Psychology for VCE Units 3 and 4, 8e

LearnON and Print 8th Edition John

Grivas
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/psychology-for-vce-units-3-and-4-8e-learnon-and-prin
t-8th-edition-john-grivas/
PSYCHOLOGY
VCE UNITS 3 AND 4
EIGHTH EDITION

John GRIVAS

CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS

Lynne Kelly

Nicole Letch
Eighth edition published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd
155 Cremorne Street, Cremorne, Vic 3121
First edition published 1996
Second edition published 1999
Third edition published 2004
Fourth edition published 2010
Fifth edition published 2013
Sixth edition published 2017
Seventh edition published 2019
Typeset in 10.5/13 pt TimesLTStd
© Bremar Holdings Pty Ltd, 2023
The moral rights of the authors have been asserted.
ISBN: 978-1-119-88810-9
Reproduction and communication for educational purposes
The Australian Copyright Act 1968 (the Act) allows a maximum of one chapter or 10% of the pages of this work, whichever is
the greater, to be reproduced and/or communicated by any educational institution for its educational purposes provided that the
educational institution (or the body that administers it) has given a remuneration notice to Copyright Agency Limited (CAL).
Reproduction and communication for other purposes
Except as permitted under the Act (for example, a fair dealing for the purposes of study, research, criticism or review), no part
of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, communicated or transmitted in any form or by any means without
prior written permission. All inquiries should be made to the publisher.
Trademarks
Jacaranda, the JacPLUS logo, the learnON, assessON and studyON logos, Wiley and the Wiley logo, and any related trade dress
are trademarks or registered trademarks of John Wiley & Sons Inc. and/or its affiliates in the United States, Australia and in other
countries, and may not be used without written permission. All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners.
Front cover images: © Boguslaw Mazur / Shutterstock
Illustrated by diacriTech and Wiley Composition Services
Typeset in India by diacriTech
This suite of print and digital resources may contain images of, or references to, members of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
communities who are, or may be, deceased. These images and references have been included to help Australian students from all
cultural backgrounds develop a better understanding of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples’ history, culture and lived
experience. Wherever possible, culturally sensitive material has been flagged with a disclaimer at the beginning of a subtopic to
help teachers and students navigate the material.
Contents
About this resource��������������������������������������������������������� vii
Acknowledgements������������������������������������������������������� xiv
Exam terminology1
PSYCHOLOGY — Key science skills and
research methods
1 Key science skills and research
methods in psychology3
1.1 Overview������������������������������������������������������������4
1.2 Aims, hypotheses and variables���������������������7
1.2.1 Aims�������������������������������������������������������7
1.2.2 Hypotheses��������������������������������������������8
1.2.3 Variables�����������������������������������������������12
1.3 Scientific investigation methodologies��������22
1.3.1 Types of research methods�������������������22
1.3.2 Population, sample and sampling���������23
1.3.3 Sampling techniques����������������������������28
1.4 Controlled experiments���������������������������������36
1.4.1 Experimental and control groups�����������36
1.4.2 Random allocation��������������������������������37
1.4.3 Experimental designs����������������������������40
1.4.4 Experimental settings����������������������������44
1.4.5 Advantages and limitations
of experiments��������������������������������������45
1.5 Correlational studies��������������������������������������49
1.5.1 Correlation and causation���������������������52
1.5.2 Using correlations to identify important
factors and to make predictions������������53
1.5.3 Advantages and limitations of correlational
studies��������������������������������������������������53
1.6 Self-reports�����������������������������������������������������57
1.6.1 Interviews���������������������������������������������58
1.6.2 Questionnaires��������������������������������������59
1.6.3 Focus groups����������������������������������������61
1.6.4 Advantages and limitations of
self-reports�������������������������������������������62
1.7 Observational studies������������������������������������66
1.7.1 Natural and contrived settings���������������68
1.7.2 Participant and non-participant
observation�������������������������������������������69
1.7.3 Advantages and limitations of
observational studies����������������������������70
1.8 Case studies���������������������������������������������������75
1.8.1 Advantages and limitations of case
studies��������������������������������������������������76
1.9 Simulation studies������������������������������������������80
1.9.1 Advantages and limitations of
simulation studies���������������������������������81
1.10 Sources of error and their control or
minimisation���������������������������������������������������84
1.10.1 Random and systematic errors�������������84
1.10.2 Extraneous and confounding
variables�����������������������������������������������87
1.11 Types of extraneous variables and
their control�����������������������������������������������������93
1.11.1 Participant variables������������������������������93
1.11.2 Situational variables������������������������������95
1.11.3 Demand characteristics����������������������101
1.11.4 Experimenter effects���������������������������104
1.11.5 Placebo effect�������������������������������������108
1.12 Ethical considerations in psychological
research and reporting��������������������������������112
1.12.1 Defining ethics and ethical standards��112
1.12.2 Ethical concepts and guidelines����������113
1.13 Types of data�������������������������������������������������120
1.13.1 Primary and secondary data���������������120
1.13.2 Quantitative and qualitative data���������121
1.13.3 Objective and subjective data�������������123
1.14 Data organisation and presentation�����������126
1.14.1 Tables�������������������������������������������������127
1.14.2 Graphs�����������������������������������������������128
1.15 Evaluation of data and research�����������������133
1.15.1 Percentages���������������������������������������133
1.15.2 Measures of central tendency�������������135
1.15.3 Standard deviation as a measure of
variability���������������������������������������������138
1.15.4 Outliers�����������������������������������������������141
1.15.5 Reliability and validity��������������������������143
1.15.6 Conclusions and generalisations���������148
1.16 Review�����������������������������������������������������������153
HOW DOES EXPERIENCE
UNIT 3
AFFECT BEHAVIOUR AND MENTAL
PROCESSES?162
2 Nervous system functioning165
2.1 Overview��������������������������������������������������������166
2.2 Roles of different sub-divisions of the central
and peripheral nervous systems�����������������170
2.2.1 Central nervous system����������������������170
2.2.2 Peripheral nervous system������������������173
2.3 Conscious and unconscious responses to
sensory stimuli����������������������������������������������184
2.4 Role of neurotransmitters����������������������������189
2.4.1 Glutamate�������������������������������������������191
2.4.2 Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA)����192
2.5 Role of neuromodulators�����������������������������195
2.5.1 Dopamine�������������������������������������������195
2.5.2 Serotonin��������������������������������������������197
CONTENTS iii
 2.6 Neural mechanisms of memory formation
and learning��������������������������������������������������201
2.6.1 Synaptic plasticity and changes to
connections between neurons������������201
2.6.2 Sprouting, rerouting and pruning���������203
2.6.3 Long-term potentiation and long-term
depression������������������������������������������204
2.7 Review�����������������������������������������������������������209
3 Stress as an example of a
psychobiological process217
3.1 Overview��������������������������������������������������������218
3.2 Internal and external stressors�������������������220
3.3 Acute and chronic stress�����������������������������221
3.4 Fight-or-flight-or-freeze response in
acute stress��������������������������������������������������223
3.4.1 Fight or flight reactions������������������������224
3.4.2 Freeze reaction�����������������������������������226
3.5 Role of cortisol in chronic stress����������������230
3.6 The gut–brain axis (GBA)�����������������������������234
3.6.1 Gut–brain axis�������������������������������������234
3.6.2 Gut microbiota������������������������������������234
3.6.3 Links with stress���������������������������������235
3.7 Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
as a biological model of stress�������������������238
3.7.1 Stages of the GAS������������������������������239
3.7.2 Strengths and limitations of the GAS���240
3.8 Stress as a psychological process�������������245
3.8.1 Lazarus and Folkman’s Transactional
Model of Stress and Coping���������������245
3.8.2 Strengths and limitations of the Lazarus
and Folkman model����������������������������248
3.9 Strategies for coping with stress����������������252
3.9.1 Context-specific effectiveness�������������253
3.9.2 Coping flexibility����������������������������������253
3.9.3 Approach and avoidance coping
strategies��������������������������������������������255
3.9.4 Comparing effectiveness of approach and
avoidance strategies���������������������������256
3.10 Review�����������������������������������������������������������261
4 Approaches to understand
learning269
4.1 Overview��������������������������������������������������������270
4.2 Behaviourist approaches to learning ��������273
4.3 Classical conditioning as a three-phase
process����������������������������������������������������������274
4.3.1 The three-phase model of classical
conditioning����������������������������������������276
4.3.2 Factors that influence classical
conditioning����������������������������������������279
4.4 Operant conditioning as a three-phase
process����������������������������������������������������������284
4.4.1 The three-phase model of operant
conditioning����������������������������������������285
4.4.2 Reinforcement������������������������������������289
iv CONTENTS
4.4.3 Punishment����������������������������������������292
4.4.4 Factors that influence the effectiveness
of reinforcement and punishment��������294
4.5 Comparing classical and operant
conditioning��������������������������������������������������299
4.5.1 The role of the learner�������������������������299
4.5.2 Timing of the stimulus and response���299
4.5.3 The nature of the response�����������������300
4.6 Social-cognitive approaches to learning���304
4.7 Observational learning���������������������������������305
4.8 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander ways of
knowing���������������������������������������������������������310
4.9 Review�����������������������������������������������������������313
5 The psychobiological process of
memory325
5.1 Overview��������������������������������������������������������326
5.2 Atkinson–Shiffrin multi-store model of
memory���������������������������������������������������������328
5.2.1 Sensory memory���������������������������������330
5.2.2 Short-term memory (STM)������������������335
5.2.3 Long-term memory (LTM)��������������������339
5.3 Brain areas involved in long-term implicit and
explicit memories�����������������������������������������346
5.3.1 Hippocampus�������������������������������������346
5.3.2 Amygdala�������������������������������������������348
5.3.3 Neocortex�������������������������������������������351
5.3.4 Basal ganglia��������������������������������������353
5.3.5 Cerebellum�����������������������������������������355
5.4 Role of episodic and semantic memory in
retrieving autobiographical events and in
constructing possible imagined futures�����360
5.4.1 Alzheimer’s disease�����������������������������360
5.4.2 Aphantasia������������������������������������������363
5.5 Comparing use of mnemonics by written and
oral cultures��������������������������������������������������367
5.5.1 Acronyms�������������������������������������������368
5.5.2 Acrostics���������������������������������������������369
5.5.3 Method of loci�������������������������������������369
5.5.4 Aboriginal peoples’ use of songlines���370
5.6 Review�����������������������������������������������������������375
HOW IS MENTAL WELLBEING
UNIT 4
SUPPORTED AND MAINTAINED?382
6 The demand for sleep385
6.1 Overview��������������������������������������������������������386
6.2 Sleep as a psychological construct������������390
6.3 Measurement of physiological responses
associated with sleep����������������������������������392
6.3.1 Electroencephalography (EEG)������������393
6.3.2 Electromyography (EMG)��������������������394
6.3.3 Electro-oculargraphy (EOG)����������������395
6.3.4 Sleep diaries���������������������������������������395
6.3.5 Video monitoring���������������������������������397
 6.4 Regulation of sleep–wake patterns by
internal biological mechanisms������������������400
6.4.1 Circadian rhythms�������������������������������401
6.4.2 Ultradian rhythms��������������������������������402
6.4.3 Suprachiasmatic nucleus��������������������403
6.4.4 Melatonin��������������������������������������������404
6.5 NREM and REM sleep����������������������������������407
6.5.1 NREM sleep����������������������������������������408
6.5.2 REM sleep������������������������������������������410
6.6 Differences in, and explanations for, the
demands for sleep across the life span�����415
6.6.1 Newborns and infants�������������������������416
6.6.2 Children����������������������������������������������417
6.6.3 Adolescents����������������������������������������417
6.6.4 Adults�������������������������������������������������417
6.7 Review�����������������������������������������������������������422
7 Importance of sleep in mental
wellbeing429
7.1 Overview��������������������������������������������������������430
7.2 Effects of partial sleep deprivation�������������432
7.2.1 Affective functioning����������������������������434
7.2.2 Behavioural functioning�����������������������436
7.2.3 Cognitive functioning��������������������������438
7.3 Comparing effects of one night of full sleep
deprivation vs blood-alcohol concentrations
of 0.05 and 0.10���������������������������������������������442
7.3.1 Cognitive effects���������������������������������442
7.3.2 Affective effects�����������������������������������443
7.4 Circadian rhythm sleep disorders���������������446
7.4.1 Delayed Sleep Phase Syndrome (DSPS)
�����������������������������������������������������������447
7.4.2 Advanced Sleep Phase Disorder (ASPD)
�����������������������������������������������������������447
7.4.3 Shift work disorder������������������������������451
7.4.4 Treatment of circadian rhythm sleep
disorders through bright light therapy��455
7.5 Improving sleep hygiene and adaption to
zeitgebers to improve sleep–wake patterns
and mental wellbeing�����������������������������������460
7.5.1 Improving sleep hygiene���������������������460
7.5.2 Adaptation to zeitgebers���������������������461
7.6 Review�����������������������������������������������������������468
8 Defining mental wellbeing475
8.1 Overview��������������������������������������������������������476
8.2 Ways of considering mental wellbeing�������478
8.2.1 Levels of functioning���������������������������478
8.2.2 Resilience�������������������������������������������480
8.2.3 The Social and Emotional Wellbeing
(SEWB) view of mental wellbeing for
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
peoples�����������������������������������������������482
8.3 Mental wellbeing as a continuum���������������486
8.4 Mental wellbeing as a product of internal and
external factors��������������������������������������������489
8.5 Variations for individuals experiencing stress,
anxiety and phobia���������������������������������������492
8.6 Review�����������������������������������������������������������497
9 Biopsychosocial approach to explain
specific phobia501
9.1 Overview��������������������������������������������������������502
9.2 Biological factors�����������������������������������������507
9.2.1 GABA dysfunction������������������������������507
9.2.2 Long-term potentiation�����������������������509
9.3 Psychological factors����������������������������������511
9.3.1 Behavioural models����������������������������511
9.3.2 Cognitive biases���������������������������������515
9.4 Social factors������������������������������������������������519
9.4.1 Specific environmental triggers�����������519
9.4.2 Stigma around seeking treatment�������520
9.5 Evidence-based interventions in the
treatment of specific phobia�����������������������522
9.5.1 Biological interventions�����������������������523
9.5.2 Psychological interventions�����������������528
9.5.3 Social interventions�����������������������������535
9.6 Review�����������������������������������������������������������540
10 Maintenance of mental wellbeing547
10.1 Overview��������������������������������������������������������548
10.2 Biological protective factors�����������������������550
10.2.1 Adequate nutritional intake and hydration
�����������������������������������������������������������550
10.2.2 Adequate sleep�����������������������������������553
10.3 Psychological protective factors����������������555
10.3.1 Cognitive behavioural strategies����������555
10.3.2 Mindfulness meditation�����������������������559
10.4 Social protective factors������������������������������561
10.4.1 Support from family, friends and
community������������������������������������������561
10.5 Cultural determinants for wellbeing of
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
peoples����������������������������������������������������������566
10.5.1 Cultural determinants��������������������������566
10.5.2 Cultural continuity�������������������������������566
10.5.3 Self-determination�������������������������������568
10.6 Review�����������������������������������������������������������570
Glossary����������������������������������������������������������������������� 575
References�������������������������������������������������������
Index���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 587
CONTENTS v
About this resource

Everything you need

for your students
to succeed

PSYCHOLOGY
VCE UNITS 3 AND 4 | EIGHTH EDITION

Developed by expert Victorian teachers

for VCE students
Tried, tested and trusted. The NEW Jacaranda VCE Psychology series continues to
deliver curriculum-aligned material that caters to students of all abilities.

Completely aligned to the VCE Psychology Study Design

Our expert author team ensures 100 per cent coverage of the new VCE Psychology Study Design
(2023–2027).
Everything you need for your students to succeed, including:
• NEW! Access targeted question sets including all relevant past VCAA exam questions since 2013.
Ensure assessment preparedness with practice SACs for Areas of Study.
• NEW! Additional information and case studies available in learnON for extension and further study.

• NEW! Teacher-led videos unpack concepts and explain VCAA exam questions.

ABOUT THIS RESOURCE vii

 Learn online with Australia’s most
Everything you need • Trusted, curriculum-aligned theory
• Engaging, rich multimedia
for each of your lessons • All the teacher support resources you need
in one simple view • Deep insights into progress
• Immediate feedback for students
• Create custom assignments in just a few clicks.

Roles of brain areas

Practical teaching advice and ideas for

each lesson provided in teachON 4.4 Roles of brain areas 4.4 Learnin

Each lesson linked to the Key

Knowledge (and Key Skills) from the
VCE Psychology Study Design

Reading content and rich media

including embedded videos
and interactivities

viii ABOUT THIS RESOURCE

 powerful learning tool, learnON

Teacher and student views

Textbook questions

ng Activity 1
Answers and sample responses for
every question.

Digital documents

Teacher-led videos

Interactivities

Video eLessons

Enhanced teacher support resources

Interactive questions with

immediate feedback

ABOUT THIS RESOURCE ix

Get the most from your
online resources
Online, these new Trusted Jacaranda theory, plus tools
to support teaching and make learning
editions are the more engaging, personalised and visible.
complete package

Each topic is linked to

Key Knowledge and
Key Skills from the
VCE Psychology Study
Design.

Interactive glossary
terms help develop and
support literacy.

onResources link to targeted

digital resources including video
eLessons and weblinks.

x ABOUT THIS RESOURCE

learnMORE — additional
information and case studies
available for extension and
further study.

A variety of question sets; Review, Multiple-choice,

Analysis and evaluation, and VCAA exam questions
encourage students to practise and apply the skills and
concepts they are studying.

Teacher-led videos that explain how to approach exam

questions, including VCAA exam questions

• Online and offline question sets

contain practice questions,
exam-style questions and past VCAA
exam questions with exemplary
responses and marking guides.
• Every question has immediate
feedback to help students to
overcome misconceptions as they
occur and to study independently —
in class and at home.

ABOUT THIS RESOURCE xi

Topic reviews End-of-topic exam questions
include relevant past VCE exam
questions and are supported by
Topic reviews include teacher-led videos.
online summaries
and topic level review
exercises, including
exam questions
that cover multiple
concepts.

Get exam-ready!
Students can start
preparing from
lesson one, with
exam questions
embedded in every
lesson — with
relevant past VCAA
exam questions
since 2013.

