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Posobie English For IT Students
Posobie English For IT Students
Федотова О.В.
АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК
ДЛЯ СФЕРЫ
ИНФОРМАЦИОННЫХ ТЕХНОЛОГИЙ
ENGLISH
FOR INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY STU-
DENTS
Учебное пособие
Белгород 2018
ББК 81.2 Англ. Я73
Ф34
Печатается по решению
редакционно-издательского совета
Педагогического института НИУ «БелГУ»
Автор-составитель:
Федотова О.В., к.ф.н., доцент кафедры английского языка и мето-
дики преподавания факультета иностранных языков Педагогиче-
ского института Белгородского государственного национального
исследовательского университета
Рецензенты:
Тарамжина Л.В., к.ф.н., доцент кафедры современных европей-
ских языков Института иностранных языков РГПУ им.
А.И. Герцена (Санкт-Петербург)
Степаненко С.Н., к.ф.н., доцент кафедры английского языка и ме-
тодики преподавания факультета иностранных языков Педагогиче-
ского института НИУ «БелГУ» (Белгород)
2
ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ
4
CONTENTS
ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ 3
UNIT 1
COMPUTER HISTORY 6
UNIT 2
HARDWARE 25
UNIT 3
SOFTWARE 47
UNIT 4
WORLD WIDE WEB 74
UNIT 5
COMPUTER CRIME AND SECURITY 99
UNIT 6
VIRUSES AND VACCINES 120
UNIT 7 135
ROBOTICS
GLOSSARY 150
of Computing Terms and Abbreviations
5
UNIT 1
COMPUTER HISTORY
VOCABULARY
Memorise the following words and word-combinations:
abacus machine semiconductor
binary code/notation mainframe silicon
desktop (computer) mechanical switch to add
electrical circuit microcomputer to subtract
embedded computer microprocessor transistor
handheld computer minicomputers vacuum tube
integrated circuit palmtop (computer)
TEXT
THE COMPUTER EMERGES!
Early Start. Computers have been around for quite a few
years. Some of your parents were probably around in 1951 when
the first computer was bought by a business firm. Computers have
changed so rapidly many people can not keep up with changes.
One newspaper tried to relate how the fast changes in computer
technology would look to a similar pace in the auto industry:
"Had the automobile developed at a pace (equal) to that of
the computer during the past twenty years, today a Rolls Royce
would cost less than $3.00, get 3 million miles to the gallon, de-
liver enough power to drive (the ship) the Queen Elizabeth II, and
six of them would fit on the head of a pin!"
These changes have occurred so rapidly that many people
do not know how our modern computer got its start.
The First Computing Machines "Computers". Since an-
cient times, people have had ways to deal with data and numbers.
Early people tied knots in rope and carved marks on clay tablets
to keep track of livestock and trade. Some people considered the
5000 year old abacus – a frame with beads strung on wires to be
the first true computing aid. As trade and tax system grew in
complexity, people saw that faster, more reliable and exact tools
were needed for doing math and keeping records.
6
In the mid-1600's, Blaise Pascal and his father, who was a
tax officer himself, were working on taxes for the French gov-
ernment in Paris. The two spent hours figuring and refiguring tax-
es that each citizen owed. Young Blaise decided in 1642 to build
an adding and subtraction machine that could aide in such a tedi-
ous and time consuming process. The machine Blaise made had a
set of eight gears that worked together much like an odometer
keeps track of a car's mileage. His machine encountered many of
problems. For one, it was always breaking down. Second, the
machine was slow and extremely costly. And third, people were
afraid to use the machine thinking it might replace their jobs.
Pascal later became famous for math and philosophy, but he is
still remembered for his role in computer technology. In his hon-
our, there is a computer language named Pascal.
The next big step for computers arrived in the 1830's when
Charles Babbage decided to build a machine to help him complete
and print mathematical tables. Babbage was a mathematician who
taught at Cambridge University in England. He began planning
his calculating machine calling it the Analytical Engine. The idea
for this machine was amazingly like the computer we know to-
day. It was to read a program from punched cards, figure and
store the answers to different problems, and print the answer on
paper. Babbage died before he could complete the machine. How-
ever because of his remarkable ideas and work, Babbage is known
as the Father of Computers.
The next huge step for computers came when Herman Hol-
lerith entered a contest given by the U.S. Census Bureau. The
contest was to see who could build a machine that would count
and record information faster. Hollerith, a young man working for
the Bureau built a machine called the Tabulating Machine that
read and sorted data from punched cards. The holes punched in
the cards matched each person's answers to questions. For exam-
ple, married, single, and divorced were answers on the cards. The
Tabulator read the punched cards as they passed over tiny brush-
es. Each time a brush found a hole, it completed an electrical cir-
cuit. This caused special counting dials to increase the data for
7
that answer.
Thanks to Hollerith's machine, instead of taking seven and a
half years to count the census information it only took three years,
even with 13 million more people since the last census. Happy
with his success, Hollerith formed the Tabulating Machine Com-
pany in 1896. The company later was sold in 1911. And in 1912
his company became the International Business Machines Corpo-
ration, better known today as IBM.
The First Electric Powered Computer. What is considered
to be the first computer was made in 1944 by Harvard's Professor
Howard Aiken. The Mark I computer was very much like the de-
sign of Charles Babbage's having mainly mechanical parts, but
with some electronic parts. His machine was designed to be pro-
grammed to do many computer jobs. This all-purpose machine is
what we now know as the PC or personal computer. The Mark I
was the first computer financed by IBM and was about 50 feet
long and 8 feet tall. It used mechanical switches to open and close
its electric circuits. It contained over 500 miles of wire and
750,000 parts.
The First Electronic Computer. The first all electronic
computer was the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Computer). ENIAC was a general purpose digital computer built
in 1946 by J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly. The ENIAC con-
tained over 18,000 vacuum tubes (used instead of the mechanical
switches of the Mark I) and was 1000 times faster than the Mark
I. In twenty seconds, ENIAC could do a math problem that
would have taken 40 hours for one person to finish. The ENIAC
was built the time of World War II had as its first job to calculate
the feasibility of a design for the hydrogen bomb. The ENIAC
was 100 feet long and 10 feet tall.
More Modern Computers. A more modern type computer
began with John von Neumann's development of software written
in binary code. It was von Neumann who began the practice of
storing data and instructions in binary code and initiated the use
of memory to store data, as well as programs. A computer called
the EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Computer) was built
8
using binary code in 1950. Before the EDVAC, computers like
the ENIAC could do only one task then they had to be rewired to
perform a different task or program. The EDVAC's concept of
storing different programs on punched cards instead of rewiring
computers led to the computers that we know today.
While the modern computer is far better and faster than the
EDVAC of its time, computers of today would not have been pos-
sible with the knowledge and work of many great inventors and
pioneers.
Generations of Computers. A generation refers to the state
of improvement in the development of a product. This term is also
used in the different advancements of computer technology. With
each new generation, the circuitry has gotten smaller and more
advanced than the previous generation before it. As a result of the
miniaturization, speed, power, and memory of computers have
proportionally increased. New discoveries are constantly being
developed that affect the way we live, work and play.
The First Generation: 1946-1958 (The Vacuum Tube
Years). The first generation computers were huge, slow, expen-
sive, and often undependable. In 1946 two Americans, Presper
Eckert, and John Mauchly built the ENIAC electronic computer
which used vacuum tubes instead of the mechanical switches of
the Mark I. The ENIAC used thousands of vacuum tubes, which
took up a lot of space and gave off a great deal of heat just like
light bulbs do. The ENIAC led to other vacuum tube type com-
puters like the EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic
Computer) and the UNIVAC I (UNIVersal Automatic Computer).
The vacuum tube was an extremely important step in the
advancement of computers. Vacuum tubes were invented the
same time the light bulb was invented by Thomas Edison and
worked very similar to light bulbs. Its purpose was to act like an
amplifier and a switch. Without any moving parts, vacuum tubes
could take very weak signals and make the signal stronger (ampli-
fy it). Vacuum tubes could also stop and start the flow of elec-
tricity instantly (switch). These two properties made the ENIAC
computer possible.
9
The ENIAC gave off so much heat that they had to be
cooled by gigantic air conditioners. However even with these
huge coolers, vacuum tubes still overheated regularly. It was time
for something new.
The Second Generation: 1959-1964 (The Era of the Tran-
sistor). The transistor computer did not last as long as the vacuum
tube computer lasted, but it was no less important in the ad-
vancement of computer technology. In 1947 three scientists, John
Bardeen, William Shockley, and Walter Brattain working at
AT&T's Bell Labs invented what would replace the vacuum tube
forever. This invention was the transistor which functions like a
vacuum tube in that it can be used to relay and switch electronic
signals.
There were obvious differences between the transistor and
the vacuum tube. The transistor was faster, more reliable, smaller,
and much cheaper to build than a vacuum tube. One transistor re-
placed the equivalent of 40 vacuum tubes. These transistors were
made of solid material, some of which is silicon, an abundant el-
ement (second only to oxygen) found in beach sand and glass.
Therefore they were very cheap to produce. Transistors were
found to conduct electricity faster and better than vacuum tubes.
They were also much smaller and gave off virtually no heat com-
pared to vacuum tubes. Their use marked a new beginning for the
computer. Without this invention, space travel in the 1960's
would not have been possible. However, a new invention would
even further advance our ability to use computers.
The Third Generation: 1965-1970 (Integrated Circuits -
Miniaturizing the Computer). Transistors were a tremendous
breakthrough in advancing the computer. However no one could
predict that thousands even now millions of transistors (circuits)
could be compacted in such a small space. The integrated circuit,
or as it is sometimes referred to as semiconductor chip, packs a
huge number of transistors onto a single wafer of silicon. Robert
Noyce of Fairchild Corporation and Jack Kilby of Texas Instru-
ments independently discovered the amazing attributes of inte-
grated circuits. Placing such large numbers of transistors on a sin-
10
gle chip vastly increased the power of a single computer and low-
ered its cost considerably.
Since the invention of integrated circuits, the number of
transistors that can be placed on a single chip has doubled every
two years, shrinking both the size and cost of computers even fur-
ther and further enhancing its power. Most electronic devices to-
day use some form of integrated circuits placed on printed circuit
boards – thin pieces of bakelite or fibreglass that have electrical
connections etched onto them – sometimes called a mother board.
These third generation computers could carry out instruc-
tions in billionths of a second. The size of these machines
dropped to the size of small file cabinets. Yet, the single biggest
advancement in the computer era was yet to be discovered.
The Fourth Generation: 1971-Today (The Microproces-
sor). This generation can be characterized by both the jump to
monolithic integrated circuits (millions of transistors put onto one
integrated circuit chip) and the invention of the microprocessor (a
single chip that could do all the processing of a full-scale comput-
er). By putting millions of transistors onto one single chip more
calculation and faster speeds could be reached by computers. Be-
cause electricity travels about a foot in a billionth of a second, the
smaller the distance the greater the speed of computers.
However what really triggered the tremendous growth of
computers and its significant impact on our lives is the invention
of the microprocessor. Ted Hoff, employed by Intel (Robert
Noyce's new company) invented a chip the size of a pencil eraser
that could do all the computing and logic work of a computer.
The microprocessor was made to be used in calculators, not com-
puters. It led, however, to the invention of personal computers, or
microcomputers.
It wasn't until the 1970's that people began buying computer
for personal use. One of the earliest personal computers was the
Altair 8800 computer kit. In 1975 you could purchase this kit and
put it together to make your own personal computer. In 1977 the
Apple II was sold to the public and in 1981 IBM entered the PC
(personal computer) market.
11
Today we have all heard of Intel and its Pentium® Proces-
sors and now we know how it all got started. The computers of
the next generation will have millions upon millions of transistors
on one chip and will perform over a billion calculations in a sin-
gle second. There is no end in sight for the computer movement.
http://www.crews.org/curriculum/ex/compsci/articles/generations.html.
13
teacher, know how much you understood of what you read.
The main purpose of a summary is to highlight the major
points from the genuine (much longer) subject. The target is to
help the audience get the gist in a short period of time.
The opening sentences should introduce the title, author,
text type and the main idea of the text, while the final sentence
should sum up the theme, taking into account the knowledge
gained from the body of the text.
A summary has a clearly arranged structure and is written in
a logical, chronological and traceable manner. In contrast to a ré-
sumé or a review, a summary contains neither interpretation nor
rating. Only the opinion of the original writer is reflected – para-
phrased with new words without quotations from the text. Unlike
a retelling, a summary has no dramatic structure and is written in
present tense or historic present. Because summaries should be
significantly shorter than the original (about 1/3 or 1/4 as long as
the original), minor facts have to be left out. However all major
conclusions should remain. In summaries only indirect speech is
used and depictions are avoided.
Here are some opening phrases which can help you with
your summary:
The title of the text (article, paper) is … .
The author of the text (article, paper) is … .
The article is about...;
According to the article ...;
The text (article) deals with the issue of...;
It is clear from the text (article) that...;
Among other things the text raises the issue of...;
The problem of ... is of great importance.
One of the main points to be singled out is ...;
Great importance is also attached to ...;
It further says that ...;
We shouldn't forget that ...;
The experts make it clear that ... (stress the point that .../
draw our attention to the fact that.../ suggest/ remind/ prom-
ise/pinpoint);
Finally, the experts come to the conclusion that... (agree
about...)
17
c) Mark the statements as true or false:
1. A microcomputer is more powerful than a minicomputer.
2. Mainframes are used by large institutions like universities
or government departments.
3. The most suitable computers for home use are minicom-
puters.
4. Hand held computers are small enough to fit into a palm
of your hand.
5. Laptop is the most powerful of all the types of the com-
puter.
21
THE LOST WORLD OF SOVIET PCS
Commercial isolation from the U.S. produced a strange paral-
lel universe of technology in the Soviet Union, and computers
were no exception. Platforms and architectures that were popular
in the United States and its allied countries were not necessarily
popular in the Soviet Bloc countries, and vice-versa.
In the Soviet Union, personal computers were very
expensive, so PCs never became a mass-market item like they did
in the U.S. during the 1980s. We'll take a short stroll through this
rare and forgotten world of Soviet personal computers ‒ a world
that is still mostly unknown to Westerners today.
Mera CM 7209 (1986)
While the U.S. got hooked on
IBM PC compatible machines, the
Soviet Union took a strange turn to-
ward DEC PDP-11 compatible PCs
after cloning them for military pur-
poses. (PDP-11 was a long-running
series of minicomputers created in
the U.S.). While exploring an aban-
doned power plant in Pripyat,
Ukraine, urban explorer Jean Ander-
sen came across this disintegrating
Soviet-era computer terminal, which would have been used with a
PDP-11-compatible desktop PC. Pripyat became a ghost town in
the late 1980s due to its prox-
imity to Chernobyl, which suf-
fered a nuclear power plant
disaster in 1986.
Tetris on EC 5300 (mid-
1980s)
In 1984, Alexey Pajitnov
wrote the first version of Tetris
for an Elektronika 60 computer
(not pictured), which was also
based on DEC's PDP-11 archi-
22
tecture. Here we see this version of Tetris running on a later PDP-
11-compatible desktop machine called the EC5300.
