Business Challenges for

andling, Managing, and Using Complex

ynamic Business Scenarios, Systems,

Unpredictable System Behavior

T he Needs and Business Drivers

What Are Big Data and Big Data Analytics?

The Major Sources of Big Data