Practice, customisable SACs

available to build student
competence and confidence.

with the Jacaranda Supercourse

Build the course you’ve always wanted with the
Jacaranda Supercourse. You can combine all
Psychology Units 1 to 4, so students can move
backwards and forwards freely. Or combine junior
science with Psychology Units 3 & 4 for custom
elective courses. The possibilities are endless!

xii ABOUT THIS RESOURCE

A wealth of teacher resources

Enhanced teacher support resources,

including:
• work programs and curriculum grids
• teaching advice and additional activities
• quarantined topic tests (with solutions)
• quarantined SACs (with worked
solutions and marking rubrics).

Customise and assign

A testmaker enables you to create
custom tests from the complete bank of
thousands of questions (including past
VCAA exam questions).

Reports and results

Data analytics and instant reports

provide data-driven insights into
performance across the entire course.

Show students (and their parents or

carers) their own assessment data in
fine detail. You can filter their results to
identify areas of strength and weakness.

ABOUT THIS RESOURCE xiii

Acknowledgements
The authors and publisher would like to thank the
following copyright holders, organisations and
individuals for their assistance and for permission to
reproduce copyright material in this book.
Selected extracts from the VCE Psychology Study Design
(2023–2027) are copyright Victorian Curriculum and
Assessment Authority (VCAA), reproduced by permission.
VCE® is a registered trademark of the VCAA. The VCAA
does not endorse this product and makes no warranties
regarding the correctness and accuracy of its content.
To the extent permitted by law, the VCAA excludes all
liability for any loss or damage suffered or incurred as a
result of accessing, using or relying on the content. Current
VCE Study Designs and related content can be accessed
directly at www.vcaa.vic.edu.au. Teachers are advised to
check the VCAA Bulletin for updates.
Images
• © LinaDes/Shutterstock: 7 • © ibreakstock/Shutterstock:
8 • © ali esfandiari/Unsplash.com: 9 • © John Grivas: 18
(bottom), 33 (left), 33 (top), 33 (bottom), 44 (top), 45
(right), 69 (top), 70 , 94 , 174 (left), 202 , 277 , 292 (top),
298 , 332 , 335 , 337 , 341 , 342 (bottom), 343 (bottom),
344 , 346 , 355 , 388 (left), 402 • © Eric Isselee/
Shutterstock: 18 (top) • © Paul Doyle/Alamy Stock Photo:
29 • © DenPhotos/Shutterstock: 30 • © Africa Studio/
Shutterstock: 38 (bottom) • © studiovin/Shutterstock: 38
(top) • © CROWN COPYRIGHT/HEALTH &
SAFETY LABORATORY: 44 (bottom) • © Daniel J.
Macy/Shutterstock: 45 (left) • © Joa Souza/Shutterstock:
49 • © ImagineThat/Alamy Stock Photo: 52 (left) • © New
Africa/Shutterstock: 52 (right), 348 • © Anel Alijagic/
Shutterstock: 54 • © caia image/Alamy Stock Photo: 57 •
© Syda Productions/Shutterstock: 58, 90 (left), 90 (right) •
© Andrey_Popov/Shutterstock: 59 • © Derek Meijer/
Alamy Stock Photo: 62 • © fizkes/Shutterstock: 63 • ©
Skovoroda/Shutterstock: 66 • © Marmaduke St. John/
Alamy Stock Photo: 69 (bottom) • © Photographee.eu/
Shutterstock: 71 • © Fair use, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/
index.php?curid=25399602: 76 • © Bettman/Bettman/Getty
Images: 77 (left) • © LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, RARE
BOOK AND SPECIAL COLLECTIONS DIVISION/
SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY: 77 (right) • ©
MICROGEN IMAGES/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY/
Alamy Stock Photo: 81 • © Aleksei Egorov/Alamy
Images: 95 • © COLIN CUTHBERT/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY: 103 • © THIERRY BERROD, MONA LISA
PRODUCTION/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY: 106 • ©
xiv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
gresei/Shutterstock: 109 • © NASA/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY: 110 • © docstockmedia/Shutterstock: 112 • ©
By Harry Harlow - https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi
=10.1037%2Fh0047884Harlow, H. F. (1958). The nature of
love. American Psychologist, 13(12), 673-685.https://
dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0047884, CC0, https://commons.
wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=78043644: 114 (top),
116 , 149 • © Commonwealth of Australia 2015: 114
(bottom) • © J. ALLAN HOBSON/SCIENCE SOURCE:
122 • © THIERRY BERROD, MONA LISA
PRODUCTION: 123 • © Rui Santos/Alamy Images: 143 •
© Lineair Foto: 145 • © Philip G. Zimbardo, Inc.: 147 • ©
Guy Corbishley/Alamy Stock Photo: 150 • © Romanova
Natali/Shutterstock: 168 • © PhotoEdit/Alamy Stock
Photo: 170 • © Grays Anatomy 35th edition c 1973 p. 807:
171 • © No formal credit line required.: 174 (right), 439 ,
502 (left), 502 (top), 502 (bottom), 530 • © Matthew
Stockman/Getty Images: 175 • © Andrey Armyagov/
Alamy Stock Photo: 177 • © Londolozi Images/Mint
Images/Getty Images: 178 • © Jeff Smith - Perspectives/
Shutterstock: 179 • © domi79/Shutterstock: 185 (top) • ©
Dimedrol68/Shutterstock: 185 (bottom) • © Montgomery
Martin/Alamy Stock Photo: 187 • © South_agency/Getty
Images: 201 • © Chris F. Payne/McGill University
Archives, PR000387: 203 • © Dailey, M. E., & Smith,
S. J. (1996). The Dynamics of Dendritic Structure in
Developing Hippocampal Slices. The Journal of
Neuroscience, 16(9), 2983–2994. doi:10.1523/
jneurosci.16-09-02983.1996: 204 • © Jordan Siemens/
Getty Images: 206 • © a. © fizkes/Shutterstock; b. ©
Goksi/Shutterstock; c. © Antonio Guillem/Shutterstock; d.
© Gary Dobner/Alamy Stock Photo; e. © Rawpixel.com/
Shutterstock; © Mangostar/Shutterstock: 219 • © a. ©
vernStudio/Shutterstock; b. © Glinskaja Olga/Shutterstock:
221 • © Alamy Stock Photo: 224 • © Todoranko/
Shutterstock: 226 (left) • © Mix and Match Studio/
Shutterstock: 226 (right) • © a. © goodluck design/
Shutterstock; b. © DG-Studio/Shutterstock; c. © Ollie The
Designer/Shutterstock; d. © Yuliia Konakhovska/
Shutterstock; e. © yomogi1/Shutterstock; f. yomogi1/
Shutterstock: 230 • © Jezper/Adobe Stock Photos: 235 • ©
John Olson/Getty Images: 238 • © simona pilolla 2/
409 • © Авторство: нет. http://senate.
Shutterstock: 240 • © BSIP SA/Alamy Stock Photo: 241,
Добросовестное использование, https://ru.wikipedia.
universityofcalifornia.edu/inmemoriam/richardlazarus.html,
org/w/index.php?curid=4991488: 245 (top) • ©1998-2021
The Regents of the University of California: 245
(bottom) • © Juice Images/Alamy Stock Photo: 246
(left) • ©Photographee.eu/Shutterstock: 246 (right) • ©
Jupiterimages/Getty Images: 249 • © a. © Photographer/
Alamy Stock Photo; b. © John Grivas; c. © John Grivas:
252 • © Zoran Mladenovic/Panther Media GmbH/Alamy
Stock Photo: 253 • © bleakstar/Shutterstock: 254 • ©
fizkes/Shutterstock: 256 (top) • © Roman Samborskyi/
Shutterstock: 256 (bottom) • © takayuki/Shutterstock:
257 • © Richard Duszczak/Cartoon Motivators: 258 • ©
VMJones/Getty Images: 269 • © Luis Louro/Shutterstock;
fizkes/Shutterstock: 270 • © Bettmann/Getty Images: 271,
273 • © Ernest Hilgard: 272 • © Antonio Guillem/
Shutterstock: 278 • © Nina Leen/Getty Images: 282 • ©
SteveStone/Getty Images: 288 • © Marmaduke St. John/
Alamy: 289 (left) • © matka_Wariatka/Shutterstock: 289
(right) • © Philip Game/Alamy Images: 291 • ©
SpeedKingz/Shutterstock: 292 (bottom) • © s_oleg/
Shutterstock; MeteeChaicharoen/Shutterstock: 293 • ©
’Dennis the Menace © 1985 North America Syndicate,
Inc., World Rights Reserved: 297 • © Albert Bandura/CC
BY-SA 4.0/Wikimedia Commons: 302 • © Peter Muller/
Image Source/Getty Images: 303 (left) • © Scott Nelson/
Stringer/Getty Images: 303 (right) • © Mitch Gunn/
Shutterstock: 304 • © Penny Tweedie/Contributor/Corbis
Historical/Getty Images: 305 (bottom), 305 (top) • ©
Vicky Smith/Getty Images: 309 • © GLRL/Shtterstock:
326 • © Images of Birmingham Premium/Alamy Stock
Photo: 330 • © ian west/Alamy Stock Photo: 331 (top) • ©
PeopleImages/Getty Images: 331 (middle), 331 (bottom) •
© Shutterstock/Neale Cousland: 333 • © skynesher/Getty
Images: 336 (left) • © LightField Studios/Shutterstock:
336 (right) • © Rose Makin/Shutterstock: 340 • © herjua/
Shtterstock: 342 (top) • © GMVozd/Getty Images: 343
(top) • © Krakenimages.com/Shtterstock: 343 (middle) •
© John Grivas (author): 347 • © cynoclub/Shutterstock:
349 • © Spencer Platt/Getty Images News/Getty Images:
350 • © KtD/Shutterstock: 351 • © Jesada Sabai/
Shutterstock: 356 (top), 403 • © University of Cambridge:
356 (bottom) • © Source: Adapted from Dementia vs.
Alzheimer’s Disease: What is the Difference?, 2021.
Alzheimer's Association: 360 • © DR ROBERT
FRIEDLAND/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY: 362 (top) •
© University of Minnesota: 362 (bottom), 362 (top) • ©
Pepsco Studio/Shtterstock: 363 • © Nacho Roca/Alamy
Stock Photo: 367 • © Stroke Foundation: 368 • ©
Provenance Online Project/Flickr/CC0 1.0: 370 (top), 370
(bottom) • © Tjanpi Desert Weavers: 372 • a. © racorn/
Shutterstock; b. © Yon Marsh/Alamy Stock Photo: 387 • ©
Anan Kaewkhammul/Shutterstock: 388 (center) • © Ryan
Pierse/Getty Images: 388 (right) • © Daria Kulkova/Alamy
Stock Photo: 390 • © a. © wunkley/Alamy Stock Photo; ©
b. SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY © c. SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY: 394 • © HANK MORGAN/Science Photo
Library (SPL): 395 (top) • © runzelkorn/Shutterstock: 395
(bottom) • © Maggie Steber/Alamy Stock Photo: 397 • ©
Tetra Images/Alamy Stock Photo: 401 • © a. © WEB-
DESIGN/Shutterstock; b. © Max Morphine/Shutterstock; c.
© Barks/Shutterstock: 404 • © Allan Hobson/Getty
Images: 410 • © Yulia Sribna/Shutterstock: 416 • ©
10'000 Hours/DigitalVision/Getty Images: 430
(left) • © Tara Moore/Stone/Getty images: 430 (right) • ©
DGLimages/Alamy Stock Photo: 433 (left) • © Bettmann/
Bettmann/Getty images: 433 (right) • © antoniodiaz/
Shutterstock: 435 • © metamorworks/Shutterstock: 436 • ©
Fobian et al. (2020)/Oxford University Press: 437 • ©
Frances Roberts/Alamy Stock Photo: 438 • © Stephen
Barnes/Shutterstock: 443 • © SB Arts Media/Shutterstock:
446 (top) • © Jenny Sturm/Shutterstock: 446 (middle) • ©
Benjamin John/Alamy Stock Photo: 446 (bottom) • ©
BSIP SA/Alamy Photo Stock: 451 (top) • © Richard
Milnes/Alamy Photo Stock: 451 (middle) • © Bloomberg/
Bloomberg/Getty Images: 451 (bottom) • © David Wall/
Alamy Stock Photo: 452 • © dpa picture alliance/Alamy
Stock Photo: 453 • © BSIP/UIG/Getty Images: 455 • ©
Prathankarnpap/Shutterstock: 460 • © REVector/
Shutterstock; knahthra/Shutterstock; GN ILLUSTRATOR/
Shutterstock; vectorlight/Shutterstock; Alla Koala/
Shutterstock; Maike Hildebrandt/Shutterstock: 462 • ©
amana images inc./Alamy Photo Stock: 463 • © Joey
Laffort/Shutterstock: 464 (left) • © Konstantin Gebser/
EyeEm/EyeEm/Getty Images: 464 (top) • © Oleg Elkov/
Alamy Stock Photo: 464 (bottom) • © Proxima Studio/
Shutterstock: 464 (top) • © Stokkete/Shutterstock: 465 • ©
Maskot/Alamy Stock Photo: 466 • © Michael Honegger/
Alamy Stock Photo: 480 • © Source: Adapted from Gee,
G., Dudgeon, P., Schultz, C., Hart, A., & Kelly, K.
(2014). Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social and
Emotional Wellbeing. In P. Dudgeon, H. Milroy, & R.
Walker (Eds.), Working Together: Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander Mental Health and Wellbeing Principles and
Practice (2nd ed., pp. 55-58). Commonwealth Government
of Australia: 483 • © Lars Hallstrom/Shutterstock: 489 • ©
PhotoAlto/Sigrid Olsson/Getty Images: 492 • © Lisa S./
Shutterstock: 494 • © By John B Watson - Akron
psychology archives, Public Domain, https://commons.
wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=26449930: 511, 513 •
© Angela Hampton Picture Library/Alamy Stock Photo:
519 • © david tiberio/Alamy Stock Photo: 521 • © BSIP/
Universal Images Group/Getty Images: 524 (top) • ©
Science Photo Library/Alamy Stock Photo: 524 (middle) •
© B. BOISSONNET/BSIP/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY:
524 (middle) • © DR P. MARAZZI/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY: 524 (bottom) • © Antonio Guillem/Alamy
Stock Photo: 525 • © Albert Shakirov/Alamy Stock Photo:
535 • © Tatyana Aksenova/Alamy Stock Photo: 537 • ©
Wichai Sittipan/Shutterstock: 548 • © russwitherington1/
iStock/Getty Images: 552 • © Grustock/Shutterstock: 554
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xv
(top), 554 (bottom) • © Daisy Daisy/Shutterstock: 560
(left) • © Aleksandr Davydov/Alamy Stock Photo: 560
(right) • © Estrada Anton/Shutterstock: 562 • ©
Shutterstock: 566 • © Bill Bachman/Alamy Stock Photo;
Richard Milnes/Alamy Stock Photo; Bill Bachman/Alamy
Stock Photo; Lisa Maree Williams/Getty Images
Entertainment/Getty Images: 567 • © PA Images/Alamy
Stock Photo: 568
xvi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Every effort has been made to trace the ownership
of copyright material. Information that will enable
the publisher to rectify any error or omission in
subsequent reprints will be welcome. In such cases,
please contact the Permissions Section of John Wiley
& Sons Australia, Ltd.
 Key science skills and
1 research methods
in psychology
TOPIC CONTENT
1.1 Overview��������������������������������������������������������������� 4
1.2 Aims, hypotheses and variables������������������������� 7
1.2.1 Aims������������������������������������������������������������ 7
1.2.2 Hypotheses������������������������������������������������� 8
1.2.3 Variables��������������������������������������������������� 12
1.3 Scientific investigation methodologies������������ 22
1.3.1 Types of research methods���������������������� 22
1.3.2 Population, sample and sampling������������ 23
1.3.3 Sampling techniques�������������������������������� 28
1.4 Controlled experiments������������������������������������� 36
1.4.1 Experimental and control groups�������������� 36
1.4.2 Random allocation������������������������������������ 37
1.4.3 Experimental designs������������������������������� 40
1.4.4 Experimental settings������������������������������� 44
1.4.5 Advantages and limitations of
experiments���������������������������������������������� 45
1.5 Correlational studies����������������������������������������� 49
1.5.1 Correlation and causation������������������������� 52
1.5.2 Using correlations to identify important
factors and to make predictions��������������� 53
1.5.3 Advantages and limitations of correlational
studies������������������������������������������������������ 53
1.6 Self-reports��������������������������������������������������������� 57
1.6.1 Interviews������������������������������������������������� 58
1.6.2 Questionnaires������������������������������������������ 59
1.6.3 Focus groups�������������������������������������������� 61
1.6.4 Advantages and limitations of
self-reports����������������������������������������������� 62
1.7 Observational studies���������������������������������������� 66
1.7.1 Natural and contrived settings������������������ 68
1.7.2 Participant and non-participant
observation����������������������������������������������� 69
1.7.3 Advantages and limitations of observational
studies������������������������������������������������������ 70
1.8 Case studies������������������������������������������������������� 75
1.8.1 Advantages and limitations of case
studies����������������������������������������������������� 76
1.9 Simulation studies��������������������������������������������� 80
1.9.1 Advantages and limitations of simulation
studies������������������������������������������������������ 81
1.10 Sources of error and their control or
minimisation������������������������������������������������������� 84
1.10.1 Random and systematic errors����������������� 84
1.10.2 Extraneous and confounding variables���� 87
1.11 Types of extraneous variables and their
control����������������������������������������������������������������� 93
1.11.1 Participant variables��������������������������������� 93
1.11.2 Situational variables���������������������������������� 95
1.11.3 Demand characteristics�������������������������� 101
1.11.4 Experimenter effects������������������������������� 104
1.11.5 Placebo effect����������������������������������������� 108
1.12 Ethical considerations in psychological
research and reporting������������������������������������ 112
1.12.1 Defining ethics and ethical standards����� 112
1.12.2 Ethical concepts and guidelines������������� 113
1.13 Types of data���������������������������������������������������� 120
1.13.1 Primary and secondary data������������������� 120
1.13.2 Quantitative and qualitative data������������ 121
1.13.3 Objective and subjective data���������������� 123
1.14 Data organisation and presentation��������������� 126
1.14.1 Tables����������������������������������������������������� 127
1.14.2 Graphs ��������������������������������������������������� 128
1.15 Evaluation of data and research��������������������� 133
1.15.1 Percentages�������������������������������������������� 133
1.15.2 Measures of central tendency���������������� 135
1.15.3 Standard deviation as a measure of
variability������������������������������������������������� 138
1.15.4 Outliers��������������������������������������������������� 141
1.15.5 Reliability and validity����������������������������� 143
1.15.6 Conclusions and generalisations������������ 148
1.16 Review�������������������������������������������������������������� 153
1.1 Overview
KEY SCIENCE SKILLS
• Develop aims and questions, formulate hypotheses and make predictions
• Plan and conduct investigations
• Comply with safety and ethical guidelines
• Generate, collate and record data
• Analyse and evaluate data and investigation methods
• Construct evidence-based arguments and draw conclusions
• Analyse, evaluate and communicate scientific ideas
Source: ©VCAA, VCE Psychology Study Design: 2023–2027. pp.12–13.