Microsha (1987)
The Microsha was a small
home computer that came
equipped with an Intel 8080-
compable CPU called the
KP580BM80A and 32 kilobytes of
RAM. The machine itself was a
derivative of the earlier Radio-86rk
machine, a popular Soviet homebrew computer whose
construction plans were published in a 1986 magazine article.
Agate-4 (1984)
The Agate-4 was an Apple II
compatible machine designed for
use in Soviet schools. Its brilliant
red color stood in stark contrast to
its mostly gray and brown Soviet
contemporaries. Despite this
colorful and fanciful print
advertisement for the machine, its
exact relationship to precision
eyeball surgery remains unknown.
EC 1841 (1987)
The EC1841 was an IBM
PC clone, using an 8086-
compatible CPU running at
4.77 MHz and anywhere
between 512 and 640 kilo-
bytes of RAM. It even ran a
Soviet clone of MS-DOS
called Alpha DOS, and no
doubt helped Latvian
Soviet officials keep track of their missile collection.
23
Elektronika MK-90 (1986)
Near the end of the So-
viet era, the USSR produced
a portable "pocket" computer
called the Elektronika MK-
90. It shipped with built-in
BASIC programming
language and a 120-by-64-
pixel LCD. Not surprisingly, it cost the equivalent of $22,000
when adjusted to modern U.S. currency. Today it is a rare and
highly prized item sought by calculator and pocket computer
collectors around the world.
BK 0010-01 (1986)
The BK 0010 series was one of the most popular Soviet
home computer platforms; for a
time, it was also the only official
government-sanctioned home
computer on the market. As with
several previously seen
computers, this machine packed
a PDP-11-compatible CPU
(which was fairly powerful for its
time) and very limited graphical capabilities.
By Benj Edwards
https://www.pcmag.com/feature/338765/the-lost-world-of-soviet-pcs/7
24
UNIT 2
HARDWARE
VOCABULARY
Memorise the following words and word combinations:
architecture motherboard to download
clockspeed mouse button to type
components mouse pointer to upgrade
computer case peripheral (device) to wipe (a disk)
expansion card serial port RAM
expansion slot shortcut keys ROM
hardware software CD
keyboard soundcard DVD
drive surge protector I/O
floppy disk system unit LCD
hard disk tower chassis TFT
hub to make backup copies UPS
media to store information VDU
TEXT
WHAT IS HARDWARE?
Your PC (Person-
al Computer) is a system,
consisting of many com-
ponents. Some of those
components, like Win-
dows XP, and all your
other programs, are soft-
ware. The stuff you can
actually see and touch,
and would likely break if
you threw it out a fifth-
story window, is hard-
ware.
Figure 1
25
Not everybody has exactly the same hardware. But those
of you, who have a desktop system, like the example shown in
Figure 1, probably have most of the components shown in that
same figure. Those of you with notebook computers probably
have most of the same components. Only in your case the compo-
nents are all integrated into a single book-sized portable unit.
The system unit is the actual computer; everything else is
called a peripheral device. Your computer's system unit probably
has at least one CD or DVD drive, into which you can insert CDs
and DVDs, and a floppy disk drive for floppies. There's another
disk drive, called the hard disk inside the system unit. You can't
remove that disk, or even see it. But it's there. And everything
that's currently "in your computer" is actually stored on that hard
disk.
The floppy drive and CD drive are often referred to as
drives with removable media or removable drives for short, be-
cause you can remove whatever disk is currently in the drive, and
replace it with another. Your computer's hard disk can store as
much information as tens of thousands of floppy disks, so don't
worry about running out of space on your hard disk any time
soon. As a rule, you want to store everything you create or down-
load on your hard disk. Use CDs to make backup copies of im-
portant items.
Random Access Memory (RAM). There's too much "stuff"
on your computer's hard disk to use it all at the same time. During
the average session sitting at the computer, you'll probably use
only a small amount of all that's available. The stuff you're work-
ing with at any given moment is stored in random access memory
(often abbreviated RAM, and often called simply "memory"). The
advantage using RAM to store whatever you're working on at the
moment is that RAM is very fast. Much faster than any disk. For
you, "fast" translates to less time waiting and more time being
productive.
So if RAM is so fast, why not put everything in it? Why
have a hard disk at all? The answer to that lies in the fact that
RAM is volatile. As soon as the computer is shut off, whether in-
26
tentionally or by an accidental power outage, every thing in RAM
disappears, just as quickly as a light bulb goes out when the plug
is pulled. So you don't want to rely on RAM to hold everything. A
disk, on the other hand, holds its information whether the power
is on or off.
The Hard Disk. All of the information that's "in your com-
puter", so to speak, is stored on your computer's hard disk. You
never see that actual hard disk because it's sealed inside a special
housing and needs to stay that way. Unlike RAM, which is vola-
tile, the hard disk can hold information forever – with or without
electricity. Most modern hard disks have tens of billions of bytes
of storage space on them. Which, in English, means that you can
create, save, and download files for months or years without using
up all the storage space it provides.
In the unlikely event that you do manage to fill up your hard
disk, Windows will start showing a little message on the screen
that reads "You are running low on disk space" well in advance of
any problems. In fact, if that message appears, it won't until
you're down to about 800 MB of free space. And 800 MB of emp-
ty space is equal to about 1 blank CD!
The Mouse. Obviously you know how to use your mouse.
Your mouse probably has at least two buttons on it. The button on
the left is called the primary mouse button, the button on the right
is called the secondary mouse button or just the right mouse but-
ton. I'll just refer to them as the left and right mouse buttons.
Many mice have a small wheel between the two mouse buttons.
The idea is to rest your hand comfortably on the mouse,
with your index finger touching (but not pressing on) the left
mouse button. Then, as you move the mouse, the mouse pointer
(the little arrow on the screen) moves in the same direction. When
moving the mouse, try to keep the buttons aimed toward the mon-
itor – don't "twist" the mouse as that just makes it all the harder to
control the position of the mouse pointer.
In the case of a laptop, you can use a touchpad to move a
cursor with your finger. It can be used in place of an external
mouse. A touchpad is operated by using your finger and dragging
27
it across the flat surface of the touchpad. Like most computer
mice, the touchpad also has two buttons below the touch surface
that allows you to left-click or right-click.
The Keyboard. Like the mouse, the keyboard is a means of
interacting with your computer. You really only need to use the
keyboard when you're typing text. Most of the keys on the key-
board are laid out like the keys on a typewriter. But there are
some special keys like Esc (Escape), Ctrl (Control), and Alt (Al-
ternate). There are also some keys across the top of the keyboard
labelled F1, F2, F3, and so forth. Those are called the function
keys, and the exact role they play depends on which program you
happen to be using at the moment.
Most keyboards also have a numeric keypad with the keys
laid out like the keys on a typical adding machine. If you're accus-
tomed to using an adding machine, you might want to use the
numeric keypad, rather than the numbers across the top of the
keyboard, to type numbers. It doesn't really matter which keys
you use. The numeric keypad is just there as a convenience to
people who are accustomed to adding machines.
Most keyboards also contain a set of navigation keys. You
can use the navigation keys to move around through text on the
screen. The navigation keys won't move the mouse pointer. Only
the mouse moves the mouse pointer.
On smaller keyboards where space is limited, such as on a
notebook computer, the navigation keys and numeric keypad
might be one in the same. There will be a Num Lock key on the
keypad. When the Num Lock key is "on", the numeric keypad
keys type numbers. When the Num Lock key is "off", the naviga-
tion keys come into play. The Num Lock key acts as a toggle.
Which is to say, when you tap it, it switches to the opposite state.
For example, if Num Lock is on, tapping that key turns it off. If
Num Lock is off, tapping that key turns Num Lock on.
Based on:
http://www.coolnerds.com/Newbies/Hardware/hardware.html
https://www.computerhope.com/jargon/t/touchpad.html
28
EXERCISES AND ASSIGNMENTS
1. Find in the text English equivalents for the following
words and word-combinations:
встроены, вынимать диск, вставлять диск (в дисковод),
хранить на жестком диске, исчерпывать пространство на
диске, делать резервные копии, важные объекты, в настоя-
щий момент, средний, хранить в памяти, временный, завер-
шить работу (на компьютере), отключение электроэнергии,
скрытый внутри специального корпуса, заполнить простран-
ство на жестком диске, равняться чему-либо, главный (ос-
новной), второстепенный, курсор мыши, набирать текст.
30
5. What do you know about Combination Keystrokes
(Shortcut keys)? Now read the text.
Those mysterious Ctrl and Alt keys are often used in com-
bination with other keys to perform some task. We often refer to
these combination keystrokes as shortcut keys, because they pro-
vide an alternative to using the mouse to select menu options in
programs. Shortcut keys are always expressed as:
key1+key2,
where the idea is to hold down key1, tap key2, then release
key1. For example, to press Ctrl+Esc hold down the Ctrl key
(usually with your pinkie), tap the Esc key, then release the Ctrl
key. To press Alt+F you hold down the Alt key, tap the letter F,
then release the Alt key.
Think of some other shortcut keys and their functions.
Follow the given pattern:
Alt+F4 will quit any Windows program.
6. Sum up the content of the text, using the opening
phrases (Unit I, Ex.4).
35
5. Switch off your computer and _______ it from the socket.
A. de-plug B. unplug C. non-plug
14. Read the article below. Sum up the content of the article,
using the opening phrases (Unit I, Ex.4).
41
КАК ВЫБРАТЬ КЛАВИАТУРУ?
«Приходит пpогpаммист к пианисту - посмотреть на новый ро-
яль. Долго ходит вокpyг, хмыкает, потом заявляет: «Клавиатура не-
удобная - всего 84 клавиши, половина функциональных, ни одна не подпи-
сана, хотя … нажимать Shift ногой – оригинальная идея.»
Шутки шутками, но довольно часто у пользователя воз-
никают похожие претензии: неудобная клавиатура, клавиш
становится мало. Иногда это приводит к повышению утомля-
емости, туннельному синдрому (боль в руках, особенно в ки-
сти правой руки, вызванная долгой работой за компьютером).
Причиной является то, что многие пользователи берут
первую попавшуюся модель, увидев её в прайс-листе какой-
нибудь фирмы или в упаковке на витрине. Причём недостат-
ки проявляют себя не сразу, поэтому при покупке клавиату-
ры необходимо знать, на что стоит обращать внимание.
Форма и материал. Если компьютер в первую очередь
будет использоваться как печатная машинка, то следует по-
заботиться об эргономике корпуса клавиатуры и расположе-
ния клавиш. Существуют варианты с разделением символь-
ной части клавиатуры на две части: одна для левой руки, дру-
гая для правой. Многие считают такой вариант наиболее
удачным. Однако, такая клавиатура удобна только для деся-
типальцевого метода набора текста. Если вы предпочитаете
использовать компьютер больше в качестве мультимедийно-
го центра или игровой консоли, то от этого варианта лучше
отказаться в пользу обычной мультимедийной клавиатуры.
Есть более консервативные варианты эргономичной
клавиатуры, например, A-shape - клавиши имеют несколько
скошенную форму и руки можно держать под углом к клави-
атуре, что для них более естественно, но в то же время сама
клавиатура внешне своим видом очень напоминает стандарт-
ную клавиатуру.
Даже выбирая стандартную клавиатуру без всяких
"наворотов" (мультимедийных и эргономичных клавиш),
можно выбрать её с эргономичной подставкой для запястий
(площадка, расположенная под клавишей "пробел"), на ней
могут отдыхать ваши кисти в тот момент, когда ваши руки не
42
заняты набором текста.
Что касается поверхности клавиатуры (её шероховато-
сти), то это дело вкуса. Лучше при приобретении клавиатуры
попробовать на ощупь несколько моделей и самостоятельно
принять решение.
Если же упоминать о типе корпуса, то не стоит обхо-
дить стороной и гибкую клавиатуру. У неё плёночный кор-
пус, она очень лёгкая, такую клавиатуру можно изгибать в
разные стороны, даже скрутить в трубочку, мыть под водой.
Такая клавиатура может быть полезной обладателям нала-
донных компьютеров или ноутбуков, недовольным встроен-
ной клавиатурой.
Мультимедийность и прочие "фенечки". В последнее
время получили широкое распространение мультимедийные
клавиатуры. Для этих клавиатур характерно наличие допол-
нительных клавиш, часто с предусмотренными по умолча-
нию функциями. Также возможен дополнительный режим,
когда стандартные клавиши выполняют другие функции, а
также наличие одного или нескольких скроллингов (аналог
скроллинга на мышке или для управления громкостью).
Однако в последнее время производители решили не
ограничивать возможности клавиатуры различными элемен-
тами управления (клавишами, регуляторами). Сейчас можно
встретить клавиатуры со встроенными дополнительными
USB-портами (довольно удобно подключать "флэшку"),
встроенным картридером, подсвеченными клавишами для
более удобной работы в тёмное время суток (так называемый
моддинг), микрофоном, дополнительным разъёмом для под-
ключения наушников, дополнительным экраном для неболь-
шой текстовой информации.
Расцветка. На цвет корпуса клавиатуры большинству
пользователей не стоит обращать внимания. В крайности
бросаться, правда, не стоит – клавиатура слишком яркого
цвета может отвлекать от работы. Если вы не владеете мето-
дом слепой печати, то стоит обратить внимание на цвет сим-
волов на клавиатуре, неброские символы (чаще всего страда-
43
ет русская раскладка) могут повысить вашу утомляемость,
особенно при работе за компьютером в вечернее время.
Клавиши. Если вы уже пользовались клавиатурой, то
стоит обратить внимание на форму и расположение некото-
рых клавиш. Возможно, на понравившейся вам клавиатуре
вы заметите несколько непривычный для вас полёт дизайнер-
ской мысли. Например, существуют разновидности клавиа-
тур, как с большой клавишей "Enter":, так и с более узким ва-
риантом. Аналогично, клавиши "BackSpace" и правый "Shift"
распространены в двух вариантах: коротком и удлинённом.
Блок клавиш "Insert", "Delete", "Home", "End", "PgUp",
"PgDown" тоже может испугать непривычным для вас распо-
ложением. И ни в коем случае не рекомендуется брать клави-
атуры, у которых клавиши, ответственные за выключение
компьютера, расположены в непосредственной близости от
клавиш управления курсором - слишком много шансов задеть
их случайно. Те, кто часто набирает текст, должны попробо-
вать ход клавиш. Нажатие должно быть не слишком жёстким,
но в то же время уверенным. Нужно чтобы вы чувствовали
клавиши, но и не прилагали к этому больших усилий.
Тип подключения. Всё большее распространение полу-
чают беспроводные устройства. Клавиатуру также техниче-
ский прогресс не обошёл стороной. Проводная клавиатура
ограничивает пользователя длиной провода, да и сам провод
иногда мешает на столе. Беспроводной вариант лишён этих
недостатков, однако за всё нужно платить, "ценой" в данном
случае будет являться не только более высокая стоимость
клавиатуры, по сравнению с проводными аналогами, но и по-
требность в дополнительном источнике энергии (батарейки,
аккумулятор). У каждого свои запросы, свои требования...
Для кого-то важен внешний вид, для кого-то характеристики.