Psychology is a scientific discipline that seeks to
describe, explain, understand and predict human
behaviour and mental processes. There are many
different approaches to the study of psychology. VCE
Psychology applies a biopsychosocial approach to the
study of behaviour and mental processes.
The VCE Psychology Study Design also prescribes
a set of key science skills that is a core part of the
study and applies across all areas of study in all
units. In this topic we examine the key science
skills and research methodology prescribed for VCE
Psychology.
Table 1.1 shows the key science skills specified for
study in VCE Psychology. You will be given the
opportunity to develop then demonstrate these skills
at a progressively higher level throughout Units 3
and 4.

Table 1.1 VCE Psychology Units 1–4 key science skills

Key science skill VCE Psychology Units 1–4

Develop aims and questions, • identify, research and construct aims and questions for investigation
formulate hypotheses and • identify independent, dependent and controlled variables in controlled
make predictions experiments
• formulate hypotheses to focus investigations
• predict possible outcomes of investigations
Plan and conduct • determine appropriate investigation methodology: case study; classification
investigations and identification; controlled experiment (within subjects, between subjects,
mixed design); correlational study; fieldwork; literature review; modelling;
product, process or system development; simulation
• design and conduct investigations; select and use methods appropriate to
the investigation, including consideration of sampling technique (random
and stratified) and size to achieve representativeness, and consideration
of equipment and procedures, taking into account potential sources of
error and uncertainty; determine the type and amount of qualitative and/or
quantitative data to be generated or collated
• work independently and collaboratively as appropriate and within identified
research constraints, adapting or extending processes as required and
recording such modifications
Comply with safety and ethical • demonstrate ethical conduct and apply ethical guidelines when undertaking
guidelines and reporting investigations
• demonstrate safe laboratory practices when planning and conducting
investigations by using risk assessments that are informed by safety data
sheets (SDS), and accounting for risks
• apply relevant occupational health and safety guidelines while undertaking
practical investigations

4 Jacaranda Psychology VCE Units 3 & 4 Eighth Edition

 Key science skill
Generate, collate and record
data
Analyse and evaluate data and
investigation methods
Construct evidence-based
arguments and draw
conclusions
Analyse, evaluate and
communicate scientific ideas
Source: VCE Psychology Study Design: 2023–2027. pp.12–13.
VCE Psychology Units 1–4
• systematically generate and record primary data, and collate secondary
data, appropriate to the investigation
• record and summarise both qualitative and quantitative data, including use
of a logbook as an authentication of generated or collated data
• organise and present data in useful and meaningful ways, including tables,
bar charts and line graphs
• process quantitative data using appropriate mathematical relationships
and units, including calculations of percentages, percentage change and
measures of central tendencies (mean, median, mode), and demonstrate an
understanding of standard deviation as a measure of variability
• identify and analyse experimental data qualitatively, applying where
appropriate concepts of: accuracy, precision, repeatability, reproducibility
and validity; errors; and certainty in data, including effects of sample size on
the quality of data obtained
• identify outliers and contradictory or incomplete data
• repeat experiments to ensure findings are robust
• evaluate investigation methods and possible sources of error or uncertainty,
and suggest improvements to increase validity and to reduce uncertainty
• distinguish between opinion, anecdote and evidence, and scientific and
non-scientific ideas
• evaluate data to determine the degree to which the evidence supports the
aim of the investigation, and make recommendations, as appropriate, for
modifying or extending the investigation
• evaluate data to determine the degree to which the evidence supports or
refutes the initial prediction or hypothesis
• use reasoning to construct scientific arguments, and to draw and justify
conclusions consistent with evidence base and relevant to the question
under investigation
• identify, describe and explain the limitations of conclusions, including
identification of further evidence required
• discuss the implications of research findings and proposals, including
appropriateness and application of data to different cultural groups and
cultural biases in data and conclusions
• use appropriate psychological terminology, representations and
conventions, including standard abbreviations, graphing conventions and
units of measurement
• discuss relevant psychological information, ideas, concepts, theories and
models and the connections between them
• analyse and explain how models and theories are used to organise and
understand observed phenomena and concepts related to psychology,
identifying limitations of selected models/theories
• critically evaluate and interpret a range of scientific and media texts
(including journal articles, mass media communications, opinions, policy
documents and reports in the public domain), processes, claims and
conclusions related to psychology by considering the quality of available
evidence
• analyse and evaluate psychological issues using relevant ethical concepts
and guidelines, including the influence of social, economic, legal and
political factors relevant to the selected issue
• use clear, coherent and concise expression to communicate to specific
audiences and for specific purposes in appropriate scientific genres,
including scientific reports and posters
• acknowledge sources of information and assistance, and use standard
scientific referencing conventions
TOPIC 1 Key science skills and research methods in psychology 5
All key science skills are evident in the research
methods commonly used for psychological
investigations. A research method is a particular
way of conducting an investigation to collect
accurate and reliable data on a specific question
or problem of interest. For example, experiments,
correlational studies and observational studies are
different research methods. Collectively, research
methods provide the means or ‘tools’ for observing,
measuring, manipulating or controlling what takes
place in a psychological investigation.
Each type of research method has its advantages
and limitations. Some are more suited to particular
research hypotheses and data collection than others.
The choice of research method depends on which is
most appropriate for the hypothesis being tested and
the type of data to be collected.
Most of what psychologists know about behaviour
and mental processes is based on empirical
evidence. Empirical evidence is data collected
through systematic observations and/or carefully
controlled experiments. This type of evidence allows
psychologists to draw accurate conclusions which are
more likely to be valid and free from personal biases,
as compared to our ‘common sense’ conclusions
based on everyday observations of behaviour.
learnMORE | Outline of VCE Psychology
Access learnON for a summary of the course and
its assessment requirements.

1.1 LEARNING ACTIVITY

Multiple-choice questions
1. Behaviour is best described as
A. directly observable activity.
B. psychological activity.
C. a psychological process.
D. a mental process.
2. Which of the following is best classified as a mental process?
A. crying
B. thinking
C. breathing
D. talking
3. Which of the following statements about human behaviour, cognition and emotion is correct?
A. Behaviour can influence cognition but not emotion.
B. Emotion may influence behaviour but not cognition.
C. Cognition may influence behaviour but not emotion.
D. Behaviour, cognition and emotion may influence each other.
4. A research method Is best described as a/an
A. experiment.
B. key science skill.
C. scientific discipline.
D. process for planning and conducting an investigation.
5. Empirical evidence is best described as
A. a carefully controlled experiment.
B. a combination of scientific discipline and common sense.
C. data collected through scientific research.
D. research evidence describing behaviour and mental processes.
To answer questions online and receive immediate feedback, access learnON at www.jacplus.com.au.

6 Jacaranda Psychology VCE Units 3 & 4 Eighth Edition

1.2 Aims, hypotheses and variables
There is a virtually endless list of topics of research
interest in psychology and many approaches to
investigating those topics. An initial step is for the
researcher to develop an idea
about what to investigate
then determine what aspect
of the topic they wish to
focus on. The specific topic
of research interest is often
called the research ‘question’
or ‘problem’.
When the topic has been identified and refined, the
next step is to construct a research hypothesis that
can be tested, taking account of the variables of
specific relevance to the investigation.
1.2.1 Aims
It is important that the researcher is clear in their own
mind as to what their research question will be. This
helps focus their research activities. If they begin
with a broad area of interest, they will need to narrow
this down to a specific area.
Having chosen their topic area, they will need to
determine exactly what their aim is in the research.
This involves deciding what the investigation is
actually trying to achieve.
accidents caused by red P-plate drivers. After reading
relevant information on the topic, such as reports on
other investigations that may have been conducted
on P-plater accidents, the researcher may construct
the following research question: ‘Does defensive
driving training help to reduce the number of
accidents caused by red P-plate drivers?’ This may
be converted into an aim statement such as: The aim
of this investigation is to examine whether defensive
driving training helps reduce the number of accidents
red P-plate drivers cause.
When writing the aim for one of your investigations,
consider the following points:
• Ensure the aim describes the purpose of your
investigation — what you are actually trying to
find out from conducting the investigation.
• Make the aim as clear and uncomplicated as
possible.
• Try and limit the aim to a single sentence to
help focus your thinking.
• It may help to try expressing the aim as a
research question to start with.
• If you have both a research question and an aim,
ensure your aim clearly and closely relates to the
research question.
• If you have more than one aim, ensure the aims
are related.

The aim is a statement outlining the purpose of

the investigation. It can range in length from a
single sentence to a short paragraph and should be
expressed as clearly and precisely as possible. Some
examples of appropriate research aims are:
• The aim of this investigation is to compare
differences in the amount of sleep obtained by
adolescents and very old people.
• The aim of this experiment is to assess the
effects of practice on learning.
• To examine the effects of different types of
feedback on performance of a novel task.
• To investigate the effectiveness of acronyms in
aiding recall.
• To identify sex differences in the use of
approach and avoidance strategies for coping
with stress.
It is often possible to re-state the research question
as the aim. For example, a researcher might be Figure 1.1 The aim defines the purpose of an
interested in ways of reducing the number of investigation and helps focus research activities.

TOPIC 1 Key science skills and research methods in psychology 7

1.2.2 Hypotheses
In psychology as in other sciences, different research
methods are used to test one or more hypotheses
relevant to the question or problem a researcher
aims to investigate. The hypothesis formulated for
an investigation is commonly called the research
hypothesis.
A research hypothesis is a testable prediction of the
relationship between two or more variables (events or
characteristics). For example, it may be a prediction
about the relationship between:
• mobile phone conversation while driving (one
event) and driving performance (another event)
• biological sex (one characteristic) and oral
language skills (another characteristic)
• exposure to a stressor (one event) and heart rate
(one characteristic).
The hypothesis formulated for an investigation
essentially describes the researcher’s expectation
about what the results will be. It is usually based on
knowledge of other research findings or theories or
models on the question of interest. This is why it is
sometimes referred to as an ‘educated’ prediction or
even an educated ‘guess’.
The hypothesis is formulated before the investigation
is conducted and provides a very specific focus for
the investigation and its report. A useful research
hypothesis typically has the following characteristics:
• refers to events or characteristics that can be
observed and measured and is therefore testable
(e.g. talking on a mobile phone while driving
and driving performance are both measurable
in a driving simulator and therefore data can
be collected for hypothesis testing; whereas a
hypothesis that people see a bright light when
they die is not testable because it is not possible
to observe or measure human experiences after
death)
• can be supported or ‘refuted’ (denied or shown
to be incorrect) by the data collected for the
investigation
• states the existence of a relationship between
two or more variables (e.g. a relationship
between mobile phone conversation and driving
performance)
• states the expected relationship between the
variables, sometimes referred to as the ‘direction
of the relationship’ (e.g. how talking on a
8 Jacaranda Psychology VCE Units 3 & 4 Eighth Edition
mobile phone will influence or change driving
performance)
• states a possible explanation of the results
(e.g. impaired driving performance will be
attributable to mobile phone conversation while
driving)
• based on observations, a theory, model or
research findings
• prepared as a carefully worded written statement
(rather than a question)
• expressed clearly and precisely (rather than
vaguely and generally)
• written as a single sentence.
In some cases, the research hypothesis may also refer
to the larger group (or ‘population’) from which the
sample was drawn and therefore about which the
researcher intends to draw conclusions and apply the
results. The population, however, is most commonly
described in the introduction to the report on the
investigation.
Research hypotheses for the examples given earlier
could be:
• Mobile phone conversation while driving,
whether hands-on or hands-off, impairs driving
performance.
• Females have better oral language skills than
males.
• Heart rate will increase when a person is
exposed to a stressor.
There is no preferred writing style for a research
hypothesis (nor is there a mandated style for VCE
Psychology).
Figure 1.2 A research hypothesis is a testable
prediction of the relationship between two or more
variables.
Different writing styles can be equally valid. For
example, some hypotheses use an ‘if-then’ style,
such as ‘if a certain event occurs, then it will cause
a certain response’. In relation to the mobile phone
conversation and driving performance ‘events’ (or
variables), an if-then hypothesis may be stated as:
`If a person engages in a mobile phone conversation
when driving, then they will make more driving
errors.’ A more generally stated prediction such as
`Mobile phone conversation while driving impairs
driving performance’ would also be an appropriate
alternative.
Whatever your preferred style, to help ensure the
hypothesis is expressed as a statement rather than a
question, you can start your hypothesis with a phrase
such as ‘It was hypothesised that …’ when preparing
your report (noting that research reports are written in
the past tense).
It is not always possible to be entirely certain about
the accuracy of a prediction within a hypothesis,
especially when the question or problem of research
interest has not been widely studied, if at all. This is
mainly because the researcher does not necessarily
know or can control the influence of the many
different variables that can affect the behaviour or
mental process being studied. Nonetheless, many
researchers would consider it pointless to conduct an
investigation when the outcome is certain.
Scientific predictions tend to be more accurate
about a large group or people in general than about
a specific person. For example, a car insurance
company can more accurately predict the percentage
of people in a particular age group who are likely to
be involved in road accidents this year than it
can predict whether any particular individual in
that age group will have an accident. Similarly, a
psychologist may be able to correctly predict that
cigarette smokers will be more likely to suffer a
heart attack, but they cannot predict with certainty
whether a particular cigarette smoker will suffer a
heart attack.
This situation is no different in other sciences, which
can only make predictions with varying degrees of
probability of being correct. For example, your doctor
may prescribe an antibiotic that, based on medical
research, is usually effective in treating pneumonia.
Your doctor, however, cannot guarantee that it will
cure your pneumonia. Similarly, seismologists know
that cities lying along geological faults are more
likely to experience earthquakes, but they cannot
TOPIC 1 Key science skills and research methods in psychology
Figure 1.3 Scientific predictions tend to be more
accurate about a large group or people in general
than about a specific person. For example, a
psychologist may be able to correctly predict that
cigarette smokers will be more likely to suffer a
heart attack, but they cannot predict with certainty
whether a particular cigarette smoker will suffer a
heart attack.
accurately predict the day, or even the year, when
one of these cities will experience its next major
earthquake (Sdorow, 1995).
Hypothesis versus theory and model
In VCE Psychology you need to be able to develop
aims and hypotheses and link these to theories and
models.
A research hypothesis is different from a theory and
model. A research hypothesis is a specific prediction
that guides the collection, analysis, interpretation and
evaluation of data that has been collected to test it. In
contrast, theories and models are generally broader
and far more detailed, with a focus on describing
and/or explaining.
A theory is a body of interrelated concepts (‘ideas’)
that attempt to explain interrelated observations and
make predictions about future events. Some well-
known theories in psychology are Freud’s theory
of personality development, and Piaget’s theory
of cognitive development. Freud’s theory explains
personality development in terms of abstract concepts
such as the id, ego and superego and describes five
psychosexual stages through which we progress from
birth to early adulthood.
9
There are also theories on more specific aspects
of behaviour and mental processes such as the
restoration and evolutionary theories on why we
sleep, psychoanalytic and biological theories on why
we dream, and numerous other theories about, why
we may develop a specific mental health disorder,
how we learn, how we process information when
remembering, why memories of emotionally
significant events tend to be long-lasting, why
we forget, when we are more likely to change an
unhealthy behaviour, and so on.
The term model is often used interchangeably with
theory, however, a model in psychology focuses more
on representing how some behaviour and/or a mental
process(es) could, should or does occur. It may be
a simple graphic or other type of representation of
a single concept or a basic observation, such as a
cause–effect relationship between two events, how
a brain structure may respond to fear or how a new
procedure for diagnosing a specific mental health
disorder is performed. In particular, a model can be
useful in understanding abstract or ‘hard to visualise’
concepts about behaviour and mental processes.
More complex models are often supported with or
presented in the form of a diagram with boxes and
arrows to organise and show relationships between
different concepts. Figure 1.4 shows an example
of a model used to represent the process of how a
theory or model may be developed or change. Models
specified for study in VCE Psychology Units 3 and 4
include:
• Hans Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome as a
biological model of stress
• Lazarus and Folkman’s Transactional Model of
Stress and Coping which explains stress as a
psychological process
• the Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of
memory
• the biopsychosocial approach as a model for
considering mental wellbeing.
Theories and models vary in scope, complexity and
detail. All have one or more limitations. Some are
essentially a hypothesis that has been restated. Others
explain many interrelated research findings and
ideas. Along with explaining existing results, a useful
theory or model generates new hypotheses and guides
further research.
10 Jacaranda Psychology VCE Units 3 & 4 Eighth Edition
Many theories or models of child development,
mental health, personality, learning, remembering,
forgetting and so on, are the products of
psychological research and have generated valuable
new research. In addition, some theories have
generated new models and some models have
generated new theories.
Whatever their scope — from tiny to vast — theories
and models serve a gap-filling function. They explain
how findings and ideas fit together in an organised
way and what they mean, thereby making psychology
a discipline that does more than report isolated facts.
Some can be used to predict behaviour or a mental
process in real life settings, thereby helping achieve
an important goal of psychology.
Psychologists prefer testable theories and models
because they can be confirmed, revised or refuted
by further scientific research. Therefore, theories
and models tend to not be judged in terms of their
accuracy but rather in terms of their usefulness.
This means that a theory or model tends to not be
considered as right or wrong. Instead, it is simply
regarded as more or less useful.
Both theories and models can be refined or changed
as further research is conducted. Those that are less
useful are often overlooked or discarded.
Theory/model Use the theory
or model to
Create or revise formulate
the theory or a research
model hypothesis
Observation/
Research
research
hypothesis
findings
Conduct the Design an
investigation investigation to
Research test the
hypothesis
Figure 1.4 Theories and models are revised and
expanded to reflect relevant research findings.
New or revised theories and models lead to new
observations or questions that stimulate new
research and hypothesis testing.
1.2 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1
Review
1. Explain the difference between each of the following:
a. the aim and hypothesis for a psychological investigation
b. a psychological theory and model
c. a research hypothesis and a theory or model.
2. Construct a two-column table. In one column, list the characteristics of a useful research hypothesis. In the
other column, summarise each characteristic using not more than three words.
3. Explain two possible limitations of the following research question if it were to be used as a hypothesis:
Do some people have an extrasensory perceptual ability to send and receive mental messages?
4. Consider the following list of research questions. Choose four questions and formulate a hypothesis for each
one. One of the hypotheses should be written using the if–then style.
Ensure all your hypotheses have key characteristics referred to in the text.
a. Lack of attention causes forgetting.
b. Crowding increases aggression.
c. Positive thinking leads to success in a job interview.
d. Does offering an incentive result in greater motivation to succeed?
e. What is the effect of rote learning of information on a person’s ability to recall the information when needed?
f. Does being permitted to take a bottle of water into an exam improve performance on the exam?
To answer questions online and receive immediate feedback, access learnON at www.jacplus.com.au.