Конечное решение принимать именно Вам. Надеюсь, матери-
алы этой статьи помогут Вам не ошибиться с выбором клави-
атуры и выбрать наиболее приемлемый для Вас вариант.
Автор статьи: Владимир Кузнецов
http://www.shkolazhizni.ru/archive/0/n-2411/
44
14. Read the article below. Sum up the content of the arti-
cle, using the opening phrases (Unit I, Ex.4).
Лучшие ноутбуки 2018 года. Какой ноутбук выбрать
и купить?
Январская выставка потребительской электроники CES
дала первые ориентиры на то, какие ноутбуки станут лучши-
ми, какой недорогой и качественный ноутбук выбрать в
2018 году.
Dell XPS 15 представляет собой производительный ноут-
бук-трансформер премиум-уровня с диагональю дисплея 15,6
дюйма, весом 1,8 кг и толщиной 16 мм.
В новое поколение ноутбуков XPS 15 установлены новые
чипсеты Intel, которые состоят из четырехъядерных процес-
соров (Intel Core i5-8305G или Intel Core i7-8705G) и графики
AMD Radeon Vega M. Это сочетание позволяет снизить энер-
гопотребление и тепловыделение, не теряя при этом в произ-
водительности. Да цена в $1300 за базовую модель является
очень приятной.
Acer Aspire Nitro 5 станет одним из первых игровых но-
утбуков, построенным полностью на базе "железа" от AMD.
Он будет оснащаться 4-ядерным процессором (Ryzen 5 2500U
или Ryzen 7 2700U) и видеокартой AMD Radeon RX560.
Производительность этой "начинки" сопоставима с про-
изводительносттю сочетания 4-ядерного процессора Intel
Core i5 и видеокарты NVIDIA GeForce GTX 1050, вот только
стоить ноутбуки на этой основе будут заметно дешевле. Сто-
имость базовой модели составляет $799, что делает этот Acer
Aspire не только хорошим аппаратом начального игрового
уровня, но и привлекательным вариантом для тех, кто подби-
рает себе домашний мультимедийный центр.
Lenovo ThinkPad E480 и Lenovo ThinkPad E580 - это не-
дорогие бизнес-лэптопы для корпоративного сегмента с диа-
гональю экрана 14,1 дюйма (ThinkPad E480) или 15,6 дюйма
(ThinkPad E580).
Ноутбуки линейки Lenovo ThinkPad уже давно зареко-
мендовали себя как прочные и надежные устройства для ра-
45
боты и не только.
Новые модели получили процессоры Intel поколения
Kaby Lake-R, еще более емкий аккумулятор, который обеспе-
чивает до 13 часов автономности. Приятным дополнением
стал переход на коннектор USB Type-C, через который мож-
но не только заряжать лэптоп, но и подключать фирменную
док-станцию.
Snapdragon 835 - это топовый ARM-чипсет от компании
Qualcomm, который был установлен в 90% флагманских
смартфонов 2017 года. Совместно с компанией Microsoft им
удалось перенести на ARM полноценную Windows 10 с воз-
можностью установки x86-совместимых программ. Компания
ASUS одной из первых продемонстрировала подобный ноут-
бук? выполненный в виде трансформера с диагональю экрана
13,3 дюйма.
Несмотря на не самую высокую производительность,
ASUS TP370QL отлично подойдет для работы в офисных
приложениях или для мультимедийных целей. А так как это
ARM-чипсет, то низкое энергопотребление в сочетании с ем-
ким аккумулятором, которые можно поместить в корпус уль-
трабука, дают нам полноценный Always-On (всегда включен-
ный) лэптоп. Это позволит работать с ноутбуком так же как и
со смартфоном, никогда его не выключать и изредка подза-
ряжать по необходимости.
https://www.notik.ru/information/topic/5747
46
UNIT 3
SOFTWARE
VOCABULARY
Memorise the following words and word combinations:
brand software engineering to install (a program)
browser software house to code
code software piracy to debug
editor spreadsheet program to design
graphics supervisor program to hang
icon office application /suite to perform a task
image editor recorder program software to purchase
instruction word processing program to troubleshoot
language processor to project (movie) on the screen to update
medium to run (a program) on your computer GUI
menu title bar OCR
text editor menu bar OS
utility (program) tool bar s/w
sub-program status bar
TEXT
WHAT IS SOFTWARE?
Software means computer instructions or data. Anything that
can be stored electronically is software, in contrast to storage de-
vices and display devices which are called hardware.
The terms software and hardware are used as both nouns and
adjectives. For example, you can say: "The problem lies in the
software," meaning that there is a problem with the program or
data, not with the computer itself. You can also say: "It is a
software problem."
The distinction between software and hardware is sometimes
confusing because they are so integrally linked. Clearly, when
you purchase a program, you are buying software. But to buy the
software, you need to buy the disk (hardware) on which the soft-
ware is recorded.
Software is often divided into two categories. Systems soft-
ware includes the operating system and all the utilities that enable
47
the computer to function.
The operating system (OS) is the most important program
that runs on a computer. Every general-purpose computer must
have an operating system to run other programs and applications.
Computer operating systems perform basic tasks, such as recog-
nizing input from the keyboard, sending output to the display
screen, keeping track of files and directories on the storage drives,
and controlling peripheral devices, such as printers.
For large systems, the operating system has even greater re-
sponsibilities and powers. It is like a traffic cop ‒ it makes sure
that different programs and users running at the same time do not
interfere with each other. The operating system is also responsible
for security, ensuring that unauthorized users do not access the
system.
Operating systems provide a software platform on top of
which other programs, called application programs, can run. The
application programs must be written to run on top of a particular
operating system. Your choice of operating system, therefore, de-
termines to a great extent the applications you can run. For PCs,
the most popular operating systems are DOS, OS/2, and Win-
dows, but others are available, such as Linux.
Operating systems can be classified as:
• Multi-user: Allows two or more users to run programs at the
same time. Some operating systems permit hundreds or even
thousands of concurrent users.
• Multiprocessing: Supports running a program on more than
one CPU.
• Multitasking: Allows more than one program to run concur-
rently.
• Multithreading: Allows different parts of a single program to
run concurrently.
• Real time: Responds to input instantly. General-purpose op-
erating systems, such as DOS and UNIX, are not real-time.
As a user, you normally interact with the operating system
through a set of commands. For example, the DOS operating sys-
tem contains commands such as COPY and RENAME for copy-
48
ing files and changing the names of files, respectively. The com-
mands are accepted and executed by a part of the operating sys-
tem called the command processor or command line interpreter.
Graphical user interfaces allow you to enter commands by point-
ing and clicking at objects that appear on the screen.
Operating systems contain a number of utilities (programs
that perform very specific tasks, usually related to managing sys-
tem resources).
Applications software includes programs that do real work
for users. For example, word processors, spreadsheets, and data-
base management systems fall under the category of applications
software. Utilities differ from applications mostly in terms of size,
complexity and function. Utilities are sometimes installed as
memory-resident programs.
Software is created by software engineers. They are schooled
and skilled in the application of engineering discipline to the crea-
tion of software.
A software engineer is often confused with a programmer,
but the two are vastly different disciplines. A programmer is
tasked with creating the code that makes a program run, whereas
a software engineer is responsible for designing, developing and
implementing the software solutions programmers create.
For example, by U.S. law no person may use the title "engi-
neer" (of any type) unless the person holds a professional engi-
neering license from a state licensing board and is in good stand-
ing with the board. A software engineer is also held accountable
to a specific code of ethics.
The role of a software engineer, or computer software engi-
neer, is to develop highly functional, solution-based software pro-
cesses and solutions that address specific needs within an organi-
zation or department. These software solutions need to have been
thoroughly tested for accuracy and security before implementa-
tion, and they need to comply with current coding standards and
operating procedures.
Software engineers are tasked with evaluating existing opera-
tions within the company, finding and defining problems or areas
49
for improvement, proposing and developing solutions for these
issues in the form of new or improved software processes, and
testing, implementing, and maintaining these software changes.
This requires in-depth knowledge and experience with the
software development lifecycle (SDLC) and the ability to write
and explain code created in a variety of languages such as C++,
.NET, Java, Python, etc. A software engineer needs to be able to
communicate at both a very in-depth, detailed level with comput-
er programmers as well as a broader “big picture” level with IT
managers and upper management.
4. Match the words on the left with the words on the right
to get word-combinations.
A B
1. save it as a. icons on the desktop
2. resize the b.some text
3. open the document in c. an application
4. install d.photo. It's too big.
5. cut and paste e. a new window
6. arrange the f. a Microsoft Word file
7. view g.menu
50
8. delete an h.an application
9. replace the existing i. as a web page
10. click on that button j. on the task bar
11. pull down a k.file
12. exit l. important file
13. close down an m. after a session
14. wipe the n.all folders
15. log off o.program
16. run a p. on a USB memory key
17. look in q. hard drive
18. put the file r. application
19. search s. Desktop
20. send the file t. for a lost file
21. use the u. to a different folder
22. launch v. a program
23. customize your w. text into a new document
24. copy the x. "search" function
53
questions. In addition, there are a few tips that you may find use-
ful.
1. Open WordPad by (to click) on START, Accessories, and
then WordPad.
2. WordPad opens and provides you with a blank screen
with a menu bar on top. There are six titles. There are a variety of
commands under each title.
3. FILE is the command (need) to start a New document, to
Open an existing file, to Save a file, to Save As a different
named file, to Print and explain what printer the program is using
(Print Setup), to Page Setup or define the look of your document
(margins and layout), to Send a file to another computer on the
Internet or local network, and to exit the file. It also (to show) a
list of the 4 most recently (to access) files.
4. EDIT is the section where you can (to change) the docu-
ment. You can cut, copy, and paste sections of the document by
using these commands. You can also insert and move pictures
in the text of your document. If you want (to replace) certain
phrases or words throughout a document, you can use the Re-
place command.
5. VIEW (to allow) you to customize the look of the
screen. In particular, you can have it display (or not display) a
toolbar (new file, open file, save, print, print preview, find, cut,
copy, paste, undo, and time and date), format bar (font, size,
bold, italic, underline, align, change colour of text, and bullets),
insert a ruler, and a status bar (at the bottom of the page).
6. INSERT is the section that (to allow) you to insert a date
and time and objects (pictures and symbols) into your documents
automatically.
7. FORMAT allows you to change your font, bulleting, par-
agraph alignment, and tabs.
8. HELP explains how to use WordPad. It gives you several
ways (to find) out more about the program.
When you (to finish) typing your document, (to remember)
to save it. If you want to use it with other word processors like
WordPerfect then you must save the file as a Text File (.txt). You
54
(need) to save it on a disk. Remember to use a: and the name of
the file to save it. You can change the way it (to save) files by
choosing a style under VIEW and Options. Word 6.0 (to be) the
default style.
b) Give Russian equivalents for the words and word-
combinations in bold type.
8. Match the words with the types of lettering.
1. COMPUTER a. outline
2. computer b. italic
3. Computer c. lower case (or small letters)
4. Computer d. strikethrough
5. Computer e. underline
6. Computer f. upper case (or capital letters)
7. Computer g. plain text
8. Computer h. shade
9. i. bold italic
10. Computer j. bold
55
10. Match the operations with the application types. The
first one has been done as an example.
word- spread- image media-
processor sheet editor player
1. print ✓ ✓ ✓
2. insert table
3. convert to grey scale
4. touch up
5. select text
6. exit
7. maximise window
8. check internet for
updates
9. alter formula values
10. insert text box
11. flip, crop, rotate
12. optimise for internet
13. check spelling
14. convert to MP3
15. add border
16. play
17. insert column break
18. import photo
19. clear all cells
20. copy from CD
21. create playlist
22. page set-up
23. sort
24. uninstall
25. change text direction
26. insert bullet points
27. save as JPEG
56
11. For each sentence choose the word which best fits the
space.
1. Software for use by businesses is_____. a. commercial
b. businesslike
c. busy
2. Software which is easy to use is_____. a. user-easy
b. user-friendly
c. usable
3. Software which is obvious to use is_____. a. intuitive
b. guessable
c. comprehensible
4. Software for use at home is_____. a. for home use
b. for house use
c. for household use
5. Software for use by children and schools a. learning
is_____. b. teaching
c. educational
6. Software which is not obvious to use a. counter-intuitive
is_____. b. unintuitive
c. non-intuitive
7. Software made specially for one company a. one-off
is_____. b. unique
c. tailor-made
8. Software which has been bought from the a. real
company that produced it is_____. b. justified
c. licensed
9. Software which has been illegally copied a. unreal
is_____. b. pirated
c. fake
59
1981’s Xerox Star’s icons were black and white, with reso-
lution of 72×72 (since the display had a density of 72 ppi, every
icon occupied an exact square inch). The icons were highly sym-
bolic, based on rounded rectangles. They established conventions
used to this day – a document was a blank sheet with one corner
folded, a directory was a regular manila folder with a tab on top,
the trashcan had sheets of paper inside it. The consistency across
all the icons, and the attention to detail was amazing. Inbox and
outbox icons showed an envelope whenever mail was unread or
unsent. A clock icon was a regular working analogue clock. An
icon corresponding to an opened window was shown in outline,
so the user would never see two instances of the same object.
And, in a solution never seen later, the titles of icons were part of
the icons themselves.
Apple Lisa (1983)
A F
B G
C H
D I
67
al means that were supposed to convey the
ideas. Then the style evolved into more col-
ourful drawings, balancing between “abstrac-
tion and a tactile feel.” Lately, the appear-
ance shifted to (photo) realism, and the ques-
tion of “we obviously can do it, but should
we?” became more and more valid. Da-
tawise, every Mac OS X’s icon is 512 times
as rich as the original Macintosh icon. How-
ever, is it really 512 times as meaningful? At
small sizes, it seems almost the opposite, as
every icon looks just like a colourful blob, or
“a little smear.”
b. Type 2. The holy battle between raster and vector
technology has been experienced by possibly
every designer. First method represents im-
ages using a grid of pixels, the second one
describes them by set of vectors. Both have
their pros and cons, which can be found in
any self-respected introduction to graphics.
As we already learned, most of GUIs used
pixels for representing icons, as they gave the
designers more control over finest details.
c. Number of 3. Since the “invention” of Copland style
colours (and even earlier, considering that even some
of the Macintosh icons depart from the usual
“straight-on” perspective) we’ve seen many
various pseudo-3D views: Copland, inverted
Copland, BeOS, Windows XP, or one of
Mac OS X’s perspectives. Some of them are
justified, other seem there just for the sake of
it.
This property is probably where the worst
inconsistencies appear. Windows XP has on-
ly two official “icon views,” but nevertheless
manages to mix them all over the system
68
d. Transparency 4. Proliferation of semi-3D views, as well as
the introduction of transparency, prompted
the addition of shadows to icons. Fortunate-
ly, modern shadows are much more discrete
and subtle, and in effect stand out less than
the older black or gray outlines.
e. Orientation 5. This property was probably the one with
the most stable and expected evolution. First
GUIs shipped with 1-bit depth, allowing for
only two colours (usually black and white).
With graphic capabilities getting more and
more advanced, icons moved to 4-bit depth
(16 colours), then to 8-bit (256 colours). It is
hard to think of any instance of 16-bit icons,
and the next step, 24-bit depth, was also the
last one – 16.8 millions of colours are much
more than the human eye can distinguish.
f. Shadows 6. This property began to play a bigger role
only with latest editions of GUIs, providing
8-bit masks for icons. However, one has yet
to see it used in a way that actually adds to
functionality of a respective icon.
g. Style 7. Since the emergence of WIMP-based
GUIs, most of them have used the standard
32×32 pixel grid, giving 1024 pixels. Quite
obviously, the physical size of icons has in-
creased slightly less, due to the fact that new
displays have significantly bigger pixel den-
sity than the old ones.
c) How will icons improve in the future? Do you think
that a completely new user interface will be designed? Express
you ideas in class.
69
1. Все мы слышали выражение: «Лучше один раз увидеть,
чем сто раз услышать». Эта идея стоит в основе создания
иконок в графических интерфейсах.
2. Графические интерфейсы, управляемые посредством
иконок, возможно, уже достигли своего апогея. Однако пока
ничего лучшего не было предложено.
3. Иконки, несомненно, оказались полезными и, скорее
всего, не исчезнут с наших экранов ещё долго.
4. К сожалению, со временем иконки эволюционировали
только в технологическом смысле.
5. Динамические иконки – многообещающая концепция
изменения внешнего вида иконки, в зависимости от свойств
объектов, которые они символизируют.
6. Ещё одним вариантом развития иконок является анима-
ция. Не декоративная анимация, радующая глаз пользовате-
ля, а анимация, которая действительно служит некой опреде-
ленной цели.
7. Анимацию можно использовать как ответ на наведение
мыши на иконку. Некоторые операционные системы исполь-
зуют элементы анимации, например, при опустошении кор-
зины.
8. Но, безусловно, перед анимированными иконками от-
крываются широкие возможности.
9. Иконки в современных графических интерфейсах ис-
пользуются по большей части так же как и двадцать лет
назад: ими оперируют одинарным или двойным щелчком, их
перемещают и «перетягивают».
10. Внешний вид иконок значительно изменился с момента
их появления, чего нельзя сказать об их функциональности.
11. Графические интерфейсы таких операционных систем
как Windows XP или Mac OS X, свидетельствуют о том, что
дизайнеры слегка переусердствовали с внешним видом ико-
нок.
12. Хочется верить, что в будущем иконки будут развивать-
ся в русле функциональности.
70
16. a) Discuss in pairs the following questions:
1. What is operating system and what is its purpose?
2. Where is an operating system stored and how is it trans-
ferred to internal memory?
3. What tasks are typically performed by operating sys-
tems?
4. What operating systems do you know? Which of them
is installed on your computer? Why did you choose this very op-
erating systems?
b) Make up a dialogue based on the questions above.
73
UNIT 4
WORLD WIDE WEB
VOCABULARY
Memorise the following words and word-combinations:
account inbox to broadcast
chat room on-line banking to browse
connection search engine to search
dial-up networking site to signup
digital subscriber line standalone to subscribe to
e-commerce subscriber to surf
homepage web-browser to unsubscribe from
hyperlink to administer to upload
ISP
TEXT
THE STORY OF THE INTERNET
The beginnings of the Internet can be found in the early
days of the Cold War. Eisenhower’s America was stunned by the
launch of the Russian Sputnik satellite. For the first time the
American public felt vulnerable, and the US administration react-
ed quickly. In 1958 Eisenhower created ARPA (the Advanced
Research Projects Agency), and later NASA (the National Aero-
nautics and Space Administration). America aimed to gain com-
plete technological superiority over the Soviet Union.
Bob Taylor at ARPA was quick to realise that time and
money could be saved if the huge mainframe computers, found in
government departments and universities, could speak to each
other. This was ARPA’s first achievement, and in 1969 the first
network was created. The first e-mail was sent three years later.
The computer remained huge and cumbersome until work
by Bill Gates, and later Steve Wozniak of Apple, led to wide-
spread ownership of personal computers in businesses and in the
home. The Internet, however, was still owned and exclusively
used by the US government. George Bush changed all this by al-
74
lowing it to be used for private and business purposes in 1992.
Central to the way that we use the Internet today was the
work of the British scientist Tim Berners-Lee, who created
HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) in the early 1990’s. The
latter enabled a simple network to become a World Wide Web.
The Internet began as a very small part of America's strug-
gle with the Soviet Union in the Cold War. But it started the
twenty-first century as the technology that will change the lives of
almost every person on the planet.
From: The Story of the Internet by Stephen Bryant, 2000
78
6. Match the internet services with their functions.
A B
1.IRC a. sending and receiving messages
2.MOOs b. downloading a file from a server
2.email c. chatting to other users in real-time
3.FTP d. accessing newsgroups
4.WWW e. browsing web pages
5.Telnet f. taking part in simulations in a shared
environment
6.Usenet g. logging on to your computer at a distance
79
I've been thinking: I get way too many pieces of e-mail,
about sixty a day. This is a typical number at Microsoft. E-mail is
like high-ways - if you have them, traffic follows.
I'm an e-mail addict. Everybody at Microsoft is an addict
The future of e-mail usage is bang pioneered right here. The cool
thing with e-mail is when you send it, there's no possibility of con-
necting with the person on the other end. It's better than phone an-
swering machines because, with them, the person on the other line
might actually pick up the phone and you might have to talk.
Typically, everybody has about a 40% immediate cull rate -
those pieces of mail you can delete immediately because of a frivo-
lous tag line. What you read of the remaining 60% depends on how
much of a life you have. The less of a life, the more mail you
read.
13. a) Visit the site of your university and get the idea of
its design. Then answer the questions:
1. What colours are used for its design? What colour is
used for its background, type, logo?
2. Did you like the choice of used colours? Why?
3. Would you like to change any of the colours? Give
your arguments.
b) Discuss these questions in pairs.
98
UNIT 5
C O M P U T E R CR I M E A N D S E C U R I T Y
VOCABULARY
Memorise the following words and word-combinations:
cracker encryption anti-virus software
defacing decryption computer fraud
firewall junk email software piracy
hacker macro virus public key cryptography
hijacking mail bombing denial of service attack
spoofing password to break into a computer system
spyware piggybacking to crack
trapdoor pop-up ad to encode
virus security risks to hack
worm salami shaving to protect
TEXT
COMPUTER HACKING – HIGH-TECH CRIME
You can rob a bank without leaving the house these days.
Who needs stocking masks, guns and getaway cars? If you are a
computer whiz-kid, you could grab your first million armed with
nothing more dangerous than a personal computer, a telephone
and a modem to connect them.
All you have to do is dial into the networks that link the
computers in large organisations together, type in a couple of
passwords, rummage about to the information that’s stored there
to your heart’s content.
Fortunately it isn't always quite as easy as it sounds. But, as
more and more information is processed and stored on computer,
whether it's details of your bank account or the number of tins of
baked beans in the stockroom at the supermarket, computer crime
seems set to grow.
A couple of months ago a newspaper reported that five Brit-
ish banks were being held to ransom by a gang of hackers who
had managed to break into their computer. The hackers were de-
manding money in return for revealing exactly how they did it. In
cases like this, banks may consider paying just so they can protect
99
themselves better in the future.
No one knows exactly how much money is stolen by key-
board criminals — banks and other companies tend to be very se-
cretive if it happens to them. It doesn't exactly fill customers with
confidence if they think their bank account can be accessed by
anyone with a PC! Some experts believe that only around a tenth
of all computer crimes are actually reported. Insurance company
Hogg Robinson estimate that computer frauds cost British com-
panies an incredible £.400 million a year.
Most computer crimes are 'inside jobs', where staff with ac-
cess to the company's computers fiddle with the records.
A comparatively small amount are committed by the more
glamorous – and head-line-grabbing – hackers.
The true hacker, it seems, doesn't do it for financial gain.
The thrill appears to be, not in getting rich, but in beating the sys-
tem. Two of Britain's most notorious hackers are Nicholas 'Mad
Hacker' Whiteley and Edward Singh. The renegade pair have
been the scourge of organisations with insecure computers for
years, seemingly competing for the title of Britain's best hacker.
Whiteley's hacking days came to an abrupt halt in June, when the
21-year-old was sent to prison for four months for damaging
computer discs, Edward Singh first came to public attention after
claiming that he had hacked into American and British govern-
ment and military computers. 'It has never been my intention to
steal anything,' said Singh. 'I really see myself as a highly skilled
software engineer. 'His mission seems to be to prove just how in-
secure their systems are.
As with everything else, hackers start young in the States. A
12-year-old boy in Detroit was accused of entering a company's
credit rating computer and distributing the numbers he found
there. His mother told reporters that he spent up to 14 hours on his
computer during the weekend. 'He didn't bother me,' she said. 'I
figured, computer, that's the thing of the day.'
Last month, two New York teenagers, one aged 14 and one
aged 17, were charged with breaking into a computer system
owned by a company that publishes computer magazines. They
100
are alleged to have changed polite recorded greetings to rude
messages, added bomb threats and wiped advertisers' orders.
Customers linked into the system only to be told that "Daffy
Duck is not available'! The company estimates that the tampering
has cost $2.4 million. Prevention is probably easier than detec-
tion, and many companies now spend lots of time and money de-
vising programmes, using passwords and codes. Of course, all
this is no use at all if computer users tell each other their pass-
word, stick it on their screen so they don't forget it or use pass-
words like 'password'. It all happens. There are plenty of software
companies who specialise in writing software that make comput-
ers hacker-proof. One company in the States set out to prove that
its system can defeat hackers by asking over 2,000 of them to try
to hack in. The hackers were given two weeks to discover the se-
cret message stored on two PCs in offices in New York and San
Francisco. The message reads: 'The persistent hunter who wins
his prize sooner or later becomes the hunted.' You'll be relieved
— or perhaps disappointed — to learn that not one hacker man-
aged it.
From: Focus on Proficiency. By Sue O'Connell
2. Find in the text words or phrases which mean the same as:
expert (especially at a young age), search through, as much
as you want, to be called up on a computer screen, to make small
changes/to interfere with, rebellious/lawless, to cause a lot of
trouble to, aim in life, removed completely, to interfere with
(without permission).
101
3. Complete these statements using the information of
the Text.
1. Banks may pay computer criminals …
a to give back information they have stolen.
b to explain what their technique is.
с not to commit the same crime again.
d not to pass on information they have stolen.
c) Read the text above once more and make the list of
measures you should take to keep your computer safe.
106
8. Now read about the role of pop up ad stopper software
in safeguarding user’s privacy. Supply the prepositions from the
box.
10. a) Read the article about a USB drive that can help you
protect your data.
PRIVACY IN A VERY SMALL PACKAGE
These days, almost every store that sells PCs has a section
dedicated to the newest must-have gadget: those ubiquitous key-
chain-size USB storage devices that can hold from 256MB to
8GB of data. But USB drives are more than a storage phenome-
non. The tiny devices can enhance your privacy as well.
107
For example, if you want to keep your e-mail messages on a
shared computer away from prying eyes, you can install and run
your e-mail application on a USB drive and store all its mail fold-
ers there, making it a cinch to secure all your correspondence
when you go.
Or you can use privacy-enhancing software installed on a
USB drive to make the applications you use on your desktop
more private.
The application routes Internet Explorer's cookies, its histo-
ry and favorites files, and even the browser's cache onto your
USB drive, ensuring that no one can look at your Web-browsing
history without having access to your USB drive. You simply pop
in your drive and run the P.I. Protector program (P.I. in this case
stands for Personal Information).
USBDrive Professional sells a suite of four applications,
some with very direct uses in protecting your privacy. The apps
raise the price of USB Drive devices by $20.
One of the programs, USB Secure ZIP, encrypts and com-
presses documents. USB Lock turns the drive itself into a key.
When you remove the drive, the software locks down your PC for
a period ranging from 10 minutes to 24 hours, which is helpful if
you have sensitive documents on a work computer. The only way
to unlock the computer before the time limit expires is to put the
same USB Drive device back in place. Finally, USB Mail imports
your PC's default e-mail client settings and gives you a basic,
password-protected user interface to your e-mail in-box.
With the exception of USB Mail, whose interface is a little
too spare for most users, all these programs are useful, and they
provide powerful privacy protection that fits in the palm of your
hand.
by Andrew Brandt
From the February 2003 issue of PC World magazine
b) Explain the way the USB drive protects privacy. What is
necessary for that?
11. Have you ever been annoyed by spam? How many
spamming messages do you get every day? What are you doing
108
about it?
a) Now read the article that gives view on the threat of
spam.
SPAM WITH EVERYTHING
A:
Spam - unsolicited commercial email - has become the
scourge of the internet age. Every day millions of unwanted mes-
sages are sent to individuals all over the world in an attempt to get
them to buy products or services. And usually these messages are
of a dubious nature, featuring money-making schemes, gambling
offers or links to pornography websites.
Research conducted by Gartner in 1999 found that 25 per
cent of spam is 'adult' while a further 37 per cent consists of 'get
rich quick' schemes.
The spam problem is born from the fact that it costs the
sender very little. In fact, no other form of advertising costs the
advertiser so little and the recipient so much. One million email
addresses can cost as little as 63p and one million spams take
about four hours to send by dial-up at a cost of only £2.40.
This makes spam purely and simply a numbers game, as the
sender can make a profit if just one person buys a product or ser-
vice covering the dial-up cost and the amount paid for the list of
email addresses.
To make matters worse, spam is extremely difficult to trace
back to the sender as the perpetrators take steps to hide their
genuine email address.
B:
Spam is currently a bigger problem in the US than in Eu-
rope. In the US, spam has already proved very costly in both time
and money to ISPs, businesses and consumers.
One major ISP reported receiving 1.8 million spams a day
from a promotions company until it obtained an injunction. Work-
ing on the assumption that each user spent 10 seconds identifying
and discarding spam, a total of 5,000 hours per day of connection
time was being wasted via just one ISP.
109
The European Commission estimated in 2001 that the cost
of spam globally was £6.4bn a year in connection charges alone -
an average of nearly £12 per person among the world's 544 mil-
lion internet subscribers.
Unfortunately, the situation can only get worse. The longer
you keep the same email address the greater the probability of
getting spammed. Jupiter estimates that 268 billion advertising
email messages will be sent in 2005 - representing 22 times great-
er volume than in 2000.
In addition, many online marketers are known to be devel-
oping engines capable of serving 100 million messages per day -
a capacity the EU estimates could soon expose consumers to
3,000 marketing emails daily.
C:
The war against spam is being waged on three fronts - via
the law, social solutions such as activist groups, and computer
science.
There have been various attempts at passing laws or adapt-
ing existing laws in an attempt to control a deteriorating situation.
Unfortunately, merely passing a law is not enough to prevent a
problem.
The situation is further complicated by the fact that
spammers can be very hard to track down and the costs of subse-
quently mounting a successful prosecution can be inordinate. It
also makes the assumption that the sender of unwanted email is
within the law's jurisdiction. Spam, however, is an international
problem as each and every mass email can make its way to many
different countries.
On the social front some ISPs and activists have got togeth-
er to create public lists of known offenders, which can include
ISPs that have been deemed guilty of allowing unwanted email to
pass through their systems. But there has been some controversy
over the effectiveness of this approach, particularly since it is
quite easy for even a well-run ISP to unwittingly harbour a
spammer for a short period.