1.2 LEARNING ACTIVITY 2

Multiple-choice questions
1. Which term best describes the aim of a research investigation?
A. purpose
B. prediction
C. problem
D. question
2. Which statement about the aim of a research investigation is correct?
A. The aim must be no longer than one sentence.
B. The aim must be derived from the hypothesis.
C. The aim and research question must be related.
D. A research investigation must have only one aim.
3. Source: VCAA 2021 Psychology, Section A, Q.17 (adapted); © VCAA
A research hypothesis
A. is a question the research study sets out to answer.
B. predicts how the researcher will conduct the research study.
C. is based on scientific knowledge or experience in order to understand and test ideas.
D. is a method of research based on the researcher’s prior knowledge and experience.
4. Which of the following could serve as a research hypothesis?
A. Regular exercise will improve mental wellbeing.
B. Does regular exercise improve mental wellbeing?
C. Regular exercise has improved mental wellbeing.
D. Regular exercise has not improved mental wellbeing.
5. If a research hypothesis is refuted, then it may be concluded that the hypothesis is
A. supported by the results obtained.
B. not supported by the results obtained.
C. not related to the research question that was studied.
D. not expressed clearly and precisely.
To answer these and additional questions online and receive immediate feedback, access learnON at www.jacplus.com.au.

TOPIC 1 Key science skills and research methods in psychology 11

1.2.3 Variables
A key science skill in VCE Psychology requires you
‘to identify independent, dependent and controlled
variables in controlled experiments’.
A controlled experiment is an experimental
investigation to test the relationship between an
independent variable and a dependent variable, whilst
controlling all other variables. For example, to test
whether talking on a hand-held mobile phone while
driving (one variable) causes or influences a change
in driver reaction time (another variable), or whether
access to a reward (one variable) has an effect on
exam performance (another variable).
In this section, we focus on the different types of
variables in a controlled experiment and explain
how variables being tested or measured are
‘operationalised’ and why this needs to be done.
A variable is something that can change (‘vary’) in
amount or type and is measurable. For example, sleep
can change in both amount (e.g. number of hours)
and type (e.g. with or without rapid eye movements)
and is measurable (e.g. through recordings of bodily
activities such as eye movements and brain wave
patterns).
There is a virtually endless list of variables that may
be studied in psychology. Examples include age, sex,
intelligence, mood, problem solving, memory, state
of consciousness, sociability, use of social media,
diet, exercise, media violence, drug-taking, risk-
taking, family environment, religion, culture, work
space, crowding, number of errors, and time taken to
perform a task.
A variable may be a personal characteristic, either
physical or psychological, an object, or an event that
can have a specific influence on how an individual
may think, feel or behave. Personal characteristics
such as biological sex, blood type, genetic make-up
and racial or ethnic background are all inborn and
therefore ‘fixed’ and ordinarily unchanging within
a person. However, in psychological research they
are still considered variables because they can be of
different types and are measurable.
For example, ‘male’ and ‘female’ are two types of
biological sex and ‘O’, ‘A’, ‘B’ and ‘AB’ are four
different blood types. Although a researcher cannot
actually change a participant’s sex or blood type, they
can ‘manipulate’ (or ‘change’) them by allocating
males and females and/or people with different blood
12 Jacaranda Psychology VCE Units 3 & 4 Eighth Edition
types to different groups or conditions used in their
experiment in order to make comparisons.
Similarly, age and intelligence are ‘fixed’ However,
the researcher can manipulate them by comparing
naturally occurring variations; for example, the
performance of old and young participants, or, more
or less intelligent participants (as indicated by IQ
scores).
Independent variable
Every controlled experiment has at least one
independent variable and one dependent variable.
In a simple experiment, one of these variables is
manipulated (controlled, selected or changed) by
the researcher to observe its effect or influence on
another variable.
The variable that is manipulated in order to measure
its effect on the dependent variable is called the
independent variable (IV). It is sometimes referred
to as the ‘treatment’ or ‘treatment variable’ to which
participants may be exposed (or not exposed).
The IV is assumed to have a direct effect on the
dependent variable. Therefore, in terms of cause and
effect, the IV is viewed as the cause of any change
that may result in the dependent variable.
For example, in an experiment on whether watching
a violent TV program increases aggressive behaviour,
the IV will be exposure to a violent TV program. Its
‘manipulation’ will involve exposing or not exposing
participants to violence in a TV program to observe
the consequential changes in the dependent variable
(aggressive behaviour).
The IV is assumed to have a direct effect on the
dependent variable so it is also assumed that any
measurable change in the dependent variable will
be due to the effect of the IV. Therefore, in terms
of cause and effect, the IV is viewed as the cause
of any change that may result in the dependent
variable.
As indicated in the example above, a ‘treatment’
may also be withheld; for example, to compare its
effect(s) on participants who are exposed to it with
those who are not. This is why an IV may also be
referred to as having different values (or levels) —
the value of the IV is systematically ‘manipulated’.
In the simplest type of experiment, the IV has two
values, such as exposure or non-exposure to violence
in a TV program.
 Research question
Does watching a violent TV program
increase aggressive behaviour?
Research hypothesis
Watching a violent TV program will increase
aggressive behaviour.
Group 1 Group 2
IV
Watch a violent Watch a non-violent
(what is manipulated)
TV program TV program
DV Incidence of aggressive behaviour
(what is measured)
Is there a difference between Groups 1 and 2?
Figure 1.5 The IV and DV in an experiment on whether watching
a violent television program increases aggressive behaviour. The
IV is assumed to have a direct effect on the DV. Selecting which
participants are exposed or not exposed to an IV is one way of
manipulating the IV.
More complex experiments have three or more values
of the IV; for example, non-exposure to a violent
TV program, exposure to one violent TV program
and exposure to two violent TV programs. In this
case, the IV has been manipulated ‘quantitatively’
by varying its ‘amount’ — exposure to one or two
violent TV programs. Alternatively, the IV may be
manipulated ‘qualitatively’ by varying its ‘type’. In
this case, the values of the IV may involve exposure
or non-exposure to specific types of violent TV
programs; for example, to compare the influence
of violence by cartoon characters with violence by
people in a movie.
An even more complex experiment may compare
responses of male and female participants to
various types of violent and non-violent male and
female characters or people in different types of TV
programs (qualitative variables) following different
periods of exposure, such as 15 minutes, 30 minutes,
45 minutes, 1 hour, and so on (quantitative variables).
TOPIC 1 Key science skills and research methods in psychology
An experiment can also have more
than one IV. For example, a researcher
might test a hypothesis that a child
will behave aggressively after watching
a violent TV program only if other
children are present. In this case,
both the violent TV program and the
presence of other children would be
IVs. A third IV could be drinking a
high sugar content cordial during the
program. Of course, one or more of
these IVs could also have different
values.
Dependent variable
The variable that the researcher uses to
observe and measure the effects of the
IV is called the dependent variable
(DV). It is the aspect of a participant’s
behaviour or experience that is assumed
and expected to change as a result of
the manipulation of the IV selected by
the researcher.
The DV is often the responses made by
participants and usually has a numerical
(quantitative) value. For example,
a behaviour such as aggression in
young children might be observed and measured by
the number of times physical contact is made with
another person in a 5-minute period immediately after
a child has been exposed to a violent or a non-violent
TV program. Aggressive behaviour is the dependent
variable, because the participants’ responses are
believed to be influenced by, or ‘dependent on’, the
effects of the independent variable.
The DV is sometimes referred to as the
‘measurement’ variable, because it provides a
‘measure’ of the participants’ responses to the
independent variable.
In terms of a cause–effect relationship, the IV is
viewed as the possible cause, and change in the DV
is the possible effect. In experimental research, the
research hypothesis states the causal relationship
between the independent and dependent variables to
be tested; that is, that the IV(s) will cause the DV(s)
to change in a particular way.
13
 (a) an experiment so it needs to be held constant
Independent Dependent
(‘controlled’) to remove its potential effects. For
variable variable
example, in an experiment on the effect of caffeine
on psychology test performance, one group of VCE
Psychology students could drink coffee (the IV)
Manipulated Measured before a psychology test and their scores for the test
(the DV) would be compared with those of a group
who did not drink coffee.
Cause Effect Variables that would have to be kept constant
include caffeine (e.g. type and amount of coffee that
participants drink), the test (e.g. everyone sits the
same test), the test conditions (e.g. day and time,
(b) the room, instructions to participants, noise), the
Qualitative Quantitative
ability of the students (e.g. comparable ability in both
variable variable
groups) and prior experience with the test content.
When planning and conducting an experiment, it
is essential that the experimenter is confident that
Varies in
Varies in manipulation of the IV is likely to cause the predicted
amount, degree
type or kind change in the DV, rather than some other variable
or frequency
that is not adequately controlled. Therefore, the
Figure 1.6 Distinguishing between (a) an IV experimenter must ensure that a controlled variable
and DV, and (b) a qualitative variable and maintains that status so that it has no influence on the
quantitative variable DV and thereby makes it difficult to isolate the effect
of the IV.

Controlled variable Unlike the IV and DV, a controlled variable is

not actually part of the experiment in itself. Nor
In addition to the independent and dependent
is it a variable of interest in the investigation. For
variables, there are other variables that the
example, it is not relevant to the aim or hypothesis.
experimenter should anticipate and take account of.
But it is controlled because it could influence the
A controlled variable is one that is considered outcome.
to have an effect on the dependent variable in

Independent variable Dependent variable

influences
(caffeine) (score on psychology test)

potential influences

Student Prior Test

Coffee Test content
ability experience conditions

controlled variables

Figure 1.7 Independent, dependent and controlled variables in an experiment that is testing a cause–effect
relationship between caffeine and psychology test performance

14 Jacaranda Psychology VCE Units 3 & 4 Eighth Edition

1.2 LEARNING ACTIVITY 3
Review
1. Write a definition of each of the following terms as they apply to an experiment:
a. variable
b. independent variable
c. dependent variable
d. quantitative variable
e. qualitative variable
2. a. Explain the meaning of controlled variable.
b. Why do all variables in an experiment require ‘control’?
3. a. What do researchers expect to happen to DVs when they manipulate IVs?
b. What does ‘manipulation’ of an IV actually involve?
c. Give an example of how each of the following could be manipulated quantitatively and qualitatively if it is an
IV in an experiment.
i. sleep
ii. lighting
iii. room temperature
iv. a word
v. body weight
4. Identify the IV and DV in each of the following if experimental research were to be conducted.
a. Receiving a reward for studying will increase the amount of time students engage in studying.
b. People who are in love perceive each other more positively than other people perceive them.
c. Recall of information presented early in a list is better than recall of information presented later in a list.
d. People react faster to sounds than to visual stimuli.
e. Using adult language when talking to infants improves their vocabulary.
f. People change their pitch of voice when lying.
g. Daydreaming occurs more frequently during simple tasks than during complex tasks.
h. Workers on an assembly line are more productive when working alone than in a small group.
i. Heart rate and blood pressure increase when viewing a violent movie clip as compared to a non-violent
movie clip.
j. Infants pay attention to a complex stimulus for a longer period of time when compared with a simple
stimulus.
5. A researcher noticed that some of her laboratory rats stood on their hind legs for a moment whenever their
food was brought into the laboratory. She decided to test whether she could teach the rats to stand on their
hind legs when she rang a bell.
First she measured the exact amount of time the rats spent standing when the food was brought in. Then she
rang a bell just before each meal. The rats eventually started to stand on their hind legs when they heard the
bell.
a. What two IVs are being manipulated in the experiment?
b. What is the DV and how is it measured?
c. Why did the researcher measure the rats’ movements before introducing the ringing bell?
6. A researcher observed helping behaviour in a real-world setting. An actor pretending to be either drunk or
blind was required to collapse on a Melbourne underground train platform.
Sometimes the actor was a First Nations male and sometimes the actor was a non-First Nations male of about
the same age.
The researcher then recorded how long it took for help to be given.
a. What is the IV and how many values or levels does it have?
b. How is the IV manipulated?
c. What is the DV and how is it measured?
To answer questions online and receive immediate feedback, access learnON at www.jacplus.com.au.

TOPIC 1 Key science skills and research methods in psychology 15

 1.2 LEARNING ACTIVITY 4
VCAA exam questions
Question 1 (1 mark)
Source: VCAA 2021 Psychology, Section A, Q.21; © VCAA
Dr Dhanial investigated the effect of leading questions on recall. In the first week of the semester, university
students were randomly allocated to two groups (Group A and Group B) and asked to estimate how often they
ate chocolate during the summer holidays. Different forms of the question were used for each group:
• ‘Did you eat chocolate frequently and, if so, how much per week?’
• ‘Did you eat chocolate occasionally and, if so, how much per week?’
The table below represents Dr Dhanial’s results.

Group Leading word Estimate of chocolate

consumption per week
A frequently 4.1
B occasionally 0.8

The independent variable in Dr Dhanial’s study was the

A. fallibility of memory.
B. wording of the question.
C. reconstruction of memory.
D. estimation of eating chocolate.

Question 2 (1 mark)
Source: VCAA 2020 Psychology, Section A, Q.34 (adapted); © VCAA
Parminder compared the effects of consumption of alcohol on reaction times in people at various stages of life.
His sample included participants aged 18 to 70 years. In the within subjects experiment, participants consumed
one standard drink of alcohol at half-hourly intervals until they reached 0.10% blood alcohol concentration (BAC).
Participants completed a series of computer-based tests for reaction times at BACs of 0.00%, 0.05% and 0.10%.
Additionally, once participants reached 0.10% BAC, Parminder asked all participants to write down on a lined
piece of paper their immediate feelings, thoughts and memories, and to provide an estimate of how long they
thought the tests ran for.
Which of the following includes both an independent variable and a dependent variable for Parminder’s study?

Independent variable Dependent variable

A. age reaction time
B. reaction time BAC
C. cognitive performance amount of alcohol consumed
D. amount of alcohol consumed BAC

Question 3 (1 mark)
Source: VCAA 2013 Psychology, Section A, Q.55 (adapted); © VCAA
Dr Tran conducted a controlled experiment on a technique for remembering nonsense syllables. The experimental
group used Dr Tran’s learning technique and had a greater recall of nonsense syllables than the control group.
In Dr Tran’s experiment, independent variable (IV) and dependent variable (DV) were
A. IV: participant characteristics; DV: learning technique.
B. IV: number of nonsense syllables correctly recalled; DV: learning technique.
C. IV: learning technique; DV: number of nonsense syllables correctly recalled.
D. IV: participant characteristics; DV: number of nonsense syllables correctly recalled.

16 Jacaranda Psychology VCE Units 3 & 4 Eighth Edition

 The following information relates to questions 4 and 5
A researcher was investigating whether the presence of speed cameras had any impact on driving behaviour. She
was interested in whether drivers slowed down if they knew speed cameras might be operating. She went to a
busy road where there was no evidence of speed cameras and recorded the speed of 100 drivers as they drove
past a particular point on the road. She returned to the same road one week later and installed large warning
signs saying speed cameras operated in the area. She then recorded the speed of 100 drivers as they drove past
the same point on the road that she used in the previous week.

Question 4 (1 mark)
Source: VCAA 2004 Psychology 2, Section A, Q.31 (adapted); © VCAA
What is the likely research hypothesis?
A. Warning signs have an impact on driving behaviour.
B. The more you drive the more likely you are to speed.
C. Warning signs lead to a decrease in speeding behaviour.
D. Warning signs are as effective as actually having visible speed cameras in reducing driving speed.

Question 5 (1 mark)
Source: VCAA 2004 Psychology 2, Section A, Q.32; © VCAA
The independent variable is
A. the presence of the warning signs.
B. paying attention or not to the warning signs.
C. the driving speed when the warning signs were present.
D. the driving speed when there were no warning signs
To answer these and additional questions online and receive immediate feedback, access learnON at www.jacplus.com.au.

Operationalising independent and
dependent variables
Operationalising the IV and DV involves defining
how they will be manipulated or measured in the
experiment (or other investigation). This is an
important step because many of the behaviours and
mental processes psychologists investigate can have
different meanings and can therefore be specifically
denied, manipulated or measured in more than
one way.
For example, consider an experiment to investigate
whether exercise provides relief from depression.
‘Exercise’, which is the IV, might be operationalised
as ‘walking at a particular pace for a specified period
of time on an automated treadmill’. ‘Depression’,
which is the DV to be measured, might be
operationalised as ‘the number of negative words
used in writing a creative story’, as it has been found
through previous research studies to be related to the
severity of depression.
Similarly, consider the way in which each of the
following potential variables that can have multiple
meanings might be operationalised for the purpose of
experimental research.
• intelligence — a score on a standardised
intelligence test
• memory — a score on a test of free recall
• learning — the reduction in the number of
errors when performing an unfamiliar task
• anger — changes in blood pressure, heart rate
and respiration rate
• physical attraction — the number of times
someone touches another person
• love — the frequency of expressions of affection
such as kissing, touching and cuddling.
Operationalising the IV(s) and DV(s) ensures that
these variables are precisely defined and explained
in terms of the ‘operations’ (procedures, actions,
or processes) by which they will be manipulated or
measured. The resulting definitions are sometimes
called operational definitions.