D:
110
▪ Beware of purchasing spam-advertised products.
Aside from encouraging spammers, this makes more personally
identifiable information (e.g. name, address, phone number, credit
card numbers, etc.) available to them. It will also guarantee that
you will get more spam.
▪ Refrain from using the reply or remove option. Some
senders may remove your address, but others may flag your email
address as 'live' and send you more spam or even sell your ad-
dress to other spammers.
▪ Use a public email address while online. Set up and
use a public email address, which may either be an additional ad-
dress from your ISP or a free web-based email address. Use this
email address when participating in newsgroups, joining contests
or anytime that your email is requested by a third party online.
Potential spam will go to your public email address instead of
your private email address.
Don't post your email address online. You'd be surprised
how often you use your email address for newsletter subscrip-
tions, in chat rooms or to join online groups. Before you post your
email address, know whether it will be displayed or used. Then
use a public email address when necessary.
by Bryson Gordon,
http:/www.McAfee.com
b) Supply each part of the text (A-D) with proper subti-
tles (1-4):
1. The spam wars
2. Cutting through the spam
3. Growing problem
4. Spam, spam, spam...
12. a) Answer the questions:
1. Explain how you can be spammed?
2. How spammers can learn your e-mail address?
3. Is it possible to avoid being spammed? In what ways?
4. If you are already getting spam, can you stop it? How?
b) Make up a dialogue, based on the questions above.
13. Translate the following sentences into English:
111
1. Всего за несколько лет спам превратился из легкого
раздражающего фактора в одну из самых серьезных угроз
информационной безопасности. Непрошеные почтовые со-
общения переполняют индивидуальные почтовые ящики и
парализуют работу корпоративных серверов.
2. За последние годы было изобретено немало способов
борьбы со спамом. К сожалению, спамеры отслеживают
действия фильтров и изобретают всё новые приемы для их
обхода. К тому же нередко фильтрация спама приносит
больше вреда, чем пользы: вместе с назойливой рекламой не
доходят до адресата и важные деловые или личные сообще-
ния.
3. Свой основной электронный адрес, который Вы по-
лучили у провайдера, сообщайте только надежным друзьям
и партнерам. При этом не стесняйтесь напоминать, чтобы
они Ваш адрес не передавали третьим лицам. Обязательно
заведите себе дополнительные адреса на бесплатных почто-
вых серверах и именно их используйте для второстепенных
задач.
4. При выборе имени (login) Вашего почтового ящика
старайтесь не использовать английские слова, т.к. некото-
рые программы берут данные из словарей и перебираются
различные комбинации. Чем длиннее имя, тем лучше и не
помешает вставить в середину имени какую-нибудь цифру.
5. Хакерами называют тех, кто получает или пытается
получить незаконный доступ к данным через компьютерные
сети (сейчас обычно через интернет). Во многих странах
принято законодательство, ставящее действия хакеров вне
закона, и некоторые из них уже привлечены к ответственно-
сти.
6. Вал компьютерных преступлений не спадает - более
того, он нарастает год от года. Защиту компьютерных сетей
многих крупных фирм и государственных организаций ха-
керы уже испытывали на прочность, и нередко им удавалось
найти в ней бреши.
7. Не следует думать, что хакеров интересует только
112
"крупная рыба". Всё чаще они атакуют незащищенные (или
слабо защищенные) от вторжения домашние компьютеры,
подключенные к интернету. Атака может исходить и изнут-
ри - от программы-шпиона, проникшей на компьютер,
например, в качестве вложения в спамерское письмо.
8. Предотвратить последствия хакерских атак – кражу
конфиденциальной информации и использование вашего
компьютера для рассылки спама, атак на другие компьюте-
ры и т. п. - может межсетевой экран. Этот компонент защи-
ты способен не только "спрятать" ваш компьютер от хаке-
ров, но и проконтролировать все входящие и исходящие по-
токи данных и пресечь любые враждебные действия до того,
как они нанесут реальный вред.
9. Всплывающим окном называется внезапно появля-
ющееся в том или ином месте окошко браузера, в котором
обычно находится html-документ или изображение.
В такие окна обычно помещают рекламу. Эти окна де-
лают просто невозможным перемещение по сайту, появля-
ясь в ответ на любое ваше действие. Тем не менее, эту тех-
нологию можно применять и в благих целях. В это окно
можно поместить то, что не влезло на основную страницу
сайта.
10. Основная цель всплывающих окон - это простая
накрутка счетчиков рейтингов. Вы показываете на своем
сайте всплывающие окна других сайтов, в свою очередь на
других сайтах показываются всплывающие окна вашего
сайта ровно столько раз, сколько их вы показали на своем.
11. Программа блокировки всплывающих окон пред-
назначена для работы совместно с популярными веб-
браузерами и позволяет блокировать все нежелательные
всплывающие окна, которые открываются при посещении
различных сайтов. Утилита имеет большое количество
настроек, так что вы всегда сможете настроить ее под свои
нужды именно в том виде, в каком вам удобно.
113
14. Render the article in English:
МОШЕННИЧЕСТВО В ИНТЕРНЕТЕ.
КАК ВЫГЛЯДЯТ ОПАСНЫЕ СООБЩЕНИЯ?
Все интернет-пользователи рано или поздно сталкивают-
ся с киберугрозами, даже если они просто заходят проверять
свой почтовый ящик раз в неделю. О завсегдатаях Сети и го-
ворить нечего — сегодня мы совершаем в онлайне все боль-
ше действий: общаемся, звоним, бронируем, развлекаемся,
покупаем, расплачиваемся, работаем, наконец. Вероятность
стать объектом атаки хакеров при такой активности весьма
высока. Большинство из нас знает, как обезопасить себя, и
использует регулярно обновляемый лицензионный антиви-
рус, но и он не способен защитить от всех возможных угроз.
Пользователю лучше знать врага в лицо, ведь нередко все
начинается с безобидного сообщения во входящих.
1. «Вы выиграли!» Опасное сообщение обычно выглядит
как всплывающее окно и содержит в себе информацию о вы-
игрыше огромной суммы, автомобиля, дорогого гаджета и
других нереальных призов. Если вы действительно получили
от какой-либо организации определенный бонус, это будет
нечто весьма скромное. Информация придет на ваш почто-
вый ящик как обычное письмо без кричащей анимации. Как
реагировать: не нажимать ни «да», ни «нет», не пытаться за-
крыть окно. Любое действие приведет к перенаправлению на
сторонний ресурс, который может быть заражен вредоносной
программой или компьютерным вирусом-шпионом. Лучше
закрыть браузер. Если вы действительно участвовали в ка-
ком-то розыгрыше, позвоните по телефону в организацию и
уточните.
2. «Введите номер телефона» Как правило, вас просят
ввести номер телефона якобы для подтверждения того, что
вы не бот. На самом деле, это совсем не обязательно. Чтобы
отличить реального пользователя от программы, обычно ис-
пользуется капча (распознавание текста и знаков). Скорее
всего, в данном случае вы имеете дело с мошенниками, кото-
рые собирают номера в базы данных с тем, чтобы перепро-
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дать их недобросовестным рекламодателям для рассылки
SMS-спама. Безусловно, что некоторые ресурсы требуют ука-
зать телефон по реальным причинам сохранения безопасно-
сти информации — например, банковским сервисам нужны
ваши контактные данные для передачи вам одноразовых па-
ролей; социальные сети практикуют привязку аккаунтов к
мобильным номерам для более детальной идентификации
пользователей и быстрого восстановления доступа в случае
взлома. Как реагировать: вводить номер телефона только на
крупных известных ресурсах, где он действительно нужен —
это соцсети, интернет-версии банков, онлайн-магазины. Если
сайт малоизвестный, развлекательного характера, то лучше
этого не делать. Часто спамеры идут на уловки: например,
навязывают вам прохождение длинного теста или обещают
составление персонального гороскопа. Чтобы получить ре-
зультат, нужно указать номер телефона. Не делайте этого —
вас забросают спамом.
3. «Ваша страница взломана, нужно поменять па-
роль» Примерно 60−70% входящей почты — это спам, и до-
вольно весомая часть спама содержит в себе скрытую фи-
шинговую атаку. Один из самых распространенных ее спосо-
бов — это просьба о смене пароля в социальной сети или
платежной системе. В последнее время мошенники стали
действовать хитрее: вместо пароля они просят указать,
например, день рождения, якобы для розыгрыша или получе-
ния бонусов. Обладатель аккаунта проходит по ссылке на
сайт, который выглядит точь-в-точь как оригинальный, толь-
ко в адресе наверняка содержится «ошибка». Здесь пользова-
тель вводит свой пароль и логин, которые затем благополуч-
но используются злоумышленниками для своих интересов.
Как реагировать: не переходить по ссылкам при получении
таких сообщений. Закрыть браузер со всеми вкладками, запу-
стить антивирус, затем открыть новое окно и войти в свой
аккаунт с главной страницы. Не забывайте, что использовать
нужно сложные пароли, хранить их удобно в специальных
менеджерах, которые хранят информацию в зашифрованном
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виде.
4. «Привет! Пишу с чужого аккаунта…» Письмо от
якобы друга/родственника с просьбой помочь (материально,
конечно). Человек якобы попал в трудную ситуацию, и счет
идет на минуты. Его спасет только денежный перевод с ва-
шей стороны. Как реагировать: задавать уточняющие вопро-
сы бессмысленно. Скорее всего, мошенник уже изучил ваш
аккаунт, фотографии, комментарии и не растеряется, если вы
спросите его о чем-то. Лучше не придумывать каверзные во-
просы, а сразу позвонить человеку на сотовый телефон. Даже
если в сообщении сказано: «Не звони мне, это опасно. Они
следят». Самый надежный способ — отметить сообщение как
«фишинг» и вообще не реагировать на него.
5. «Смотреть видео?» Навязчивые сообщения, предла-
гающие пользователю видео для просмотра, как правило,
опасны. Они ведут на страницы, зараженные вирусами. Про-
граммы-шпионы способны украсть ваши пароли от личных
кабинетов и электронных кошельков. Подхватить «заразу»
можно даже на таких крупных хостингах, как YouTube. C по-
следним связан нашумевший случай заражения сотен тысяч
компьютеров. Хакеры разместили на сайте рекламный ролик
известного бренда, при просмотре которого пользователи со-
вершали вынужденный переход на страницу с вредоносным
кодом. В западном сегменте Интернета такие случаи давно не
редкость, и явление даже получило название — malvertising,
что является гибридом двух слов: malware (вирус) и
advertising (реклама). Как реагировать: Проблема в том, что,
куда бы вы не кликнули, результат будет один ‒ вынужден-
ный переход по ссылке на опасный сайт. Поэтому лучше за-
крыть браузер и запустить антивирусную программу, а еще
лучше ‒ позаботиться о защите заранее и использовать рас-
ширение, которое блокирует нежелательную рекламу и не
позволяет устанавливать опасные соединения. Вредоносные
сообщения часто можно вычислить с помощью обычной ло-
гики, однако это не всегда получается даже у продвинутых
пользователей. Сообщения составлены таким образом, чтобы
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вызывать сильные чувства ‒ радости (и немного жадности),
тревоги, любопытства и т. д. Киберпреступники — хорошие
психологи, и играют на эмоциях, рассчитывая при этом на
скорость принятия решений. Так что пользователю важно
знать типичные схемы мошенничества и не забывать при
этом про элементарные правила информационной безопасно-
сти: использование антивируса, блокировщика рекламы и
менеджера паролей.
https://shkolazhizni.ru/computers/articles/91554/
119
UNIT 6
COMPUTER VIRUSES AND VACCINES
VOCABULARY
Memorise the following words and word-combinations:
antivirus (program or file virus vandal programs
software) key logger vulnerable
antiviruses databases malware worm
boot sector resident virus to be contaminated
computer vandalism self-reproducing to propagate
to corrupt stealth virus to virus-check
destruction Trojan horse BIOS
disk formatting
TEXT
VIRUSES TODAY:
A REAL PROBLEM OR JUST A MYTH?
In the course of computer systems and software develop-
ment the data volume stored in them increases and at the same
time the data brittleness increases too. One of the factors that have
caused a drastic increase of this brittleness is the mass production
of powerful personal computers that have become one of the fac-
tors enabling the appearance of a new class of vandal programs -
computer viruses. The development of Internet has spurred the
appearance of the new types of viruses and means of their trans-
portation. The greatest danger arising out of the danger of the
software contamination with computer viruses is the possibility of
distortion or destruction of vitally important information that may
result in financial and time losses.
Computer viruses is one of the varieties of computer vandal-
ism spread in the end of the eighties. Historically their appearance
is connected with the idea of creation of self-reproducing pro-
grams the concept of which goes back to the fifties. The idea of
self-reproducing mechanisms was studied by John von Neiman
who suggested the method of such mechanisms creation in 1951.
Undoubtedly, the idea of the virus-like programs has been opened
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and re-opened by different authors time and again. Nevertheless,
reestablishment of the priorities among the investigators in pub-
lishing this or that facet of concept of the virus-like programs is to
some extent an act of justice in relation to those whose works
have been wrongly forgotten or even ignored.
In 1974 the program RABBIT was created and an attempt to
multiply it with the use of three connected IBM computers was
made demonstrating that appearance of new subtasks slowed the
reactions and caused complete starvation of the machines in the
long run.
Other example of the virus-like programs was the game AN-
IMAL developed about 1975 for UNIVAC 1108. The main point
of the game was that a man thought of some animal and the pro-
gram was trying to define the chosen animal by way of asking
questions. The programmer who had written the game provided
for the possibility of self-reproduction. When the game's solution
was wrong it asked the user to give it the question capable to im-
prove its abilities for guessing the animal in question. By memo-
rizing the question the program not only modified itself but also
tried to rewrite its renewed (improved) copy in a different cata-
logue. If the program ANIMAL was already contained in that cat-
alogue it was deleted. In the opposite case a new copy of the
game was created. It turned out that in a time all the catalogues of
the file system contained an ANIMAL copy. Moreover, if differ-
ent computers were used the user transferred his catalogue from
one to another causing in the long run the appearance of ANI-
MAL in all the catalogues. At the same time the copies of ANI-
MAL occupied a considerable file space, which was thought to be
a problem in those times.
It would be a great mistake today to consider that the viruses
is a serious problem. Actually we deal with a myth supported by
the interested people (journalists, safety experts, program prod-
ucts developers and creators of antiviruses).
It is not top secret that most of the viruses are written by
schoolchildren and students possessing no great knowledge or
skills. Their "produce" may only make a professional to give a
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condescending smile.
Practically each user or system administrator today has at
best encountered one computer virus and at worst the result of its
action due to negligence of safety of his own computer system.
What is the way out then?
Will antiviruses be of any help in this situation? Any quali-
fied user and system administrator can correctly use the antivirus.
But at the same time neither of them possesses sufficient qualifi-
cation to test the antivirus reports reliability. All they can do is to
accept these reports on trust. Or else to use statistical approaches -
say, if two of three antiviruses consider some file to be contami-
nated that means that it is actually contaminated and, correspond-
ingly, vice versa.