TOPIC 1 Key science skills and research methods in psychology 17

There are several important benefits of variables
being defined precisely through operationalisation.
These include:
• It helps ensure the independent and dependent
variables are testable and therefore that the
research hypothesis is testable.
• All researchers involved in conducting the
experiment know exactly what is being observed
and measured and how this will occur. This
helps avoid experimenter biases and differences
that can affect the results in an unwanted way.
When the variables are defined in a very precise
way, another researcher interested in the results, or
perhaps even doubting them, will be able to repeat
the experiment in order to test (‘check’) the results
obtained for accuracy or to find out if the results are
relevant to other groups or situations.
When a study is replicated under the same conditions
using a similar sample and similar results are
obtained (i.e. the results are ‘repeatable’), there is
greater confidence in the validity of the results. There
is even greater confidence when replication under
different conditions achieves very similar results (i.e.
the results are ‘reproducible’). Alternatively,
(a)
Figure 1.8 (a) Exercise might be defined as walking at 7 km/h for 30 minutes on an automated treadmill. (b) Does
this dog look ferocious? The answer depends on how you operationalise ferocious.
18 Jacaranda Psychology VCE Units 3 & 4 Eighth Edition
if replication of a study fails to produce the same
basic findings, researchers have less confidence in the
findings reported for the original research.
The research hypothesis for an experiment may
refer to the operationalised variables (but this is
not essential). For example, consider a possible
hypothesis for the experiment on exercise and
depression:
People with depression who exercise regularly will
have fewer symptoms of depression than people who
do not exercise.
Note in this research hypothesis that:
• the IV is stated, including both its values i.e.
regular exercise and no exercise
• the DV is clear i.e. number of symptoms of
depression
• the expected effect of the IV on the DV is also
stated, specifically, the direction of the predicted
effect — that is, the way in which the two
groups (exercise and no exercise) are predicted
to differ (not simply that there would be a
difference).
(b)
Table 1.2 Ways in which IVs and DVs can be operationalised

Research question IV example DV example

Do students learn more
effectively in early morning
or late afternoon classroom
lessons?
If a teacher ignores a student’s
attention-seeking behaviour in
class, will this strategy reduce
the student’s attention-seeking
behaviour?
Does playing violent video
games cause aggressive
behaviour?
Does allowing a child to sleep
in the same bed as their parents
result in the child being overly
attached to the parents?
What types of jokes are funny
to people of different cultural
backgrounds?
• time of lesson
• teacher not paying attention to
attention-seeking behaviours
• a video game classified by the
Commonwealth Government
censors as violent
• child sharing bed with both
parents over a specified period
of time
• different types of jokes
• score on a test of recall (amount of
information remembered)
• frequency of attention-seeking
behaviours
• number of presses of a button that
administers a shock to another
student
• frequency of separation anxiety
behaviours when either or both
parents leave the child alone with a
stranger
• number of audible laughs
detected by an audiometer and
number of smiles detected by an
electromyograph (measures facial
muscle contractions)

learnMORE | Operational definitions

Access learnON to read more about the importance of operationalisation through the use of operational
definitions when conducting research.

1.2 LEARNING ACTIVITY 5

Review
1. What does operationalisation of an experiment’s independent and dependent variables involve?
2. List three potential benefits of operationalising variables.
3. Suggest how the IV and DV could be operationalised for an experiment on each of the following research
hypotheses.
a. Anxiety causes forgetting.
b. Crowding increases aggression
c. Relaxation minimises stress.
d. Practice assists learning.
e. Girls talk more than boys.
4. Suggest an operationalised IV and DV for each of the following research questions.
a. Does offering an incentive result in greater motivation to succeed?
b. What is the effect of rote learning of information on a person’s ability to recall the information when
needed?
c. Does being permitted to take a bottle of water into an exam improve performance in the exam?
d. Does parental attention increase the incidence of tantrum behaviour by toddlers?
e. Does sleep deprivation time cause an increase in reaction time when riding a bike?
To answer questions online and receive immediate feedback, access learnON at www.jacplus.com.au.

TOPIC 1 Key science skills and research methods in psychology 19

 1.2 LEARNING ACTIVITY 6
VCAA exam questions
Question 1 (1 mark)
Source: VCAA 2016 Psychology, Section A, Q.63; © VCAA
Dr Terrence is running an experiment to investigate the effect that room temperature has on the time taken for
people to fall asleep.
In this experiment, the independent variable is
A. room temperature.
B. time taken for people to fall asleep.
C. body temperature when people fall asleep.
D. time taken by people to adapt to room temperature.

Question 2 (1 mark)
Source: VCAA 2015 Psychology, Section A, Q.48; © VCAA
Dr Gregory wanted to test the effects of different methods of learning on memory retention. Equal numbers of
participants were randomly allocated to three different learning groups. Each group learnt the same list of words
that were presented on a computer screen, one at a time, in random order. For all groups, half of the words were
printed in upper-case letters and half were printed in lower-case letters.
Each group was given a different method of learning the words, as follows:
• Group A – For each word presented, participants were asked to report whether the word was printed in
upper-case letters or in lower-case letters.
• Group B – For each word presented, participants were asked to report whether the word rhymed with the
word ‘stop’.
• Group C – For each word presented, participants were asked to report whether the word was a kind of
animal.
After learning the list of words, participants were asked to recall as many words from the studied list as possible.
Dr Gregory then compared the mean number of words correctly recalled between the groups.
For Dr Gregory’s study, the independent variable and the dependent variable were, respectively, the
A. method of learning the word list, time taken to learn the words.
B. method of learning the word list, number of words recalled.
C. number of words recalled, method of learning the word list.
D. number of words in each list, number of words recalled.

Question 3 (1 mark)
Source: VCAA 2015 Psychology, Section A, Q.63; © VCAA
Dr Nguyen is a psychologist interested in investigating the effect of age on the cycling ability of Victorians. He
recruits 93 Victorian bike riders who responded to an advertisement that he placed in a newspaper.
The bike riders are divided into two groups:
• Group 1 consists of riders aged 20-39 years old.
• Group 2 consists of riders aged 40-59 years old.
The independent and the dependent variables in this study were, respectively,
A. cycling ability, age.
B. age, cycling ability.
C. cycling ability, 93 Victorian bike riders.
D. 93 Victorian bike riders, cycling ability.

20 Jacaranda Psychology VCE Units 3 & 4 Eighth Edition

Question 4 (1 mark)
Source: VCAA 2004 Psychology 2, Section A, Q.33; © VCAA
A researcher was investigating whether the presence of speed cameras had any impact on driving behaviour. She
was interested in whether drivers slowed down if they knew speed cameras might be operating. She went to a
busy road where there was no evidence of speed cameras and recorded the speed of 100 drivers as they drove
past a particular point on the road. She returned to the same road one week later and installed large warning
signs saying speed cameras operated in the area. She then recorded the speed of 100 drivers as they drove past
the same point on the road that she used in the previous week.
The dependent variable is
A. driving speed.
B. the presence of the warning signs.
C. the location of the warning signs.
D. driving speed when there were no warning signs.

Question 5 (2 marks)
Source: VCAA 2006 Psychology 2, Section B, Q.9; © VCAA
Testing the Mozart effect
Previous research has shown that listening to certain types of classical music (for example, a Mozart concerto)
may increase performance on spatial-temporal tasks for a short period of time. However, this research has been
disputed.
Professor Williams aims to investigate the effect of classical music on a spatial-temporal task that involves paper
folding and cutting. He plans to find out if the effect exists for VCE students at Lake Hilltop Secondary College, a
coeducational country school.
Professor Williams recruits participants who are studying VCE at the school. He asks the first 40 students that
visit the library to participate. All 40 students provide signed informed consent.
The participants sit quietly for 20 minutes and then attempt the first paper folding and cutting test (Condition 1).
The same participants then listen to classical music for the next 20 minutes. Immediately afterwards they
complete a similar paper folding and cutting test (Condition 2).
Professor Williams asks a teacher, who does not know which test relates to which condition, to mark the tests.
The results are as follows.
Condition 1 (control): Mean test score = 8
Condition 2 (listening to classical music): Mean test score = 12
A statistical test on these results found that p < 0.05
For this study, what is the
i. independent variable? 1 mark
ii. dependent variable? 1 mark
To answer these and additional questions online and receive immediate feedback, access learnON at www.jacplus.com.au.

TOPIC 1 Key science skills and research methods in psychology 21

1.3 Scientific investigation methodologies
1.3.1 Types of research methods
Scientific investigation methodology refers to the
specific techniques used to collect and analyse data in
an investigation; that is, what research method is used
to conduct a scientific investigation.
In contrast, the scientific method refers to the steps
that are followed to conduct the investigation; that
is, how the investigation is conducted. As you would
expect, each research method is based on, is a part of,
and reflects the scientific method.
The VCE Psychology Study Design (p.14) describes
the different types of research methods you should
consider when planning your own investigations.
The Study Design refers to them as ‘scientific
investigation methodologies’. Descriptions can also
be found in the Types of scientific investigation
methodologies learnMORE section in learnON.
Note that some of these methodologies require you to
collect data directly through your own experiments or
from first-hand observation, whereas others are based
on data that was not gathered directly by you but
rather was obtained by someone else. Furthermore,
some may be conducted within the classroom and
others in the field outside the classroom.
This resource focuses on research methods involving
observing and interacting with participants, either
within the classroom or in fieldwork in a selected
environment beyond the classroom. Figure 1.9 shows
how these methods may be classified into types.
Sample selection is common to all investigations. It
is undertaken early in the research process and is as
important as choosing a research method. We consider
key aspects of sample selection before examining
different types of research methods and the specific
features that distinguish them from each other.

(a)
Types of research methods

Experimental methods Correlational methods Descriptive methods

Investigate what causes Measure relationship Describe what

an outcome between variables is occurring

Observational studies Self reports Case studies

(e.g. specific activity,
(e.g. participant (e.g. interviews,
behaviour, event
observation) questionnaire)
or problem)

(b)
Types of research methods

Experimental Non-experimental

Laboratory Field Observational Correlational Simulation

Case studies Questionnaires Interviews
experiments experiments studies studies studies

Figure 1.9 Types of research methods. (a) The classification system may vary according to criteria such as the
purpose of the research, its specific procedures, the type of data that is collected and how the data are used.
(b) Sometimes research methods are classified more simply as experimental and non-experimental.

22 Jacaranda Psychology VCE Units 3 & 4 Eighth Edition


learnMORE | Types of scientific
investigation methodologies
Access learnON for the Study Design’s
description of the different methodologies you
could use in your own investigations.
1.3.2 Population, sample and
sampling
When planning an investigation, the researcher needs
to decide who (or what) will be targeted for study in
order to test their hypothesis. Decisions also need to
be made about the sample composition, the sample
size and how the sample will be selected.
Sample
A sample is a subset or part of the population that is
selected for research purposes. For example, suppose
that a researcher is interested in conducting an
experiment to find out whether children who attended
a child care centre during their preschool years have
better language skills than children who did not
attend a child care centre. It would be impractical to
test every child who attended a child care centre and
every preschool child who did not. The researcher
would therefore select a sample with whom they
conduct their investigation.
A sample is always smaller than a population. When
studying people, psychologists can rarely be certain
about any behaviour or mental process that occurs
in a population because they can rarely study all its
members — it’s usually too large a group.

Population Consequently, researchers draw a sample that is

appropriate for testing their hypothesis and attempt
In scientific research, the population does not
to generalise the results obtained for the sample
necessarily refer to all people (or animals) in the
to the population from which it is drawn, or even
world, in a country, or even in a particular city or
other groups or situations. This is why it is important
area. The term population refers to the entire group
that the sample accurately reflect the entire population
of research interest from which a sample is drawn
of interest, although this is not always possible.
and to which the researcher will seek to generalise
(apply) the results of their investigation.
A population targeted for research typically
has one or more characteristics in common; for
example, all VCE Psychology students enrolled at
a particular school, all VCE students in all schools, Population
all females, all females who have been diagnosed
with schizophrenia and are patients in a hospital, all
left-handed males, all registered nurses aged 25 to
30 years, all cigarette smokers, all twins, all 4-year-
old twins, or all 4-year-old identical twins born at a
Sample
particular hospital.
However, a population used for research does not
always involve living things. A population could also
be measurable objects or events such as all public
hospitals in Victoria providing adolescent mental
health services, all drug-related deaths reported by
the coroner in the previous 12 months, all EEG (brain
wave) recordings for an individual during a certain
period of time, the IQ scores of all students in a
particular school , all absences from a workplace in a
10-year period due to a stress-related problem, all the Figure 1.10 A sample is a part of the population
days on which the temperature exceeded 30 °C, all chosen for study so it is always smaller than the
the words in the English language, or all of any other population.
specific source of data.

TOPIC 1 Key science skills and research methods in psychology 23

Sampling
Suppose a psychology lecturer at a university
wanted to find out which of two teaching methods
is more effective. The lecturer teaches two first-year
psychology classes, one that starts at 8 am and one
that starts at 4 pm. The lecturer uses one teaching
method for the morning class and a different method
for the afternoon class. At the end of the semester,
the lecturer finds that the final examination scores
are higher for the morning class. The researcher
concludes that from now on all lecturers will use that
particular teaching method for all classes. Is this a
valid or legitimate conclusion to draw on the basis of
the results obtained from the research?
The problem is that the two groups of participants
may not be sufficiently alike in personal
characteristics of relevance to the study and which
may therefore have influenced the results. For
example, people who enrol for lectures that start at
8 am may differ in some ways from those who enrol
for a 4 pm lecture. Some people prefer to get up
early, while others like to sleep late. Perhaps some
students had commitments, such as casual work or
other activities scheduled late in the afternoon, that
prevented them from enrolling in the 4 pm class.
This example highlights the importance of participant
sampling. Given the use of an inappropriate sampling
technique at the outset (and the failure to allocate to
groups in an appropriate way), it cannot be concluded
with confidence that the differences in the two
groups’ examination scores were caused solely by the
difference in teaching methods.
Sampling is the process by which a subset or part of
the population is selected for an investigation. The
population of research interest is often referred to as
the target population.
In psychology, sampling most often involves
selection of participants for inclusion in experiments,
observational studies, case studies, interviews, or other
research. Given that a population is not always people,
sampling can also involve selecting a specific activity
or process to study, time points at which to observe
individuals, data from a set of data, and so on.
Sampling is usually undertaken with the goal of
being able to use the sample to draw conclusions
about the larger population. This is not unlike the
goal of a medical researcher who analyses a sample
of someone’s blood to draw one or more conclusions
about all of that person’s blood.
24 Jacaranda Psychology VCE Units 3 & 4 Eighth Edition
Population
Sample selected Generalise back
from population to population
Sample
Figure 1.11 A sample is usually selected with the
goal of generalising back to the larger population.
A representative sample closely matches the
population in the distribution of key characteristics
Therefore, a sample should be selected in a scientific
way so that the results obtained can be legitimately
applied to its population. When sampling, it is
important to ensure that the sample lacks bias and is
like the larger population in as many ways as possible
so the results can be generalised to that group. It
must reflect its population in all the characteristics
that are important in the investigation.
For example, when selecting a sample for an
investigation involving people, the researcher will
consider personal characteristics of participants (or
subjects) that are important in the study.
‘Participant variables’ (or ‘subject’ variables) that are
considered important are those that can influence the
results of the study to be conducted. For example,
in an investigation on the soft drink and fast-food
preferences of adolescents, personal characteristics
of participants such as their age, sex, income, access
to retail outlets and cultural background are among
the variables that could be assumed to be important.
Variables such as height, hair colour, intelligence and
spatial abilities may be assumed to be not important.
When a researcher selects a sample that mirrors
or is approximately the same as its population,
the sample is called a representative sample. A
representative sample is a sample that closely
resembles the population from which it is drawn in
key characteristics. It is assumed the sample has the
minimum amount of possible errors in representing
the population. When a sample does not adequately
represent the key characteristics of its population it is
called a biased sample.
Sample size and representativeness
Sample size can impact on representativeness. Some
researchers have described the law of large numbers
in relation to sampling.
The law of large numbers suggests that as sample
size increases, the attributes (characteristics) of
the sample more closely reflect the attributes of
the population from which the sample was drawn.
For example, the more people who are selected
for an experiment, the more likely it is that they
will reflect and therefore be representative of the
population.
Larger samples also minimise the likelihood of an
unexpected sampling error resulting in a sample
which does not represent its population well and
would therefore make it difficult to apply the results
to that population.
To apply the law of large numbers in an everyday
situation, suppose you are deciding which of two
universities to attend. To help you make this decision,
you spend one open day at one of the universities
and one open day at the other. At each open day, you
attend a demonstration lecture for the course you are
most interested in studying. You like one presentation
much better than the other. Should this sample of
small lecturers and lectures influence your decision
about which university to attend? Can you see how
results from such a very small sample could be very
misleading? (Gazzaniga et al., 2011).
Although a relatively large sample may be preferred
for an investigation, this is not always possible,
especially for research with human participants.
For example, the required number of participants
may not be readily accessible or available, there
may be budgetary or time constraints, there may
be inadequate space available and other practical
considerations may limit sample size.
It should also be noted that bigger does not
necessarily mean better. The quality and usefulness
of the sample will be influenced by the sampling
technique used for its selection. In addition, for some
investigations, such as a case study, the researcher
may only be interested in a very small sample,
possibly only one person to study a single case.
There is nothing wrong with conducting well-planned
small investigations with small samples. The results
just need to be interpreted carefully and it is also
important to draw tentative (‘cautious’) rather than
firm conclusions, whether the results support or refute
the hypothesis.

Figure 1.12 A representative sample closely matches the population of research interest in the distribution of key
participant characteristics. Generally, the larger the number selected, the more likely it is to be a representative
sample rather than a biased sample, depending on the sampling technique used to select them.

TOPIC 1 Key science skills and research methods in psychology 25

 1.3 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1
Review
1. Define the terms sample and population as they are used in research.
2. Distinguish between a representative sample and a biased sample with reference to Samples X and Y shown
below.