However, the latter approach is not at all better than the
former one, not to say the other way round. In the long run trust
based on statistics is still the same trust that cannot guarantee that
the developers of antiviruses did not make a mistake and consid-
ered all the possible situations and modifications of the viruses.
Considering the speed of appearance of the anitviruses databases
and insignificantly little time spent for the new viruses analysis by
the experts, one may without any hesitation expect the antivirus to
work not in the expected way or not to work at all. Indeed, before
the moment the virus is revealed by somebody, send to the antivi-
rus center, analyzed by the experts and included in the next annex,
it will not be recognized by the antivirus program. And all the
above-mentioned takes a period of one week to a number of
months or years. That is why it is not expedient to percept the an-
tiviruses reports with great trust. If the antiviruses are not revealed
it should not be understood literally. It does not mean that they do
not exist. The same may be said in relation to statements about
contamination of the files. Rather often the antivirus reveals a vi-
rus there where it just cannot be.
Users often encounter a little-informative report "virus can't
be cured" or, which is still worse; as a result of cure they face the
damage of files or even of the whole disk. The latter occurs but
rarely and still occurs. It is interesting that in this situation it is
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very difficult to find the guilty. The developers very rarely admit
such mistakes advising the victim to apply to the documentation
creators and the latter, in their turn, complain about the low quali-
fication of the antivirus users.
Indeed, using the modern antiviruses is not as simple as it
may seem at the first glance. The user constantly faces the neces-
sity to make a decision on the basis of reports like "the resident
virus is possible at address 0156556a247a". For an expert it is
enough to cast a glance at the given address and he can already
say much about the type of the virus.
Naturally, it is rather difficult to make all this comprehen-
sive for a common user. So, what is the way out then? Shall we
leave the cure of viruses to the experts? Practically, it is so, but
very few people may afford to call a specialist from an antivirus
firm, in particular, when the cost of the processed data is less than
that of such service.
Many people still prefer to use the antivirus means, which is
considerably cheaper though they may lose in reliability. At the
same time the developers of such means are torn apart between
two extremes: to supply the user with most exhaustive infor-
mation possible about the situation and further to act depending
on the user's decision or to bring the interaction with the user to
minimum and make the ample use of automatic diagnostics and
cure.
The latter tendency is the dominant one today. On the one
hand, it undoubtedly has its positive features, but alongside with
the increase of simplicity of its use the quality of the product de-
creases. Automatic correction made according to one and the
same pattern very often turns to be impotent in simple, but non-
standard situations.
Besides, the user is deprived of the possibility not only to
interfere in the process, but even to control the situation. Let us
assume that the analyzer suspects some file to be contaminated
with a virus. The user is provided with a choice: either to delete or
to perform automatic correction. But will that destroy the virus
and what is to be done if there is no a reserve copy? In addition,
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the users very often encounter the false operation of the analyzers.
What could be done in such a situation? Ungrounded belief
in the technical documents and advertising booklets is not the best
means in the struggle with viruses or in choosing the antivirus
product. The more the user believes in his own invulnerability the
more difficult it is for him to find his bearings during the virus
attack. Many users relying on the antivirus do not save the files
for a long time, do not limit the access to most appendixes and
sooner or later they have to pay for all this with contaminated
files and lost information.
Thus, the antiviruses are practically not as reliable as the us-
ers purchasing them expect them to be. Only those whose com-
puters are served by the experts and not by automatic programs
may feel themselves really confident.
Unfortunately, there will never be enough of such experts in
order to encompass all the existing computers and in the nearest
few years the use of antiviruses will be the only way out for the
most owners of personal computers.
It must also be taken into consideration that like any other
software the antivirus itself may be contaminated with a virus.
And the authors of the virus could disconnect the in-built control
of the antivirus integrity so that the end user suspects nothing.
The same may be applied to any copying of the antivirus package
- renewal of the base or the help-file. In most cases such renewals
contain the binary code in which a virus may be "sewn up".
Unfortunately, all the above said is seldom taken into the
account and the cases of massive contamination have happened
more than once when the authors of the virus have circulated such
"renewals" in the name of the developers. In such cases any mani-
festations are possible: from disk formatting to elimination of the
antivirus ability to determine the contaminated files. The latter are
even more guiltful by virtue of their secrecy and can be revealed
with difficulty.
So, what can be done if the antiviruses are not a panacea?
It is difficult to give a definite answer. There are many pro-
posals to it. For Windows 98 and Windows NT the general prin-
124
ciples are rather simple and may be used by most of the users.
Whatever the authors of the viruses may do there are elementary
rules of "computer hygiene":
▪ In BIOS toggle off the ability of the computer to be loaded
from disk A (only C);
▪ The antivirus scanner (monitor) should be loaded automat-
ically together with the operating system;
▪ When using somebody else's floppy discs or other remov-
able carriers apply antivirus control;
▪ Don't be lazy and when installing any (!!!) program from
CD-ROM, antivirus ones included, check out the disc for viruses;
▪ When receiving E-mail from the sources unknown to you,
especially with the availability of attachments, delete the letters
even without looking them through. Otherwise you take a risk to
lose either control of the system or your information.
But for all that the antiviruses are not and will never be a
"panacea" for all troubles. Before they can give real guaranties
they will remain just one of methods of fighting the viruses. Per-
haps together with an antivirus it is worth to buy a data saving
device and periodically save the required information. This is
more reliable, easier and quick. Even the heuristic analyzers do
not yet know how to cure the viruses unknown to them, do they?
That is why a reserve copy is needed in any case. Logical ques-
tion: if there is a reserve copy what is the antivirus required for?
Of course, it is a vexed question, but it is you who must make a
decision.
Betamagazine.com
127
7. a) Is a logic bomb the same as a virus? To make it
clear read the first part of the article below. Open the brackets,
putting the verbs in the correct form.
A logic bomb, also (to call) slag code because all that (to
leave) after it detonates is computer slag, is not the same thing as
a virus, although it often (to behave) in a similar manner. It is a
piece of computer code that executes a malicious task, such as
clearing a hard drive or deleting specific files, when it (to trigger)
by a specific event. It's secretly inserted into the code of a com-
puter's existing software, where it lies dormant until that event (to
occur). This event might be a positive trigger, such as a specific
date and time or the removal of an employee's name from the sal-
ary database; or it might be a negative trigger, such as a particular
employee failing to input a command by a certain time – meaning
he or she is probably not at the company anymore. Negative trig-
gers are considered to be more dangerous than positive ones,
since the risk of accidentally triggering the bomb – say, if the
employee is suddenly hospitalized with appendicitis – increases
dramatically. And when the bomb goes off, the damage is done –
files (to delete), secret information is sent to the wrong people,
the network (to cripple) for days ...
The payload of a logic bomb is usually pretty devastating to
the company under attack. It's often a tool (to use) by angry em-
ployees – in the IT world, it has a reputation of being associated
with "disgruntled employee syndrome." And a disgruntled em-
ployee probably (to get) too much satisfaction from making a
smiley face show up on every networked computer at 3:14 p.m.
on a specific Tuesday. A logic bomb (to have) much use outside
of targeting a specific computer or network, and IT employees are
usually the only ones with the access and know-how to implement
them. Logic bombs usually (not to program) to spread to un-
known recipients, although there are some virus types that (to
consider) logic bombs because they have a time-and-date trigger.
And some viruses have a logic bomb (to embed) in them that car-
ries out a payload in addition to the virus's replicating function.
For the most part, though, a logic bomb stays put within the net-
128
work in which it (to insert). This makes it much easier to create
than a virus. All it needs to do (to be) execute a task; it doesn't
need to reproduce, which is a more complicated function.
134
UNIT 7
ROBOTICS
VOCABULARY
Memorise the following words and word-combinations:
accuracy CAD flexibility
assembly robot controllability humanoid
android cyborg programmable Robot
automation cycle vacuum cup hand
bionics expandability
TEXT
THE EVOLUTION OF ROBOTS
The word ‘robot’ conjures up an array of images for most
people, from R2D2 and C3PO of Star Wars fame, to the hyper-
masculine Arnold Schwarzenegger in the Terminator series or the
Rover Sojourner, which explored the Martian landscape as part of
the Mars Pathfinder mission.
Terminator is perhaps the most popular humanoid autono-
mous robot in popular culture. Some people also have the notion
that robots will soon have autonomous thoughts and eventually
take over the world. There are others who think that we will soon
be at the mercy of these robots, due to our growing dependability
on them to perform our daily tasks. These notions occur entirely
due to the lack of awareness. A robot is any machine capable of
carrying out a complex series of actions automatically, especially
one that is programmable by a computer.
It can be a simple arm (used in surgery), a spy drone, or even
the automated guided vehicles that are used to transport materials
around in a factory. Everything falls under the category termed
‘robotics’. Also, a robot doesn’t necessarily have to be in a hu-
manoid form.
From a simple mechanical bird to robot soldiers, robotics has
a come a very long way. Let us look at how the machines that ba-
sically form the backbone of today’s world came into existence
and evolved over the years.
135
In 1921, Karel Capek, a Czech playwright, came up with an
intelligent, artificially created person, which he called “robot”.
Although the term came into existence less than a century ago,
robots were actually in use as early as 350 B.C. In 350 B.C., the
Greek mathematician Archytas built a mechanical bird termed
‘The Pigeon’, which was propelled with the help of steam.
One of the first instances of robotics used in day-to-day life
was the use of Egyptian water clocks, where human figurines
were used to strike the hour bells. It measured time as a result of
the force of water falling through it at a constant rate.
In the 14th century, Leonardo Da Vinci designed a mechani-
cal man that looked like an armored knight. The mechanisms in-
side the armored knight were designed to make the knight move
as though there were a real person inside.
After about three centuries, a French inventor named Jacques
de Vaucanson began building automata (a moving mechanical
device made in imitation of a human being). He built three of
them in total. The first was a flute player that could play twelve
songs, followed by the second one, which played a flute and a
drum or tambourine, and the third automata, which was a duck
that moved, quacked, flapped its wings and even ate and digested
food. It had a very clever design, considering that this was still the
17th century!
The first modern robot was made in 1810. It was a soldier
with an automatic bellows (a device with an air bag that emits a
stream of air when squeezed together with two handles, used for
blowing air into a fire) that could blow a trumpet. The creator was
Friedrich Kauffman from Dresden, Germany,
In 1898, Nikola Tesla built a remote-controlled robot boat
and demonstrated it at Madison Square Garden.
In 1932, the first true robot toy was produced in Japan.
Named ‘Lilliput’, it was a wind-up toy that walked. Lilliput was
made from tinplate and stood just 15 cm tall.
The year 1936 brought a major revolution in mathematics.
This was the year when Alan Turing famously invented the con-
cept of a theoretical computer called the Turing Machine.
136
With the arrival of programmable computers in the 1940s, the
first real robots began to take shape. The earliest robots as we
know them today were created by George Devol in the 1950s. He
invented and patented a reprogrammable manipulator (basically a
robot) called Unimate. Unfortunately, he couldn’t sell it! In the
1960s, Joseph Engleberger bought the Unimate patent and modi-
fied it into an industrial robot, selling it under the label ‘Unima-
tion’. It was a programmable robotic arm that was installed seven
years later, on the assembly line of New Jersey General Motors.
This arm performed dangerous and repetitive tasks on the assem-
bly line. For his efforts and success, Engleberger is known in the
industry as “the Father of Robotics”.
In 1966, the Stanford Research Institute created Shakey, the
first general-purpose mobile robot able to reason concerning its
own actions. While other robots would have to be instructed on
each individual step in order to complete a larger task, Shakey
could analyze commands and break them down into basic chunks
by itself. These actions involved traveling from one location to
another, turning light switches on and off, opening and closing the
doors, climbing up and down from rigid objects, and pushing
movable objects around.
Three years later, Victor Scheinman, a Mechanical Engineer-
ing student working in the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Lab
(SAIL) created the Stanford Arm. The arm’s design became a
standard for the design of future robot arms. In fact, it is still be-
ing used today. In 1974, he opened his own company that pro-
duced the Silver Arm. This arm was capable of assembling small
parts together using touch sensors.
In 1985, the first robot, called Puma350, was used in the
medical field for surgery. Its purpose was to orient a needle for a
brain biopsy under computerized tomography guidance. It was
discontinued later due to safety issues. Later, in 1992, Dr. John
Adler came up with the concept of CyberKnife, a robot that imag-
es a patient with X-rays to look for tumors in the body.
1997 was perhaps one of the most important years for robot-
ics. It was the year of the Mars Pathfinder mission. The robotic
137
Mars rover Sojourner was released onto Mars’ surface and its job
was to transmit data back to Earth from the Martian soil.
In 1999, Sony released AIBO, a robotic dog with the ability
to learn, entertain and communicate with its owner.
With further advancements in technology, robots started be-
coming more and more autonomous. Soon, inventors started mak-
ing robots more human-like. In recent years, features like artificial
skin tissues, emotions, self-awareness and autonomous thinking
have been incorporated in robots. Robothespian is one such ma-
chine that is capable of entertaining and communicating with
people. It is fully interactive and multilingual.
In 2015, Nadine, the most human-like robot ever made, was
created by the Nanyang Technological University. It currently
operates as a university receptionist. Scientists are still working
on new technology that will provide childcare and offer friendship
to lonely elderly people.
Perhaps the biggest achievement in robotics are the robotic
suits named HAL (hybrid assistive limb). The HAL reads brain
signals and helps people who have mobility problems, making it
extremely useful for disabled people and the elderly.
Robots are actually doing more good than harm in terms of
improving our quality of life. A few years down the line, just like
mobile phones, robots might become an integral part of our lives.
The question is…. is that what we really want?
By Ishan Daftardar
https://www.scienceabc.com/innovation/history-evolution-robots-robotics-pathfinder-hal-nadine.html
149
GLOSSARY
of Computing Terms and Abbreviations
A
abacus noun (pl. abacuses) a frame with rows of wires or grooves
along which beads are slid, used for calculating.
account noun a registration for a user of a network system. It is
used for controlling access to the system
administer verb to work in an administrative capacity; supervise
ADSL noun abbreviation for asymmetric digital subscriber line.
A form of DSL that has a different bandwidth for the upstream
and the downstream.
Alt (key) noun the alternative key on a computer keyboard that
changes the function of the other keys when it is held down
ALT text caption noun text displayed in a webpage as an alter-
native to a graphic when the facility for displaying graphics is
not available or is switched off
AltaVista noun the name of a well-known search engine web-
site
anti-virus (program or software) noun a computer program or
set of programs used to detect, identify and remove viruses
from a computer system
Apple noun the common name for Apple Computer Incorporated,
a well-known producer of computers that introduced the WIMP
interface on computers such as the Apple Macintosh
Apple Macintosh noun a family of personal computers produced
by Apple Computer Inc.
applet noun a very small self-contained computer program
application noun see applications program
application service provider noun a company that makes appli-
cations programs available over the Internet usually charging a
fee for access to programs
applications (program or software) noun a computer program
designed to be used for a particular purpose, e.g. a word proces-
sor spreadsheet or database program
architecture noun the structure and organization of a computer's
150
hardware or system software; the general specification of a sys-
tem
ASP noun abbreviation for application service provider
attach verb to fasten or to link
attachment noun named file which is transferred together with
an electronic mail message
B
backup verb to store a copy of data on a storage device to keep it
safe
backup noun the process of storing a copy of data on a storage
device to keep it safe / the term used for the copied data
bandwidth noun the range of frequencies that can be transmitted
over a communications channel
binary code noun code used in digital computers, based on a bi-
nary number system in which there are only two possible states,
off and on, usually symbolized by 0 and 1; in a binary system
each digit position represents a power of 2 (4, 8, 16, etc.). A bi-
nary code signal is a series of electrical pulses that represent
numbers, characters, and operations to be performed
binary notation noun the use of binary numbers to represent val-
ues
BIOS noun acronym for Basic Input Output System. A part of the
operating system stored on a ROM chip that controls the input
and output of data to peripherals
bit noun a small unit of storage capacity. One of the eight binary
digits that make up a byte. The term comes from an abbrevia-
tion of binary digit.