Population Population
a a
a a
a a
a c a c
b b
b b b b b
b b
a a
b a a a c a
c c c
a c a b c c
c
b a a a
a

aaa cc
bbb aabbbccc

Sample X Sample Y

3. Explain whether the sample shown below is biased.

Population
Sample

4. For the following research samples, identify two different populations from which each sample could be drawn.
a. 20 Year 10 girls and 20 Year 10 boys
b. 40 teachers who have been teaching for more than 10 years
c. 100 employees on leave from work because of stress-related reasons
d. 30 adults diagnosed as having an anxiety disorder
5. For the following research questions, identify a sample that might be used to conduct the investigation and a
population from which the sample could be drawn.
a. How can people with a fear of flying be assisted to overcome their fear?
b. Are children born to mothers aged over 40 years at greater risk of developing a mental health disorder?
6. What are two potential limitations of small sample size in an investigation where a larger sample was required?

26 Jacaranda Psychology VCE Units 3 & 4 Eighth Edition

7. Source: VCAA 2021 Psychology, Section B, Q.3d; © VCAA

Effect of caffeine on Parkinson’s disease

by F. Marrow

Drinking caffeinated drinks has been associated with reduced tremors in people with Parkinson’s disease.
A recent study of 284 newly diagnosed Parkinson’s disease patients has gone one step further to explore
if the gender of a person changes the effects of caffeine on the severity of tremors. The researchers
interviewed the patients to understand their motor and non-motor symptoms and their caffeine
consumption history.

Of the patients, 204 were classified as caffeine drinkers (three or more cups per day, including coffee, tea
and energy drinks) and 80 were classified as non-caffeine drinkers (0 cups per day).

Results showed that, compared to non-caffeine drinkers, caffeine drinkers:

• had early onset of symptoms

• were younger
• had fewer motor and non-motor symptoms
• had lower resting tremor scores.
Interestingly, the relationship between caffeine consumption and tremor severity was only significant in
males.

Source: Bang-Hoon Cho, Seong-Min Choi and Byeong C Kim, ‘Gender-dependent effect of coffee consumption on tremor severity
in de novo Parkinson’s disease’, BMC Neurology, (2019) 19:194, https://doi.org/10.1186/s12883-019-1427-y

Identify one factor that these researchers should have considered when making generalisations about their
findings and outline how this factor can affect generalisability.
8. Source: VCAA 2008 Psychology 2, Section B, Q.14 (adapted); © VCAA
A researcher asked all the first year Psychology students (100 males and 100 females) from Kookaburra
University to participate in a study. Students were offered extra marks in their Psychology final score if they
agreed to participate.
Of the 200 students, 40 volunteered for the study (20 males and 20 females). The researcher wanted to
investigate whether the memories of first year Psychology students at Kookaburra University were increased
by sugar intake.
Identify the population and the sample in this study.
9. List three considerations when deciding on a target population and sample for your own investigation involving
participants.
To answer questions online and receive immediate feedback, access learnON at www.jacplus.com.au.

1.3 LEARNING ACTIVITY 2

Multiple-choice questions
1. The research sample is best described as a _____ that is selected from a _____ targeted for study.
A. participant; population
B. participant; group
C. subset; group
D. subset; population
2. There are 200 employees at an organisation where a researcher conducted an experiment to test a new
work stress management program. The researcher selected 50 participants from the 100 employees who
volunteered to be in the experiment.
In this experiment, there were _____ employees in the sample, and _____ employees in the population.
A. 50; 100
B. 50; 150
C. 50; 200
D. 100; 200

TOPIC 1 Key science skills and research methods in psychology 27

 3. Source: VCAA 2019 Psychology, Section A, Q.39 (adapted); © VCAA
Cora, a university student, conducts an experiment in a classroom to test the effectiveness of a therapy on
adolescent boys with a circadian sleep phase disorder. She recruits nine 16-year-old boys from a suburban
boys’ school to participate in her experiment.
If Cora were to replicate the experiment, what could she do to improve the likelihood of being able to
generalise her results?
A. Conduct the experiment in a controlled sleep clinic.
B. Use both male and female adolescents in the sample.
C. Use a control group to control for extraneous variables.
D. Include a larger sample of adolescent boys from both suburban and rural schools.
4. Source: VCAA 2015 Psychology, Section A, Q.65; © VCAA
Dr Nguyen is a psychologist interested in investigating the effect of age on the cycling ability of Victorians.

He recruits 93 Victorian bike riders who responded to an advertisement that he placed in a newspaper.
The bike riders are divided into two groups:
• Group 1 consists of riders aged 20–39 years old.
• Group 2 consists of riders aged 40–59 years old.
The population and the sample for this study were, respectively
A. Victorians, 93 Victorian bike riders.
B. 93 Victorian bike riders, Victorians.
C. 93 Victorian bike riders, Victorian bike riders.
D. Victorians who responded to the advertisement, 93 Victorian bike riders.
5. Representative sampling would involve
A. unexpected sampling errors.
B. participant selection in an unbiased way.
C. the law of large numbers.
D. generalising back to the population.
To answer these and additional questions online and receive immediate feedback, access learnON at www.jacplus.com.au.

1.3.3 Sampling techniques Random sampling

There are different ways of obtaining a sample. Two When used in relation to sampling and samples,
common sampling techniques are called random ‘random’ does not mean ‘hit-or-miss’, which is a
sampling and stratified sampling. common usage of the term. If fact, it is anything but
‘hit-or-miss’ or ‘haphazard’. Nor does random mean

Population
Population The entire group of research interest
from which the sample is drawn

Random Stratified
Sample
sampling sampling

Sample
A subset of the population that is
selected for the investigation

Figure 1.13 The sampling techniques that are specified in the VCE Psychology Study
Design. A stratified sample may also be randomly selected using a third technique called
stratified random sampling.

28 Jacaranda Psychology VCE Units 3 & 4 Eighth Edition

selecting participants (or allocating them to different
groups or conditions) according to the whims of
the researcher. Using a random sampling technique
actually involves using a very careful, methodical
approach or plan.
Random sampling is a sampling technique that
ensures every member of the population of research
interest has an equal chance of being selected to be
part of the sample. A group selected in this way is
known as a random sample and the selection process
helps achieve a representative sample.
Although no sampling technique can produce a
completely unbiased sample, random sampling
achieves a good approximation, as it introduces the
Figure 1.14 Under certain conditions, the lottery
minimum possible amount of error in representing
procedure of drawing names of research participants
the population. from a box is an appropriate random sampling
Random sampling can be conducted in a number of procedure because each member of the target
population has a genuinely equal chance of being
different ways.
selected.
One way is to obtain a complete list of all members
in the target population (with appropriate contact
As a result of this simple but systematic procedure,
information). This list or source material is
the likelihood that the sample is representative of the
commonly called a sampling frame. For example, an
population is increased, and so is the ability of the
electoral roll may be used as a sampling frame, or the
researcher to generalise the results to the sample’s
telephone numbers of all the people in a relevant and
population.
current database may be used. If you were conducting
an investigation in your school, class rolls could be For example, if this procedure was used to select a
used, but only those with the names of students in the sample of five students from a small box with the
target population. names of all 20 students in a psychology class, any
group of five names is equally likely to be selected as
Other sampling frames can include a list of
any other group of five names.
employees in an organisation of research interest,
a list of members of an AFL club, patient files in a A commonly used method when a large number of
hospital, and so on. Ideally, the sampling frame will participants is required is to assign a number to each
be in an electronic format so that it can be used on a member of the target population, then use a digitally
computer or tablet. generated list of random numbers to select sample
members.
After the sampling frame is obtained, the researcher
could obtain a random sample using a simple lottery Suppose you are interested in studying some aspect
procedure to select the required number of names. of student behaviour at your school and you want
The lottery procedure could involve drawing names a random sample of 20 students. You would begin
out of a box or tossing a coin. For example, if a with a list of all students currently enrolled at your
sheet of paper had all the names of the people in the school. Then, each student is assigned a number. If,
population on it, the sheet would be cut up into slips for example, there are 1000 students, the first student
of paper equal in size, with one name on each slip of in the list is assigned number 1 and the last student
paper. The names would then be thoroughly mixed in assigned 1000. A random number generator (available
the box to help ensure their distribution throughout for free online, at app stores, and in scientific
the box. Then, names of sample members (or calculators) could then be used to produce 20
research participants) could be drawn out ‘blindly’, numbers that fall between 1 and 1000. The students
one at a time. whose numbers are selected become the sample.

TOPIC 1 Key science skills and research methods in psychology 29

 The most important advantage of random sampling
Generate Random
is that it helps ensure a highly representative sample,
Numbers
Start:
1
End: thereby enabling generalisations with greater
100
confidence. The larger the sample, the more likely it
is that this will occur, but there is no guarantee that
How Man
y Numbe
rs? the sample will be representative. For example, not
–
10
+
all those who have been selected may be contactable,
available or agree to participate, which can be a
Display
Numbers problem when the sample size is small. Others may
agree to participate then refuse to do so or withdraw
(dropout) after the study commences.
The main limitation of random sampling is that it
can only truly be carried out if a complete list of the
target population is available. If available, it may be
difficult to gain access. For example, the list may
be protected by privacy policies or require a lengthy
Figure 1.15 One of many random number generator process for permission to access. If accessed, the
apps that are freely available
process of random selection may be time-consuming.

For example, if the first random number is 47, then Step 1

the 47th person in the list is included in the sample; Define the
if the second random number is 10, then the 10th population
person in the list is selected, and so on until the 20th
participant has been selected.
If everyone in a target population does not have an Step 2
equal chance of being selected as a participant, then Define the
sample size
sampling bias is said to occur. Sampling bias increases
the likelihood of a biased sample being obtained.
For example, a researcher might conduct a study
Step 3
on stress management strategies used by Victoria Obtain a list of
Police. A random sample could be obtained by the population
allocating a number to all Victorian police officers
and then selecting participants’ names using a
lottery method. However, sampling police officers
Step 4
‘at random’ in a ‘hit-or-miss’ way in the street Assign numbers to
or at a nearby police station would achieve a population members
biased sample rather than a truly random sample,
because not all Victorian police officers (the target
population) will have an equal chance of being
Step 5
selected into the sample at these sampling locations
Generate random
or when the sampling is done. numbers

Sometimes a researcher may not find it necessary

or even desirable to use a random sample that is
fairly representative of a population of interest. For Step 6
example, a researcher interested in the language Select the sample
based on the
development of children may intentionally undertake
numbers generated
a case study of a child raised in a harsh, deprived
environment where there is little or no opportunity
to learn language, rather than studying a sample
Figure 1.16 A random sampling technique using a
of ‘average’ children from a ‘normal’ home randomly generated number sequence
environment.

30 Jacaranda Psychology VCE Units 3 & 4 Eighth Edition

 Table 1.3 100 randomly-generated numbers

47 113 958 780 970 553 464 936 767 23

10 220 410 818 167 792 578 197 935 188
963 389 990 846 10 673 537 790 300 577
323 362 597 32 518 232 665 802 298 103
404 860 252 631 401 191 414 624 770 26
559 193 861 383 917 650 972 997 358 878
120 459 448 472 489 823 703 871 400 671
821 617 883 21 62 130 169 274 746 84
284 981 605 372 393 656 16 516 809 610
451 141 799 687 490 628 90 155 533 912
These are 100 randomly-generated numbers (unsorted) to select a sample of 20 from a school’s student population of 1000.
The first participant selected for the sample would be the 47th student in the school list, the second selected would be the 10th
in the list, and so on.

Stratified sampling undertake an investigation on the attitudes of students

in your school towards the use of rewards and
In some research studies it is important to ensure
punishments by teachers. If you expect that attitudes
that particular subgroups in a population of interest
may differ among students in different year levels,
are represented in their known proportions in that
you would want to ensure each year level (stratum) is
population.
proportionally represented in your sample.
For example, if a psychologist wanted to determine
In this case, you could first obtain separate lists of
the attitudes of Australian voters to asylum seekers,
the students in each year level and then randomly
they could reasonably expect that people’s attitudes
sample from each list. If, for example, about 10%
would differ depending on their age, sex, religion
of all students in your school are enrolled in year 12
and cultural or ethnic background. Consequently, the
and about 15% in year 11, then your sample would
psychologist would want to ensure that each of these
consist of about 10% year 12 students and about
groups was represented in the final sample in the
15% year 11 students. This would ensure students
same proportions that they were known to exist in the
from each year level are represented in about the
voting population. This can be achieved by using the
same proportions in the sample as they are in the
sampling technique called stratified sampling.
population (the school).
Stratified sampling is the process of selecting a
Using this stratified random sampling procedure
sample from a population comprised of various
would help ensure that the sample is highly
subgroups in such a way that each subgroup is
representative of the population and therefore not
represented. It involves dividing the population to
biased in a way you consider to be important. For
be sampled into different subgroups (called strata),
example, it would be biased if everyone in the
then selecting a separate sample from each subgroup
target population does not have an equal chance
(called stratum) in the same proportions as they occur
of being a participant or if one or more groups
in the population of interest.
are significantly under- or over-represented in the
Socio-cultural factors such as residential area, sample.
type of accommodation, age, sex, income level,
An important advantage of stratified sampling is
income type (e.g. wages or pension), educational
that it enables the researcher to sample specific
qualifications, language spoken or preferred, and
groups (strata) within populations for comparison
cultural background are examples of characteristics
purposes; for example, males vs females, adolescents
that may be used as the basis of dividing a population
above or below a certain age, people who work in
into strata.
different departments of an organisations, or people
The stratified sampling technique is commonly used of different ages and cultural backgrounds who
to study behaviour and mental processes that tend have been diagnosed as having a phobia and will be
to vary greatly among different subgroups within a exposed to a new type of relaxation therapy to help
population. For example, suppose you were going to manage their anxiety.
TOPIC 1 Key science skills and research methods in psychology 31
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 “But other people pay rent, and may be turned out at a year’s notice,” said
the Major.
“Oh, indeed, nobody is so foolish as to turn out a good tenant. Indeed, it
is a very equivocal advantage to live in your own house. Constant taxes,
constant repairs, and though everybody knows I have put down my carriage,
obliged to spend money on my stables! That,” said Mrs. Eastwood
emphatically, “is what I call an irony of fate.”
“It is bad, it must be allowed,” said Molyneux bursting in; his ear had
been caught by the last words, which she pronounced more loudly than
usual, with a true sense of the injury done her. “It is like a story I heard the
other day of an unfortunate Austrian whose chateau was destroyed in the
war. Just about the time the last fire smouldered out, he got his bill from the
great furniture man at Vienna for the redecoration. It had just been finished
before the Prussian guns went at it. There’s irony for you! I don’t suppose
your friend Bismarck, Railton, will be so civil as to pay the bill.”
“Nobody will pay my bill, I am sure,” said Mrs. Eastwood, not quite
relishing the introduction of a misfortune which overshadowed her own.
“What a comfort it is, to be sure, that there is no more fighting in Italy.
Frederick, I think, ought to be in Pisa by this time, and next week I hope we
may have him back. What a difference in travelling since my day! Then we
went in our own carriages from Marseilles, going round the coast, and taking
weeks to it. Nelly, don’t you think we might have lights?”
“Presently, mamma; don’t you want to know about my new cousin, a new
young lady coming out of the unknown?” said Nelly. “If I visited in a house
where any one so very new was about to appear, I should be dying of
curiosity. Mr. Molyneux, you are full of imagination, or at least so the
newspapers say; help me to make out what she will be like. Born in Italy;
sixteen; named Innocent. Here are the facts. Now tell me what you think,
and then you shall have my idea.”
“I hope she will be like her relations, whom we know,” said Major
Railton gallantly: “and then the firmament will have another star.”
“That is pretty, but it is vague,” said Nelly, “and I have heard something
like it before. Mr. Molyneux——”
“Who said I was full of imagination?” said Molyneux, feeling entitled to
draw a chair near her. “Now if there is one thing I pride myself on, it is that
subordination of fancy to reason which is characteristic, Miss Eastwood, of a
well-regulated mind. Girls of sixteen are of two classes, so far as I have
observed: honest bread-and-butter, which I rather like on the whole—or the
shy and sentimental, which, when it is not too thin, has its attractions also.
Miss Innocent, being Italian, &c., will probably belong to the last class. Now
for your idea. I have said my say.”
“My idea,” said Nelly solemnly, turning her face towards him in the glow
of the fire-light, which lighted up the soft round of her cheek, and fluttered
about her pretty figure as if caressing her, “is this: I have been reading up
‘Aurora Leigh.’ Have you read ‘Aurora Leigh’? Perhaps you do not
condescend to anything merely English, and written by a woman——”
“Pardon, this is criticism and accusation, not your idea.”
“I will send Birkson to-morrow,” said the Major in his corner, “he is the
man I always employ. He can give an estimate at least, and I will cast an eye
over it the next time I see you. I fear you must do it, though I hate all
expense that can be spared.”
“And such unnecessary expense,” sighed Mrs. Eastwood.
“Well, then,” resumed Nelly, flushing with excitement, “this is how it will
be—it is constantly so in books, and I suppose you writers ought to know.
She will be beautiful, she will be clever, far cleverer than anybody here. She
will flash upon us in our dull little house like a princess. Mamma and I will
be quenched altogether. She will be the centre of everything. When you
come to call, you will all make a circle round her to hear her talk, or to hear
her sing, or just to look at her, she will be so lovely. Probably she will sing
like an angel,—everybody does who comes from Italy. Her father will have
taught her all sorts of out-of-the-way things,—Greek and Latin, and
astrology, and I don’t know what. Poor mamma and I will try to keep her
down, you know, and be something still in our own house.”
“Why, Nelly, what wild nonsense are you talking? Do stop your
romancing, and ring for the lights.”
“Presently, mamma! We will be unkind to her, we will leave her at home
when we go out, we will make her sit up in the old schoolroom. I hope we
will have strength of mind to give her enough to eat. But whatever we do she
will shine like a star, as Major Railton beautifully says. She will outshine us
in goodness as well as in everything else. She will cast us into the shade; we
shall feel ourselves the meanest, and the wretchedest, and the stupidest, and
the ugliest——”
 “Nelly, Nelly, are you going crazy? What can you mean?”
“There’s imagination for you!” cried Molyneux; “invention, the most
daring fancy. I did not know you were a poet. ‘Aurora Leigh’ is nothing to it,
nor even ‘Cinderella.’ Now, I confess my curiosity is awakened. When is
this course of cruelty to begin?”
“Yes, mamma, it is getting quite night,” cried Nelly, springing up. “We
have been left long enough in the dark, haven’t we? Have you settled about
the stables? Oh, Major Railton, if you would be so very good! It is only a
book I want. A book is a simple sort of commission. Now please tell me if it
is troublesome, for of course I could order it at Clarke’s; but then it would
not come for a week. We are supposed to be in London here, but it is a
week’s post to Regent Street.”
“What is the good of me but to run errands?” said the gallant Major,
changing his seat in the corner for another chair more near to Nelly. “I like
it. Good heavens, I beg your pardon, Winks, how was I to see you were
there?”
Winks jumped down out of the chair on which he had been lying, in the
highest dudgeon; he took no notice of the criminal. Too much a gentleman to
say anything uncivil beyond the momentary snap and snarl which betrayed
his disinclination to be sat upon, a thing abhorrent both to dogs and men, he
hobbled to the rug, holding up one paw with a demonstration of patient
suffering, which might have melted the hardest heart. It was Winks’s
favourite paw which he never ran upon under any circumstances; but this
was a little fact which he did not mention. He took it to the matting, and
licked it, and made much of it, with a heroic abstinence from any complaint.
The Major went down on his knees, and felt the injured limb carefully, with
every expression of penitence. “The bone is not hurt, I assure you,” he said
tenderly, half to Winks and half to his mistress. The sufferer turned his head
aside during this examination, to conceal, I believe, the smile upon his
countenance.
“He is a little humbug,” said Mrs. Eastwood, but she was relieved to
know there was not much the matter. As for young Molyneux, he took a base
advantage of the incident.
“Railton is getting rather stout,” he whispered aside to Nelly, “I don’t
wonder Winks did not like it. He is broadening, one can’t deny it. Look what
a shadow he throws, blotting out you and me together.” And, indeed, the
excellent Major, foreshortened by the firelight, did throw a portentous shade
up to the very ceiling. And Nelly laughed out like a foolish girl, unable to
restrain herself, and could give no account of her laughter; but declared it
was because of Winks, who was an accomplished actor, and had taken the
Major in. “Winks, come, I am going up-stairs,” she cried; upon which the
invalid bounded from the rug, nearly upsetting the Major. And then
Brownlow came in with the two lamps, and the hour of reception was over.
Major Railton, however, lingered still for a last word about the stables, while
young Molyneux was forced to go away. To have a settled appointment, so
to speak, about the house in which dwells the young lady of your affections
is an unquestionable advantage. It secures the last word.
“Nelly, how could you talk in that wild way?” cried Mrs. Eastwood when
both were gone. “There is nothing men like so much as to think that women
are jealous of each other. It flatters their vanity. They will think you meant
every word of all that nonsense, and a pretty account they will give of us to
all our friends.”
“I did mean it,” said Nelly, “I was quite in earnest. If you will read
‘Aurora Leigh’ as I have been doing——”
“Aurora Fiddlestick,” cried Mrs. Eastwood, which, after all, was no
argument; “don’t let me hear any more such nonsense. As if any girl that was
ever born could alter one’s position in one’s own house! I am surprised at
you, Ellinor. Make haste now and dress; we are much later than usual in
consequence of your foolish talk. I suppose I must go to this fresh expense
about the stables after what the Major says,” she added, with care on her
brow; “though I am sure Frederick will no more be able to keep horses when
I die than I am now. And I don’t see why I should keep them up for remote
posterity—my great grandson, perhaps, who, if he is able to afford it at all,
should be able to build stables for himself. I don’t think I will do it, Nelly. I
will send for old Sclater to-morrow, and have the roof looked to. These men
talk as if we were made of money, especially men who have the public
money to fall back upon. It is very pleasant, I don’t doubt, to see work done
and places kept up when you never have any bills to pay.”
This little speech was delivered partly on the stairs as Mrs. Eastwood
went up to dress, followed by her daughter. Nelly, I am afraid, was not much
interested about the stables, and made no reply; but she put her head into the
little room before she began to dress, and contemplated it, admiring yet
doubtful. She had been reading “Aurora Leigh” all the morning, and the
poetry had gone to Nelly’s head, as poetry is apt to do when one is twenty.
She wondered if English nature, as represented by the elms and the lime
trees, with no hills at all, not even a green slope for a background, would
seem as tame to her cousin as English scenery in general had done to
Aurora. Nelly herself had never yet been farther than Paris, and had seen no
scenery to speak of. The blue spring sky and the primrose-covered grass,—
the play of sunshine and shadow further on in the year through the silken
green of the limes—the moonlight pouring down the avenue—filled her own
heart with a flood of soft delight. That was because she knew no better, she
argued humbly with herself; but the other, who had seen Alps and
Apennines, and snowy peaks and Italian skies! “I wonder if she will think us
tame too,” Nelly said to herself with a little shiver, as she went back to her
own room and applied herself to the work of dressing. She reflected that in
books the stranger, the orphan, the dependent, generally has it all her own
way; but that, at the same time, there was something to be said on the other
side for the tame, stay-at-home people, who did their best to satisfy the
poetic nature, even if they did not succeed. Perhaps Miss Leigh herself,
Aurora’s aunt, who had not bargained for a poet, might have had her story
too. On the whole Nelly, having completed the little room, was somewhat
depressed about its inmate. It was pretty, but she had not been able to give
quite the ideal effect she had intended. In furnishing and decoration, as well
as other matters, the highest ideal is not always the one that succeeds best.
 CHAPTER V.