Bluetooth noun the name of a high-speed microwave wireless
network system developed by a group of companies consisting
of Ericsson, IBM, Intel, Nokia and Toshiba. It is used with
portable equipment.
bookmark verb to store a link to a webpage to make it easier to
find in the future
boot verb to copy a part of the operating system into memory to
allow a computer to start up
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boot sector noun reserved sectors on disk that are used to load
the operating system
boot sector virus noun a self-replicating program that stores it-
self in the part of a disk containing the programs used to start up
a computer
broadband adj able to carry signals transmitted over a wide
range of frequencies
broadcast verb to transmit signals that can be picked up by a
large number of receivers
browse verb to move from webpage to webpage using a Web
browser program
(Web) browser noun a program used for displaying webpages
bug noun a fault in a system
bulletin board noun an electronic notice board system that ena-
bles users to display messages for other users to read
bus noun a set of conductors that carry signals between different
parts of a computer
byte a unit of storage capacity. A byte is made up of eight bits
and stores one character, i.e. a letter, a number, a space or a
punctuation mark.
C
С noun a general purpose computer programming language that
was originally designed for writing Unix systems programs
cathode ray tube noun a display device that uses an electron gun
to fire a beam of electrons at a phosphor-coated screen
CD noun abbreviation for compact disk
CD (-ROM) (disk) noun abbreviation for compact disk read only
memory. A read only storage device in the form of a disk that is
read using laser light.
CD-ROM drive noun a storage device for reading CD-ROM
disks
CD-RW (drive) noun abbreviation for compact disk rewritable.
A storage device use for reading from and writing to a special
type of CD known as a re-writeable CD.
central processing unit noun the electronic processor at the cen-
152
tre of a computer. The term is sometimes used to refer to the
combination of the processor and the main memory.
chat room noun a virtual space on a website where online discus-
sions organized around specific interests are held in real-time
by users typing text messages
(left) click verb to press and release the left-hand button on a
mouse
(right) click verb to press and release the right-hand button on a
mouse
clock speed noun the internal heartbeat of a computer, also
known as "clock rate." The clock circuit uses fixed vibrations
generated from a quartz crystal to deliver a steady stream of
pulses to the CPU.
CMC noun abbreviation for computer mediated communication,
i.e. the transfer of messages using a computer system
code noun a piece of program text written in a programming lan-
guage
code verb to write the text of a program or part of a program us-
ing a computer language ,
compatible adj able to operate on the same type of system or
run the same software
computer case noun (also known as the computer chassis, cabi-
net, tower, box, enclosure, housing or simply case) is the enclo-
sure that contains the main components of a computer. It has al-
so been erroneously called the CPU, however this is an entirely
different component
computer fraud noun (legal) a computer crime, i.e. breaking the
criminal law by use of a computer
computer language noun a language used for writing computer
programs
computer science noun the study of computers and their use
computer-mediated communication noun a process of transfer-
ring messages using computers
computing noun the theory and practice of computers
computing science noun see computer science
configure verb to adjust the settings
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connect verb to link together two points in a circuit or communi-
cations network
connection noun when two computers have established a path
through which the exchange of information can occur
connectivity noun the characteristic of being connected
corrupt verb to damage in such a way that prevents normal use
CPU noun abbreviation for central processing unit
crack verb to break into a computer system in order to steal in-
formation or cause damage
cracker noun an individual who attempts to gain unauthorised
access to a computer system. These individuals are often mali-
cious and have many means at their disposal for breaking into a
system. The term was coined in 1985 by hackers in defence
against journalistic misuse of "hacker"
crash verb to fail suddenly and completely usually referring to
the failure of a hard disk
CRT noun abbreviation for cathode ray tube
Ctrl + Alt + Del noun set of symbols that signify pressing the
combination of the control-alternative and delete keys on a
computer keyboard at the same time
cursor noun a symbol on the monitor screen that indicates the
point on the screen that is being used
cut and paste verb to remove some data from a file and tempo-
rarily store it in the computer's memory then insert a copy of the
data in another position in the same or in another file
D
data noun the information processed by a computer
data mining noun a process of analysing a large amount of
stored data to find new useful information
data stream noun the flow of data
data warehouse noun a computing centre that provides a large
collection of data gathered from different sources for data min-
ing
database management system noun software that controls the
organization, storage, retrieval, security and integrity of data in
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a database; it accepts requests from the application and instructs
the operating system to transfer the appropriate data
database (program) noun a type of applications program used
for storing information so that it can be easily searched and
sorted
DBMS noun abbreviation for database management system
debug verb to find and fix faults in a program or system
decimal code noun the system, which employs 10 digits, each
digit position represents a power of 10 (100, 1,000, etc.)
decipher verb to change coded information into normal text
decrypt verb to recover the original text from an encrypted mes-
sage
default noun an initial setting that can be changed by the user
denial of service attack noun a type of computer crime that in-
volves swamping a server with large numbers of requests
desktop noun the main graphical user interface background
screen that displays icons for other programs
desktop (computer) noun a personal computer that is designed to
be used on an office desk
desktop application noun a computer program designed to be
used on a desktop computer
dial-up networking noun a communications system that allows
computers to connect together using a telephone line
digital subscriber line noun a broadband communications sys-
tem that allows digital signals to be transferred across an ordi-
nary analogue telephone line
directory noun a storage area used for grouping files so that they
can be easily located. A directory is sometimes called a folder.
disk noun a flat circular storage device
disk drive noun a storage device for reading from and writing to
disks
disk formatting noun preparing a disk so that a computer can
read and write data on it. Formatting a disk includes creating
the physical tracks and sector identification, and creating the
indexes specific to the operating system it will be used on
divider noun a vertical bar that divides a Windows Explorer win-
155
dow into two parts. One part shows the drive folders and the
other part shows the filenames of the files in the selected folder.
double-click verb to press and release the left-hand button
on a mouse two times in rapid succession
download verb to copy a file from a server to a client computer
in a network
download noun a process of copying a file from a server to a cli-
ent computer in a network
drag and drop verb to move data from one location to another
with a mouse. Holding down the mouse button while moving
the mouse moves the selected data. Releasing the mouse button
drops the data in the new location
drive noun a device that spins disks or tapes in order to read and
write data; for example, a hard drive, floppy drive, CD-ROM
drive, or tape drive
driver noun a systems program that controls a peripheral device
DSL noun abbreviation for digital subscriber line
DVD noun abbreviation for digital versatile disk; an optical stor-
age medium with improved capacity and bandwidth compared
with the Compact Disc
DVD (-ROM) noun abbreviation for digital versatile disk read
only memory. An optical disk storage device that can hold a
large amount of video data.
E
earphone noun sound output device that fits into the ear of the
user ground point or zero voltage point
e-commerce noun the business of buying and selling goods and
services on the Internet
editor noun a computer program for making changes to text in
computer programs or data
electrical circuit noun a path that transmits electric current.
electronic virtual assistant noun a computer program represent-
ed by an animated screen image that is used to help the user
perform particular tasks such as searching the Internet for useful
data
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email noun the common name for an electronic mail message, i.e.
a text message sent electronically using a computer
email verb to send an email message
email address noun the unique address code used
to contact someone using electronic mail
email attachment noun a file that is attached to an email mes-
sage
email program noun a computer program used for reading and
sending email
email service noun an Internet service that allows user to send
and receive emails
encode verb to write information in a coded form
encoder noun a computer program that converts WAV files into
MP3 files or vice versa
encrypt verb to transform data into coded form to make it secure
encryption noun the transformation of data into coded form to
make it secure
Enter (key) noun another name for the RETURN key on a com-
puter keyboard. Pressing the ENTER key inserts the data into
the memory of the computer.
erasable optical disk noun a CD that allows data to be deleted
and new data to be recorded on it
executable containing instructions that can be run or executed by
the processor
execute verb to perform a computer operation by processing a
program instruction
expansion card noun an electronic circuit board used for adding
facilities to a computer
expansion slot noun a long thin connector that is used for adding
additional electronics in the form of expansion cards
F
file noun a computer program or data stored on a storage device
file virus noun a virus that attaches itself to a program file
firewall noun a combination of hardware and software used to
control the data going into and out of a network. It is used to
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prevent unauthorised access to the network by hackers.
floppy (disk) noun a magnetic storage device in the form of a
small plastic disk. Also known as a diskette.
floppy (disk) drive noun common magnetic storage device that
reads and writes data on a floppy disk. Also known as a diskette
drive.
folder noun see directory
freeware noun computer programs that are made available to an-
yone who wants to use them at no cost to the user
G
Gb/GB noun abbreviation for a gigabyte
geek noun although it was originally a derogatory term used for
an expert lacking in social skills, it is now used in computing to
mean a dedicated expert
GHz noun abbreviation for gigahertz
gigabit noun a unit of storage capacity equal to 1 073 741 824
bits
gigabyte noun a unit of storage capacity equal to 1 073 741 824
bytes
gigahertz noun a unit of frequency equal to one thousand million
hertz (cycles every second)
graph noun a picture that gives an overview of a collection of
information, usually statistical or mathematical information. A
graph can reveal trends that would be harder to recognize by
just looking at numbers. Some kinds of graphs are a line graph,
a bar graph, and a pie chart
graphic noun 1. a symbol produced by a process such as hand-
writing, drawing, printing, engraving, etc. 2. an image in com-
puter graphics format.
graphical (user) interface noun the part of an operating system
that allows the user to interact with a computer using graphic
images and a cursor
graphics noun the creation, editing, and printing of pictures.
Computer graphics has two main methods: vector graphics
(stored as a list of vectors) and raster or bitmap graphics (stored
158
as a collection of dots or pixels)
GUI Graphical User Interface, a method of interacting with a
computer that uses graphics in addition to text.
H
hack verb to gain unauthorised access to a network system
hacker noun 1. a person who enjoys exploring the details of pro-
grammable systems and how to stretch their capabilities, as op-
posed to most users, who prefer to learn only the minimum nec-
essary; 2. one who programs enthusiastically (even obsessively)
or who enjoys programming rather than just theorizing about
programming; 3. a person who is good at programming quickly;
4. an expert at a particular program, or one who frequently does
work using it or on it; as in "a Unix hacker"; 5. an expert or en-
thusiast of any kind (one might be an astronomy hacker, for ex-
ample); 6. one who enjoys the intellectual challenge of creative-
ly overcoming or circumventing limitations; 7. (deprecated) a
malicious meddler who tries to discover sensitive information
by poking around. The correct term is cracker.
handheld (computer) noun a small portable computer that can
be held in one hand
hang verb to suddenly and unexpectedly stop processing during
the execution of a program
hard (disk) (drive) noun a common magnetic storage device that
reads and writes data on metal disks inside a sealed case
hardware noun the physical components of a computer system
(disk drive) head noun the part of a disk drive that reads and
writes data to the disk
headphone noun sound output device that fits over the ears of the
user
hexadecimal system noun a number representation using the dig-
its 0-9, with their usual meaning, plus the letters A-F to repre-
sent hexadecimal digits with values of (decimal) 10 to 15. The
right-most digit counts ones, the next counts multiples of 16,
then 16^2 = 256, etc.
highlight verb to select by marking on the display screen
159
hijacking noun a computer crime that involves redirecting any-
one trying to visit a certain website elsewhere
Home button noun the button icon on a Web browser program
that takes you to the starting webpage
homepage noun the main start page of a website
host noun a computer that provides a service on a network / a
program that carries a virus
hot plug verb to attach a device to a system without switching the
system off and without causing problems to the system
hover verb to hold a cursor over an icon for a short period of
time
hub noun an electronic device at the centre of a star network to-
pology
hyperlink noun a text or image in a webpage that causes a related
webpage to be displayed or another program to be started when
the user clicks on the hyperlink using the mouse
I
I/O noun abbreviation for input/output
IBM /noun abbreviation for International Business Machines, the
largest computer company in the world. It launched the first
personal computer called the IBM PC which quickly became
the standard.
IС noun abbreviation for integrated circuit. A complete electronic
circuit built on a single silicon chip.
icon noun a small picture used in a WIMP system to represent a
program folder or file
image editor noun a computer program that allows the user to
make changes to images
inbox noun the folder in an email program where emails are
stored when they are first received
information technology noun the study and practice of tech-
niques or use of equipment for dealing with information
initialise (the hard disk) verb to reboot or restart the computer
input verb to put data into a system
input noun data put into a system
160
input device noun a piece of equipment used for putting data
into a computer
install verb to put a program or application onto a computer sys-
tem
instruction noun one line of a computer program
integrated circuit noun a microelectronic semiconductor device
consisting of many interconnected transistors and other compo-
nents
Intel noun the American company that designs and produces the
electronic processors used in most of the computers in the
world
interactive adj allows two-way communication so that the user
can respond or interact with the system
interface noun the hardware or software that connects two sys-
tems and allows them to communicate with each other
Internet service provider noun an organisation that provides In-
ternet connections for a fee
Internet (the) noun the connection of computer networks across
the world
ISP noun abbreviation for Internet service provider
IT noun abbreviation for information technology
J
JPEG noun abbreviation for joint photographic expert group the
committee that devised a common standard for image file for-
mat and compression. JPEG compression is commonly used for
photographic images in webpages because it creates very small
files.
junk email noun unwanted and unsolicited email that is normally
advertising or trying to sell something
K
Kb/KB noun abbreviation for a kilobyte. A unit of storage capac-
ity equal to 1024 bytes.
Kbit/s noun abbreviation for kilobits per second. A unit of signal
speed equal to 1024 bits every second. A more common form is
kbps.
161
kbps noun abbreviation for kilobits per second. A unit of signal
speed equal to 1024 bits every second.