FREDERICK’S WAY.
Frederick Eastwood had leave for a fortnight from his office. He was not
hardworked, as a rule. Leave was dispensed freely enough, without any very
profound investigation into the urgent affairs which demanded it. The men at
the Sealing Wax Office were something like their contemporaries of the
Household Brigade, and were allowed much leisure to make up for the
severe mental strain which their duties, so long as they lasted, imposed upon
them. Therefore he had not much difficulty in getting free at this important
family crisis. He left home the evening before his fortnight began, with a
very pretty cheque in his purse which his mother had given him. Mrs.
Eastwood’s opinion was that, as Frederick was sacrificing himself to family
duty, Frederick ought to have a recompense.
“You can buy yourself something with the rest,” she said, smiling upon
him with that confidence of being liberal and trustful which, perhaps because
it is contrary to so many of her superstitions, always makes a woman pleased
with herself.
“There are pretty alabaster things at Pisa,” said Nelly; “you may buy us
all something if you like.”
Frederick shut up his pocket-book, as in other days men used to button
their pockets. He went out of the house hastily, resolving to do neither one
thing nor the other. They closed the door upon him tranquilly, feeling that it
was Frederick’s way, and that they knew precisely how he would conduct
himself on this expedition. But the truth is that no soul more utterly
unknown to that excellent family went out of all London that day. They
knew absolutely nothing about him. The anticipations which made his eyes
glow as soon as he was safe in his Hansom, and could look as he liked,
would have been absolutely incomprehensible to his family. Could they have
seen into his mind, they would have refused to believe in the reality of what
they saw. I hope it may be in my power to reveal to the reader with less
difficulty what Frederick Eastwood really was. He had a fine exterior—
dainty, and delicate, and refined. To see him you would have imagined his
faults to be faults of the mind; high temper, perhaps, irresolution and
weakness in critical circumstances, intentions which were fundamentally
good though often mistaken, and a wrong-headed obstinacy and self-opinion
when he did decide upon any thing, which is quite compatible with
irresolution in great matters. This is what the cursory observer would have
supposed him to be; and this is what his family thought of him. He was not
clever in managing his own affairs, they knew; he was undecided about
matters which required firmness, and obstinate about trifles. He had no idea
of the magnitudes of differing objects, but would insist upon some trifling
point in an argument while he yielded the great ones. All these faults, real or
supposed, were in harmony with his looks, and with the impression he made
upon most people who met him. A Charles the First sort of man—wrong-
headed, melancholy, virtuous, meaning the very best but not always able to
carry out his meaning, and now and then betrayed into subterfuge by very
indecision. This was the manner in which he was regarded by his friends.
I am afraid this was not, however, at all the real state of affairs. It is
difficult to describe the true condition of his mind without using what the
newspapers call vulgar expressions, and without venturing upon ground little
known to or studied by the writer of this history. I do not know after what
fashion the artisan enjoys himself when, after a long spell of respectability,
his wife informs me, weeping or indignant, that he has gone off “on the
spree;” and still less do I know what experiences are gone through by a
young gentleman of quality when, obeying the same impulse, he also breaks
loose from decorum and plunges into occasional dissipation. There are other
pens in plenty which can inform the curious reader; but for my part, though I
may guess, I do not know. Frederick Eastwood, however, though he was
rather a fine gentleman than otherwise, was as much subject to this influence
as any undisciplined working man with good wages and rampant senses.
This was the secret, the mystery, and, by consequence, the centre of his life.
His training, his wishes, his pride, all the traditions of his own and his
family’s history, bound him to the only career which is not ruin for men in
his condition—a life in accordance with the ordinary rules of virtue and
respectability. He had not any of the great qualities which make society
pardon an occasional aberration; nor was he rich enough to be vicious
decorously, even had that been possible. Besides, he did not want to be
permanently vicious, nor, indeed, to sin at all if he could have helped it. He
felt the importance of character as highly as any man could feel it, and clung
to his good repute with a tenacity all the more desperate that he alone was
aware how much he now and then put it in peril. But that other impulse was
as a fire within him—that impulse to burst away from all routine and self-
control—to throw every restraint to the winds, and follow for a brief
delirious interval only the wild suggestions of the senses, wherever they
might lead him. Where they did lead him I have no intention of following.
But this was the key to the somewhat strange and incomprehensible aspect
which he presented to his fellows. He never got into mischief sociably with
his contemporaries. They thought him on the whole rather a Puritan; though
there were inevitable echoes of something against him wandering vaguely
about his club and among the men who had been with him at the University.
But all that was known and seen of his life was so spotless and respectable
that the whisper of hostility was hushed. The question why a young man so
blameless should be often so moody, and always so uncommunicative, had
been solved in the feminine world in the most romantic manner, by the
theory that he was like Charles the First. But men did not take up this notion
so readily. There were various strange “ways” about him which were very
mysterious to his friends: a certain secrecy, in itself carefully concealed, and
watchfulness, as of a man about whom something might some day be found
out. When his fever fit was coming on, he would grow restless, shifty,
anxious, declining his ordinary engagements, shutting himself up in his own
room, morose with his family, and impatient of all usual intercourse. A
headache, or a cold, or some other slight ailment, was the reason easily
accepted by the innocent people about him—and at the very nick of time
some invitation would arrive for a week’s shooting, or other agreeable
occupation, which would “set him up,” everybody thought. Whether he was
resisting the devil at these preliminary moments, or merely concocting plans
by which he might get free and secure the opportunity of self-indulgence, I
cannot tell. I believe, strange as it may seem to say it, that he was doing
both.
But the devil got the best of the argument, as he generally does when
what are called “the passions” are excited, and the craving for enjoyment, to
which some natures are so susceptible, sets in. This curious byeway of the
human mind is one which a great many of us have been forced to study
much against our will: when all the desires of the mind seem set upon the
better way, and sore repentance, religious feeling, and rational conviction of
the fatal character of the indulgence, seem certainly to promise victory, but
are all upset at the critical moment by that irresistible sense of the pleasure
within reach, which overcomes at once all spiritual and all prudential
considerations. Frederick Eastwood reasoned with himself, condemned
himself, understood the whole situation; he even prayed, with tears, against
the besetting sin, about the character of which he could have no doubt. But
all the time that hankering after the delight of it lay in the background; with
a corner of his mental eye, so to speak, he saw how best to attain the
gratification, and with a rush snatched it. Recollections of the sweetness of it
last time would flash across his mind, even at the very height of his
resolution to avoid it next time. He knew all that could be said about those
apples of Sodom, which are so beautiful to look at, but are as ashes in the
mouth. This is one of the set things which preachers and sinners are alike
ready to say together; but the fact is that a great many people like the taste of
the ashes, as Frederick did. The pleasure of anticipating that mouthful had
more force upon him than all the arguments which, with hot zeal, he had so
often used to himself.
He had been wavering on the very edge of downfall when this mission to
bring home Innocent came, as it were, in his way. He accepted it as—we
cannot say a godsend, or a gift from heaven—but as an almost supernatural
provision for his necessities, a kind of counter-Providence, if we may use the
word. So strange are the vagaries of human nature, that Frederick felt a sort
of pious thankfulness steal over him when he saw before him this
opportunity for a break-out which would be unsuspected by his friends. This
time it would require no scheming, no fictitious invitation; which was one of
the reasons why he went off with such exhilarated feelings. He bore the
Channel far better than Dick could have believed, being supported by his
pleasurable anticipations, and arrived in Paris in a delightful turmoil of
expectation. He was free! He could do what he liked—go where he liked! He
had some money of his own in his pocket, and the letter of credit his mother
had given him. Plenty of money, no restraint, and in Paris! He settled himself
in an hotel not too much frequented by English, and made up his mind really
to enjoy himself, and take the good of his opportunities, for a week at least.
He went into it with a plunge, just as his less elevated contemporary
would go “on the spree.” But, fortunately or unfortunately, there is no
concealment about the latter process. It is received as a kind of painful
necessity by the poor women who suffer most by it; and the record does not
put the culprit at any great moral disadvantage. It is otherwise in the higher
classes. Frederick went everywhere where he ought not to go; did everything
that was most unbecoming and inappropriate. He did not get intoxicated, but
he drank a great deal of champagne, and kept himself in a state of reckless
excitement from day to day; and he got into the very cream of bad company
—the company of people who shocked all his prejudices and revolted his
good taste, but yet swept him along on that wild tide of pleasure, which was
what he wanted. He had got a fortnight’s leave, to accomplish the journey to
Pisa and back, to console his little cousin, and win her confidence, and bring
her kindly home. It was, however, ten days after he had left London when he
woke up from his wild dream in Paris, his money all but exhausted, his
frame worn out, his faculty of enjoyment at an end. That was not a pleasant
waking, as may be readily supposed. He came to himself among the husks of
his pleasures, and cursed them, and repented. He had done it a great many
times before.
This time, however, there were unfortunate complications. He had still a
long journey to make, and no time to do it in; and he had heavy expenses of
travelling still to encounter, and no money to pay them. What was he to do?
Cursing those husks of pleasure is one thing, and re-making them into the
gold they represent is quite another. He did not dare to write to his mother,
and show her that he was still in Paris. He would rather die, he thought, than
compromise the position which was every thing to him, or betray the secret
of his life. Yet he must go on somehow, and accomplish his mission. With a
racking headache and a despairing heart he began to count up his remaining
coins, and calculate the time necessary for his journey. Time and money
alike would just suffice to take him to Pisa. He had but realized this fact,
without drawing any conclusion from it, when some one knocked at his door.
He was in a second-rate hotel, but occupied its best room—a chamber all
gorgeous with mirrors and marble tables and bronze candelabra. He
hurriedly drew the curtains of the alcove which held his bed, and in a
querulous tone bade his visitor enter. To his disgust and confusion he saw,
when the door opened, the only Englishman whom he had encountered—a
middle-aged man, in sporting costume and with boisterous manners, who
had joined Frederick’s party (always against his will) on various occasions,
and now came forward with horrible cordiality, holding out a red, fat hand,
which seemed to the unfortunate prodigal the greasiest and dirtiest that he
had ever shaken. He touched this paw reluctantly, with a repugnance in
which some alarm and a sense of the necessity of giving nobody offence was
mingled. He did not know who the man was. Had he been in other
circumstances he would have repudiated his acquaintance haughtily; but at
present he had the painful consciousness upon him that he was in
everybody’s power.
“Well, sir, how are you after last night?” said his visitor. “Hope you find
yourself tolerably well after p’tey soupey? It’s played the very deuce with
me, though I ought to be seasoned. You young ones have all the odds in your
favour. Thought you’d feel yourself pulled up hard this morning, after the
champagne—and the bill. Ha, ha! the bill; that’s the worst fun of it all;
barring that, sir, this sort of life would be too pleasant to be true. The bill
keeps us in mind that we’re mortal, hey?”
“I don’t feel myself in any danger of forgetting that fact,” said Frederick
stiffly.
He intended to answer with dignity and distance, but his mingled dislike
to and fear of his visitor introduced a complaining, querulous tone into his
voice. He seemed, even to himself, to be whimpering over a hard fate,
instead of uttering a mere morality with the loftiness of a superior. And
somehow, as he spoke, he looked at the table, where “Bradshaw” lay spread
out beside the unhappy remains of his money, the few miserable gold pieces
which he had left. The man gave a suppressed whistle at this sight.
“So bad as that?” he said, shrugging his shoulders. “Mr. Eastwood, I’ve
been keeping my eye upon you. I mean well, if I’m a little rough; and if you
won’t ask me to sit down, I’ll take it upon myself to do so, if you’ll excuse
me; for I haven’t yet got over the effects of last night. I know your name?—
yes, sir. It’s a good name, and I take an interest in all that bear it. Related to
Sir Geoffrey, I don’t doubt, Mr. Frederick Eastwood? There’s how I know,
sir. Picked it up the other night, after you’d been dining; and, if you’ll
believe me, I’ve taken an interest in you ever since.”
“You are very good, I am sure—though you have so much the advantage
of me,” said Frederick, more stiff than ever, yet afraid to show his
resentment; for the fellow, as he called him in his heart, held out in his fat
hand a card, bearing his respectable name at full, with the most immaculate
of addresses—that of the Junior Minerva Club. Even his home address
would have been less terrible. There are dozens of “Elms” about London, but
only one Junior Minerva. He looked at the card with a dismay which he
could not conceal. He stood upright by his chair, not following the example
of his visitor. He would have liked to kick him down stairs, or to thrust him
out of the window; but he dared not do it. It seemed to his feverish eyes that
this man held his reputation, his character, everything that he cared for in the
world within his greasy hands.
“I’m naturally interested,” his visitor went on, “for I was born and bred
up on the Eastwood estates, near to Sterborne, if you know it. Very glad to
see you, sir, when you come in my direction. To be sure I have the advantage
of you. My name is Batty—Charles Batty—at your service. I drive a good
trade in the way of horses by times, though I call myself an auctioneer, and
don’t refuse no jobs as will pay. Bless you, I’d buy libraries as soon as
yearlings, and get my profit out of them, though it’s slower. Mr. Eastwood,
sir, knowing the respectable family you come from and all your excellent
connexions, and your address at your club, &c., &c., I should not say, sir, but
what I might also be of use to you.”
Misery, we are told, makes us acquainted with strange bedfellows. So
does that modern form of misery called impecuniosity, which has its agonies
more sharp than any primitive form of privation or pain. It is one of the
worst penalties of the want of money, that the subject of that fatal want feels
such eagerness to anticipate help that he is ready to look for it in the most
unlikely places, and in his extremity will stretch his hand out in the dark to
meet anybody’s grasp. This rash eagerness of desperation specially belongs
to the exhausted state of mind and purse in which Frederick now found
himself. He was past all calculation of probabilities, ready to seize upon any
shadow of aid, however attained. Insensibly he slid into his chair, and a faint
gleam of hope and light seemed to diffuse itself in the dull air around him.
He took a rapid survey of the situation. His repugnance for the man who sat
opposite to him, watching his movements, was not in any degree lessened;
but he reflected that anyhow he had betrayed himself to this man. Stranger
and vaurien though he seemed, he held the character of the accomplished
Frederick Eastwood in his hands; and every principle of self-preservation,
and of that respect for the world’s opinion which was his curse and his
punishment, moved him to try what means he could of bringing some
advantage out of this now inevitable evil. He seated himself with a sigh of
impatience and wretchedness, sheathing his sword, so to speak.
“The truth is, I am in a scrape, and I don’t see my way out of it,” he said.
“Tell me all about it, Mr. Eastwood; I’ll find a way out of it,” said Batty,
rubbing his greasy hands.
I suppose they were greasy hands. At all events, it was this particular
which dwelt on Frederick’s memory and revolted his fine feelings. Ugh! the
thought made him sick years after. In the meantime, however, he had no time
to be nice.
“The fact is,” he said, with hesitation, “that I was on my way to Italy on
business”—— Here he paused, remembering what Batty had said of an
interest in the Eastwoods. “On family business. I had something to do—of
importance; and I have been—detained here.”
This euphemism delighted his companion. He gave a horse-laugh, which
affected Frederick’s nerves. “Yes; you have been—detained here: I
understand. By Jove, you are fun,” said this appreciative listener.
Frederick took no notice of the vulgar outburst. Now that he had business
in hand he could be clear enough. He laid bare his necessities to this strange
and novel adviser. There is no telling—as men in Frederick Eastwood’s
condition easily find out—in what strange regions money, and the
inclination to lend it, may be found. Nothing could be less promising than
this coarse Englishman, who had thrust himself into the young man’s path so
much against his will; and yet in this unlikely quarter salvation was to be
found. We need not concern ourselves here about Mr. Batty’s motives.
“I thought you looked too much a swell to be a commercial gent, sir,” he
exclaimed later; “but when I picked up that card you might have knocked me
down with a feather. Eastwoods has always been the height of quality in my
eyes. I have been born and bred on their lands; and as for good-will to serve
’em—here’s a way to prove it.”
Frederick was no neophyte, to put the unbounded confidence of a boy in
these fine speeches; but he knew that there are a great many kinds of money-
lenders, and that there are people in the world who are to be influenced, even
to the supreme length of opening their purses, by a good name and a well-
known address. Besides, after all there was no great risk attendant upon
Batty’s generosity. A man in a public office—a man with a character—is not
likely to allow himself to be ruined for a matter of fifty pounds, especially
when he has a mother full of innocent credulity to fall back upon. Thus the
bargain was made, which was to Frederick, as soon as it became certain, an
insignificant transaction. The moment he had signed the note and got the
money, his despair of an hour ago seemed incredible to him, and all his
objections to Batty recurred in double force.
“If you are ever down my way, I’ll hope you’ll eat a bit of mutton with
me,” said the hospitable usurer: “not salmis and vol-à-vent, Mr. Eastwood,
for we ain’t up to that; but sound English mutton, with a glass of good wine
to wash it down. And I’ll show you a stable that will make your mouth
water.”
Frederick, who had become stiff again, bowed and thanked him from a
mountain-top of superiority—and it was Batty’s hope to spend another
evening in his society which determined him on the virtuous step of quitting
Paris that night.
What was his brain busy about as he rolled out of the wicked, seductive
city, where all vice betakes itself with the hope of being tempted, in that chill
spring evening, between the lamps and the stars? His head was confused
with all he had passed through. The fumes of his “pleasures” were still in it,
mingled with the disgust which is inevitable, but which floats away still
more quickly than the fumes of the “pleasures.” The thrill of his hairbreadth
escape was also vibrating through him; but a man of Frederick Eastwood’s
habits soon gets used to that thrill of escape. He was concocting and putting
in order a reasonable way of accounting for his acquaintance with such a
man as Batty, should it ever become known to his friends. All at once, while
he was arranging his bargain with Batty, this had flashed upon his mind. He
would not conceal that, having a day or two to pass in Paris, he had
determined on going to a purely French hotel, to escape the mass of
travelling English who fill up every corner; with the view of seeing
Frenchmen as they are, he had gone to this obscure hostelrie; and there, by
an odd chance, he had found this rough Englishman stranded, not knowing
the language—thrown, as it were, upon his charity. “A scamp, of course, and
thoroughly objectionable; but what could one do?” Frederick said to himself,
as he made up his story. His story seemed to himself so satisfactory that it
really accounted for the acquaintance, even to his own mind. He recalled to
recollection that he had been obliged to interpret for his unpleasant
compatriot, and the fiction gradually consolidated into fact. He believed it
himself long before he had reached the Marseilles steamboat which was the
next step in his hurried way.
 CHAPTER VI.

PISA.
Frederick had left Paris between the lamps and the stars, as I have said, on
a chilly night, when the darkness and confusion in his own mind agreed
better with the mist and rolling steam that made a cloud about the train as it
dashed into the darkness, than with the serene celestial lights which tried in
vain to penetrate that veil of vapour. He came into the harbour at Leghorn
again between stars and lamps, but this time in the blue-green dawn of an
Italian spring morning, too early for any stir except that which attended the
arrival of the steamer. Do people still have that long promenade sur l’eau
through the green sea basin from point to point before they are allowed to
land, and be subjected to the final examination at the Dogana? I suppose all
that has been changed with so many other things, with the abolition of
passports, and other hindrances to the traveller. Frederick Eastwood did not
now feel so hurried as when he was in Paris. He had arranged how he was to
write home, and to telegraph to the office, begging for the extra week’s leave
which was inevitable. He wrote his mother a long letter, telling her how he
had been seized with “unpleasant symptoms” in Paris, but would not send
her word of it lest he should alarm her; how he had managed to come on to
Leghorn, taking the journey easily, and really had not suffered as he feared
he would; how, on the whole, he was much better; how he intended to
proceed to Pisa in the evening after a rest; and how within a week they might
expect to see him back with his cousin. “Don’t be uneasy about me,” he said,
“I am really a great deal better. I feel sure I shall now get home quite
comfortably; but, as you remarked before I left, I was not well when I started
—too much confinement, I suppose”—— I don’t attempt to explain this
other fiction which he put forth with perfect gravity, and without much
feeling of guiltiness. “Unpleasant symptoms” might mean anything, and I
fear that from schoolboy days the excuses given at home are not judged by a
very high standard of truthfulness. Frederick’s conscience did not trouble
him much on this subject. He telegraphed to his chief at the office,
announcing his detention by illness, without entering into any particulars as
to where that illness had occurred, and claiming so many days’ extension of
leave as would re-establish his health for the journey home. He felt ill
enough, it must be allowed, after all he had gone through—ill enough almost
to feel justified in the report he gave of his ailing condition—“seedy,” as he
would have called it, to the last degree. He could not eat anything, he slept
badly, his lips were parched, his hand hot and tremulous, and his looks bore
him unimpeachable testimony, better than a medical certificate. Yet he felt
rather happy in his unhappiness, as he rested and tried to eat a little minestra
at the hotel at Leghorn. It was not so good as the bouillon he would have got
in Paris, or the beef-tea at home, but it was all he was capable of. In the
evening he proceeded on his short railway journey to Pisa—and on the way
his mind, if not his body, mended rapidly. It was again dark when he arrived.
He went to one of the hotels on the Lung’ Arno, and took a feeble walk in
the evening to see the place, though so little could be seen. He had never
been in Italy before, and though the circumstances were such as to damp
enthusiasm, there was in Frederick’s mind a certain new-born freshness of a
man returned to the paths of duty which we can compare to nothing but the
feelings of one recovering from an illness. It was over; he felt languid, weak,
but good. He had turned his back alike on temptation and upon sin. He was
convalescent. Now there is no real moral excellence in being convalescent
even after a fever; but that sufferer must have had unkindly tending and little
love about him in his malady, who does not feel that it is good of him to get
better, and that he has done something for which all his friends are justly
grateful to him. Frederick, though he had no friends to be grateful, felt
precisely in this condition. He felt good. In Paris he had felt miserable,
mournful, and what he called penitent—that is he had felt that pleasure
carried too far ends by becoming unpleasant, and that it costs very dear, and
that the amount of satisfaction to be got out of it is scarcely proportioned to
the outlay. This mood had lasted during the greater part of his journey. But
after a man has so accounted for his misfortunes as Frederick had done, and
has got the means of beginning again, and feels himself clear of the toils for
the time being, such a mood does not last very long; and by the time he
reached Pisa he had got fully into the convalescent state, and felt good.
While his dinner was preparing he took a walk down by the side of Arno, in
which once more the stars above and the lamps below were reflecting
themselves with serene composure, the lights of heaven asserting no proud
superiority over the lights of earth; and then turned aside to that wonderful
group of buildings of which everybody has heard. Nothing in all Italy
belongs to our childhood like that leaning tower. Frederick looked up at it,
bending towards him through the darkness, and recollected pictures in books
at home which his mother had shown him of evenings when he stood by her
knee in pinafores, before “life” began. His reminiscences gave the softest
domestic turn to his mind, and made him feel still more good than before.
Even in the dark there were still some beggars about, flitting out of corners
at the sight of the stranger, and he emptied his pocket among them, giving
them francs and half francs with a wild liberality which increased tenfold the
numbers of these waiters upon Providence next evening in the Piazza del
Duomo. There were fitful gleams of moonlight coming now and then from
out a mass of clouds, and sending broad beams of momentary glory behind
and between the different buildings. Frederick was awed and impressed, as
well as touched and softened. This was like the higher light of religious
feeling coming in to elevate the domestic piety to which his heart had been
suddenly opened by recollection. Thus impressed and ameliorated the
convalescent walked back to his hotel to dinner, and was able to eat
something, the reader will be glad to hear.
It was late, and he did not feel disposed to break the almost holy calm of
his feelings after so many agitations, by making any effort to see his cousin
that evening. He looked up at the tall houses as he went along, wondering if
perhaps one of the faint lights he saw might be hers, but he was content to
remain in this state of doubt till next day. One night could make little
difference. When he had finished the meal, which was slight, but more
satisfactory than anything he had been able to have since he left Paris, he
made inquiries of the genial Italian waiter as to the position of the Palazzo
Scaramucci, and whether anything was known of its English inhabitants.
Antonio indicated to him exactly where the house was, and was eager to add
that he knew the servant of the English gentleman who had died there.
“Figure to yourself,” he said, “that Mademoiselle, his daughter, is all alone
in that house of the dead.” The conversation was carried on in French, and
Antonio was eloquent. He gave the stranger instantly a sketch of the girl thus
left without any one to take care of her. “Letters have come from the friends
in England, but no one has arrived,” said Antonio. “What kind of hearts can
they have, blessed Madonna! Niccolo does not know what will become of
the poor young lady. The Forestieri here are kind to her, but what is that
when she is left all alone by her friends? Monsieur perhaps may know some
of her friends? She is a beautiful young lady, but strange, neither like the
English Meeses, nor the Italian Signorine, and Niccolo says——”
 “Did you say she was beautiful?” said Frederick. This was a particular
which it was impossible to hear without a certain interest.
“She will be beautiful when she is older, when she has more
embonpoint,” said Antonio. “But she is not English in her beauty, nor in
anything else. Niccolo says she will sit for days together and never speak.
She had a very strange father. He is buried in the English cemetery, so I
believe all must be right. But in my opinion, though Monsieur may think it
droll, the old Englishman was tant soit peu sorcier!”
“Sorcier?” said Frederick, with a languid smile.
“Of course Monsieur thinks it droll—but for my part I believe he has
thrown a spell over Mademoiselle. No one can melt her. She sheds no tear,
Niccolo says. She listens to the English ladies without replying a word. The
only Christian thing about her is that she goes often to St. Maria della Spina,
the little, little, very little church which Monsieur may have remarked; and
as she is Protestant, I suppose that must be a sin. Perhaps, if Monsieur knows
any of the English in Pisa, he will be able to see this strange and beautiful
young girl”——
“Perhaps,” said Frederick, taking the key of his bedroom and the candle
from Antonio’s hand. He did not choose to say that he was the lingering
messenger whom her friends had sent for Innocent. But his mind was
compassionately moved towards her. Beauty is always a point in
everybody’s favour, and the sense of power and protection in himself was
pleasant to him. It quite completed, if anything had been wanted to do so, the
rehabilitation of Frederick Eastwood in Frederick Eastwood’s own eyes.
What a change his appearance would make in the position of this deserted
young creature, whose melancholy soul no doubt only wanted the touch of
his kindness and compassion to rouse it into warmer life! “Poor child,” he
said to himself almost tenderly, as he went to bed. He would be a brother to
her, and to do them justice at home, they would be good to the poor girl. Yet
somehow he could not but feel that his own influence, as the first to go to
her, would do most for Innocent. The thought diffused a pleasant warmth
and revival about his heart.
Pisa is not a cheerful place. It has neither the beauty of situation, nor the
brightness of aspect, nor even the larger historical interest which belongs to
Florence, its near neighbour and whilom rival. It has fallen out of the race as
a town may do as well as an individual. But, on the other hand, it has no
keen ice-wind to sweep its streets like those that chill the very blood in your
veins in the deep ravines cut through lofty blocks of houses which form the
Florentine streets. The equable temperature of Pisa hangs about it like a
cloud, stilling the life in it that it may never grow loud enough to disturb the
invalids who set up their tents in those old palaces. They have a little society
among themselves, gentle, monotonous, and dull, such as befits invalids. A
great many English people are in that subdued winter population, people
who are, or are supposed to be, poitrinaires, and people in attendance upon
these sufferers, and finally, people who go because other people go, without
either knowing or caring about the special advantages of the place. An
English doctor and his wife, and an English clergyman and his wife, are
generally to be found in all such places, and most usually these excellent
persons do all they can to reduce the little colony of English, living in the
midst of the quaint old foreign town, into the aspect of a village or small
country place in England, where everybody talks of everybody, and knows
his or her domestic grievances by heart. Mr. Vane, when he came to Pisa to
die, had sought the assistance of the doctor, but not of the clergyman; so it
was Mrs. Drainham, and not Mrs. St. John, who had taken Innocent in hand
when her father died, and had tried to make something of the forlorn girl.
Though Frederick of course knew nothing about this, two letters had been
despatched but a few days before to Mrs. Eastwood and another relation,
adjuring them to come to the help of the young stranger. The doctor had
himself written in a business like way to Sir Edmund Vane, but Mrs.
Drainham had taken Mrs. Eastwood in hand, and had written her what both
herself and the doctor felt to be a very touching letter. The author of this
affecting composition had been reading it over to some select friends on the
very evening on which Frederick arrived in Pisa. Dr. and Mrs. Drainham
lived on the first floor of the Casa Piccolomini, on the sunny side of the
Arno, in a very imposing apartment, where they often assembled round them
a little society “in a very quiet way,” for the doctor himself was something of
an invalid, and practised in Pisa as much for his own health as for that of his
patients. They were people who were generally understood to be well off, an
opinion which it is good for everybody, and especially for professional
people, to cultivate about themselves. Every Wednesday and Saturday, tea
and thin bread and butter, cut exactly as bread and butter is in England, were
to be had from eight till eleven in the Drainhams’ handsome drawing-room.
On the evening in question the English colony at Pisa was very well
represented in this modest assembly. There was Mr. and Mrs. St. John,
accompanied by a gentle young English curate with pulmonary symptoms,
who was staying with them, and giving the benefit of his services when he
felt able for it. There was old Mr. Worsley and his pretty daughters, one of
whom was suffering from bronchitis, and the other from ennui, the latter the
more deadly malady of the two. The healthy portion of the population was
rather in the background, and not held in much estimation. Mr. St. John
himself, who now weighed nearly sixteen stone, had come to Pisa also with
pulmonary symptoms, and was fond of citing himself as an instance of the
cures effected by its wonderful equability of temperature. “But a winter in
England would kill me still. I could never survive a winter in England,” he
would say, tapping his ample bosom with his hand, and coughing to show
that he had not quite lost the habit. On this particular occasion he uttered
these words, which were very frequent on his lips, in order to console and
encourage poor little Mrs. O’Carroll, the wife of a gigantic Irishman, who
had broken all his bones one after another in riding across country, and who
stood gaunt and tall in a corner conversing with the doctor, with red spots
upon his high cheekbones, and a hollow circle round his big eyes, which did
not promise such a comfortable termination.
“Oh, then, and you’ll tell Harry,” said the anxious woman, with the
mellow tones of her country. “You’ll tell him all about it, Mr. Singin, dear,
and what you took, and how you lived?”
“There is nothing to tell, my dear lady,” said the clergyman. “Pisa air, and
a regular life, and taking care never to be out late or early, and nourishing
food as much as I could take. But the air is the great thing. There is a
serenity and equability in this Italian climate.”
“Ah, then!” cried poor Mrs. O’Carroll, “to get him to take care is all the
battle. He never was ill in his life, and he won’t allow he’s ill, not if I were to
preach to him night and day.”
The only persons present who had no uncomfortable symptoms were two
ladies who sometimes dominated the party, and sometimes were snubbed
and cast into the shade, according to the influence which prevailed. These
were the two Miss Boldings, ladies in the earlier half of middle-age, one of
whom studied Art, while the other studied Italy; women of perfect
independence, and perfect robustness, who when Mr. St. John was not there,
carried matters with a high hand, and dismissed the question of health as
unworthy to occupy the first place in the conversation. “You think a great
deal too much about your lungs,” Miss Bolding would say. “Let them alone,