KDE noun a graphical user interface used with the Linux operat-
ing system
kernel noun the lowest level layer at the core of an operating sys-
tem. It deals with allocating hardware resources to the rest of
the operating system and the application programs.
keyboard noun the main electronic input device that has keys
arranged in a similar layout to a typewriter
key logger noun 1. a program or hardware device that captures
every key depression on the computer. Also known as "Key-
stroke Cops," they are used to monitor an employee's activities
by recording every keystroke the user makes, including typos,
backspacing and retyping; 2. a software-based keystroke logger
can also be a Trojan that was installed clandestinely with the in-
tent to steal passwords and confidential information
keystroke noun the process of pressing and releasing a key on a
keyboard
kHz noun abbreviation for kilohertz. A unit of frequency equal to
1000 cycles every second.
killer application noun an application program that is particular-
ly useful and popular, making a computer system very success-
ful
L
LAN noun acronym for local area network
language processor noun software that performs computer lan-
guage translation
laptop (computer) noun the largest type of portable computer
laser printer noun a printer that prints using toner powder and
laser light on a photosensitive drum
LCD abbreviation for liquid crystal display. An electronic display
device that uses liquid crystal cells to control the reflection of
light.
link noun a common term used for a hyperlink, i.e. the connec-
tion of a webpage to another webpage or file
162
Linux noun a clone of the Unix operating system created by Li-
nus Torvalds for use on personal computers
Linux distribution noun the Linux-user term for a complete op-
erating system kit complete with the utilities and applications
needed to make it do useful things, e.g. command interpreters,
programming tools, text editors, typesetting tools and graphical
user interfaces
load verb to copy a program from a storage device into the com-
puter's memory
local area network noun computers connected together over a
small area such as a company department
logon verb to connect to a network system account normally us-
ing a password
logic bomb noun destructive code introduced into a program that
is triggered by some event taking place on the computer system
at a later time
M
(Apple) Mac noun the common name for the Apple Macintosh
range of computers. A type of personal computer manufactured
by Apple Computer Incorporated.
machine code a computer language that consists entirely of a
combination of Is and Os
machine intelligence noun another name for artificial intelli-
gence
Mac OS noun the family of operating systems used on the Apple
Macintosh range of computers
macro virus noun a virus program in the form of a macro pro-
gram
magnetic tape noun a magnetic storage medium in the form of a
thin plastic ribbon wound on a reel or a cassette. It is commonly
used for backing up data.
mail bombing noun a computer crime that involves inundating
an email address with thousands of messages slowing or even
crashing the server
mail client noun an email program that connects to an email
163
server to send and receive email
mail server noun a network service that stores email messages
and enables email clients to send and receive emails
mailbox noun a folder used by an email server to store a user's
emails
main memory noun the electronic memory that holds the pro-
grams and data being used
mainframe (computer) noun the largest and most powerful type
of computer. It is operated by a team of professionals
malware noun any software designed to do something that the
user would not wish it to do, hasn't asked it to do, and often has
no knowledge of until it's too late. Types of malware include
backdoor, virus, worm, Trojan horse
Mb / MB noun abbreviation for a megabyte
Mbit/s / Mbps noun abbreviation for megabits per second. A unit
of signal speed equal to 1 048 576 bits every second
media noun different types of data storage options (computer
media can be hard drives, removable drives (such as Zip disks),
CD-ROM or CD-R discs, DVDs, flash memory, USB drives,
and floppy disks)
medium noun an intervening substance through which signals
can travel as a means for communication
megabyte noun a unit of storage capacity equal to 1 048 576
bytes
megahertz noun a unit of frequency equal to 1 million cycles
every second
memory noun the electronic part of a computer system that is
used for temporarily storing the programs and data that are be-
ing used by the processor
menu noun a list of items you can select. It usually appears on
your computer screen as a list of command choices (such as
"open" or "save" or "exit"). This term also loosely refers to any
type of drop-down menu, dialogue box, check box, or list of op-
tion buttons that appear on a Web site.
menu bar noun a row of icons on a display screen that open up
menus when selected
164
metadata noun data about data in a document
metalanguage noun a language from which you can create other
languages
MHz noun abbreviation for megahertz
microchip noun an electronic integrated circuit in a small pack-
age
microcomputer noun a personal computer. Smaller and less
powerful than a mainframe or a minicomputer.
microprocessor noun the main electronic chip in a computer. It
can be thought of as the 'brain' of the computer because it does
the main processing and controls the other parts of the comput-
er. It is sometimes called the CPU.
Microsoft noun the common name for the Microsoft Corporation.
The company founded by Bill Gates that developed the MS-
DOS and Windows operating systems and a variety of software
commonly used on desktop computers.
minicomputer noun a computer that is slightly less powerful and
a little smaller than a mainframe
MO adj abbreviation for magneto-optical. Used to describe stor-
age devices that use a combination of magnetism and laser
light.
modem noun short for modulator/demodulator. An electronic de-
vice that converts signals to enable a computer to be connected
to an ordinary telephone line.
monitor noun the main output device used to display the output
from a computer on a screen. See VDU.
motherboard noun the main electronic circuit board inside a
computer that holds and connects together all the main electron-
ic components
mouse noun a common cursor control input device used with a
graphical user interface. It commonly has two or three button
switches on top and a ball underneath that is rolled on a flat sur-
face.
mouse button noun a switch on a mouse that is pressed to select
an object on the screen
mouse pointer noun a cursor image in the shape of an arrow that
165
is controlled by a mouse and is used for pointing and selecting
icons on the screen
MP3 noun abbreviation for MPEG Audio Layer 3. A Motion Pic-
ture Experts Group standard for audio compression.
MPEG noun a standard video compression scheme. The term is
an acronym for Motion Picture Experts Group a committee that
develops standards for audio and video file formats and com-
pression.
MS-DOS noun abbreviation for Microsoft disk operating system.
The command line operating system that was used in the first
PCs.
multimedia noun the combination of text graphics animation
sound and video
multimodal input noun the process of operating a user interface
using a combination of types of input, e.g. keyboard and speech
recognition
N
Net (the) noun the common name for the Internet
network verb to connect a number of computers and peripheral
devices together
network noun a combination of a number of computers and pe-
ripheral devices connected together
network guru noun a person who is an expert in networking and
gives talks and advice on the future development of networking
newsgroup noun an Internet discussion group that uses a restrict-
ed area on a server computer to display messages about a com-
mon interest
node noun a network terminal or point where a computer is con-
nected to a network
notebook (computer) noun a portable computer that is about the
same size as a piece of writing paper
numeric keyboard noun the section of a computer keyboard that
includes keys for entering numerical digits (0-9) and mathemat-
ical operators (+,-)
O
166
OCR noun abbreviation for optical character recognition
(Microsoft) Office noun a widely-used application package de-
veloped by the Microsoft Corporation that includes programs
used in a typical office, e.g. a word processor and spreadsheet
office application /suite noun a computer program or set of pro-
grams that are used in a typical office, e.g. a word processor
spreadsheet and database
offline adj disconnected from a computer system or the Internet
online connected to a computer system or the Internet
Open Source part of a system of software development where
anyone is free to take a copy of the source code and extend de-
velop or fix bugs in it
operating system noun the set of programs that control the basic
functions of a computer and provides communication between
the application programs and the hardware
optical character recognition noun a process that enables a
computer to scan and recognise printed characters using the re-
flection of light
optical media noun data storage material that is written to or read
from using laser light
OS noun abbreviation for operating system
OS X noun version 10 of the Apple Macintosh operating system.
It is a modular OS and has a desktop with a 3-D appearance. It
includes support for UNIX-based applications as well as older
Mac applications.
OS/2 noun a multitasking desktop operating system for PCs that
was marketed by IBM
output noun the processed data or signals that come out of a
computer system
P
(software) package noun an application program or collection of
programs that can be used in different ways
palm-size PC noun another name for a handheld IBM compatible
computer
palmtop (computer) noun a portable computer that is small
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enough to be held in the palm of one hand. See handheld com-
puter.
password noun a secret code used to control access to a network
system
paste verb to insert a copy of data held in a computer's memory at
a chosen position
patch verb to insert programming code into a computer program
to fix or modify it in some way
PC noun abbreviation for an IBM type of personal computer
PDA noun abbreviation for Personal Digital Assistant, a handheld
device combining the features of organizer, notepad, address
book, and – in newer models – phone, fax and Internet browser.
pen-based computer noun a small computer that has a pen input
device instead of a keyboard
Pentium noun a family of processors produced by the Intel Cor-
poration
peripheral noun a piece of equipment that is connected to the
central processing unit of a computer system
personal computer noun a computer designed to be used by one
person at a time
piggybacking noun a computer crime that involves using another
person's identification code or using that person's files before he
or she has logged off
PIN noun an acronym for personal identification number. A
unique number used by electronic systems to indicate who a
person is
plug noun connector with protruding pins that is inserted into a
socket to provide an electrical connection
plug in verb to make an electrical connection by pushing a plug
into a socket
pointer noun an arrow-shaped cursor
pop-under ad noun a variation on the pop-up ad, this online ad
displays in a new browser window behind your current browser
window. A pop-under ad is most commonly the size of the im-
age to the right (or larger)
pop-up ad noun an online advertisement, that is displayed in a
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new browser window when you click from one page to another.
A pop-up ad, as well as a pop-under ad, is most commonly the
size of the image to the right
portable (computer) noun a computer that is small and light
enough to be carried from place to place. It can usually be pow-
ered by batteries
ppi pixels per inch, a measurement of image resolution of a dis-
play.
primary disk drive noun the main disk drive in a computer. In a
PC this is usually a hard disk known as the С drive
Print Screen (key) noun the computer keyboard key that copies
the current display screen image to memory or to the printer
printed circuit board noun an electronic board that holds and
connects the components of an electronic circuit
printer noun a common output device used for printing the out-
put of a computer on paper
processor noun the part of a computer that processes the data
program noun a set of instructions written in a computer lan-
guage that control the behaviour of a computer
program verb to write a set of instructions for controlling a com-
puter using a computer language
programmer noun a person who writes computer programs
programming noun the processes of writing a computer program
using a computer language
programming language noun a computer language used for
writing computer programs
propagate verb to move through a medium; to spread
propagation noun movement through a conductive medium
protocol noun a set of agreed standards
public-key cryptography noun a method of coding messages
using public and private keys to prevent others from reading
them
pull-down menu noun a list of choices that appear below a menu
title on a display screen when the user clicks on the menu title
using a mouse
R
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radio button noun one of a set of mutually exclusive options in a
dialog box, i.e. the user can only select one, causing the others
to be deselected
RAM noun acronym for random access memory
random access memory noun a type of memory that can be ac-
cessed in any order. RAM is the main electronic memory of a
personal computer and is used for storing the programs and data
being used
read only memory noun a type of data storage device which is
manufactured with fixed contents
reboot verb to restart a computer operating system
recorder (program) noun a computer program that allows the
user to create their own audio CDs with a writeable CD-ROM
drive
Recycle Bin noun the folder in Microsoft Windows operating
systems where deleted files are stored
resident adj is kept in the computer's memory
resolution noun a measure of the quality of a display screen in
terms of the amount of graphical information that can be shown
on the screen. This partly depends on the number of dots that
make up the image
restart verb to start again
restore verb to put data back into its original location
robotics noun the study of robot systems
ROM noun acronym for read only memory
route noun the path that is used to transfer data in a network
route verb to move data from node to node on a network
router noun an electronic device that links different networks or
parts of a network. It determines the path that a signal should
take to reach its destination.
rpm noun abbreviation for revolutions per minute
run verb to execute a program, i.e. to get a program to process
the data
S
s/w noun abbreviation for software
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salami shaving noun a computer crime that involves manipulat-
ing programs or data so that small amounts of money are de-
ducted from a large number of transactions or accounts and ac-
cumulated elsewhere
save verb to copy a program or data to a storage device
scan verb to copy text or graphics using a scanner
scanner noun an optical input device that uses the reflection of
light to copy text or graphics into a computer
(monitor)(display) screen noun a computer output device used
for displaying text and graphic images
scroll verb to move through displayed information smoothly on
the screen either horizontally or vertically
scrollbar noun the part of a graphical user interface window that
allows the user to move through a document by clicking or
dragging with the mouse
SDRAM noun abbreviation for synchronous dynamic random
access memory. A type of fast memory that uses a separate
clock signal in addition to the normal control signals
search engine noun a program designed to find information on
the World Wide Web according to data entered by the user.
Search engines are usually accessed from special websites
select verb to position a pointer over an object (such as a button
or menu option) and click on the mouse-button
semiconductor noun a material, typically crystalline, which al-
lows current to flow under certain circumstances. Common
semiconductors are silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide. Sem-
iconductors are used to make diodes, transistors and other basic
"solid state" electronic components
serial port noun the small connector at the back of the system
unit of a personal computer that is used to connect a serial de-
vice such as a serial mouse or a modem. Two serial ports la-
belled C0M1 and COM2 are usually provided on a PC.
server noun a main computer that provides a service on a net-
work
shareware noun software that is distributed freely and only paid
for if the user decides to keep it
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shift key noun the computer keyboard key that is held down to
produce uppercase letters
shut down verb to switch off and stop the functions of a machine
or system
signup verb to register with a service
silicon noun (Si) an element found in rocks and sand, which is
used as the base, or substrate, for computer chips
site noun a common name for a website
site map noun a webpage that is used to show the overall layout
of a website
skin noun a computer program that is used to change the interface
of another program, e.g. to change the screen display on an
MP3 player program
software noun the programs and data used in a computer
software engineering noun the discipline of designing high qual-
ity software solutions
software house noun a company that designs and produces soft-
ware
software piracy noun a computer crime that involves unauthor-
ised copying of a program for sale or distributing to other users
soundcard noun the electronic circuit expansion board in a com-
puter that is used to process audio signals and connect to and
control a microphone loudspeaker or headphone
spam noun unsolicited email sent to large numbers of people in-
discriminately usually advertising or trying to sell a product
speaker noun common term for a loudspeaker. An output device
for providing sound output.
spoofing noun a computer crime that involves tricking a user into
revealing confidential information such as an access code or a
credit card number
spreadsheet (program) noun a type of application program with
an array of cells that is used for calculating formulas
spyware noun any type of software that transmits information
without the user's knowledge
standalone adj not connected to a network
Start (button) noun an icon on the bottom left corner of Mi-
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crosoft Windows operating system desktops that allows the user
to access programs and data and to close down the system
Start menu noun the list of choices that opens upon the display
screen when the user clicks the Start button in a Microsoft Win-
dows desktop
status bar noun a narrow band displayed across the bottom of a
window in a Microsoft Windows application to display useful
information for the user, e.g. number of pages in a document
stealth virus noun a type of virus that hides itself making it hard
to detect
storage device noun a piece of equipment used for reading from
and writing to a storage medium
storage medium noun a material used for storing programs and
data
store verb to copy or transfer data from the computer to a storage
medium such as disk or tape
subfolder noun a storage area that provides a subdivision of a
folder so that stored files can be organised into smaller groups
submenu noun a list of choices that is displayed when the user
clicks on an item in a menu
sub-program noun a small program that performs a specific
function and is part of a larger program
subtract verb a relational DBMS operation that generates a third
file from all the records in one file that are not in a second file.
supercomputer noun the most powerful type of mainframe com-
puter
supervisor (program) noun the most important program in the
operating system. It is resident and controls the entire operating
system. It loads other operating system programs into memory
when they are needed.
surf verb to browse webpages on the Internet in an unplanned
way
surge protector noun an electronic device that protects equip-
ment from damage due to sudden high voltage or current in the
power supply
system bus noun the sets of connectors that carry signals between
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system components such as the processor and memory in a
computer
system tray noun a section at the far right of a Microsoft Win-
dows task bar that holds icons for the clock and other programs
that run constantly in the background
system unit noun the primary computer equipment; housed in a
desktop or floor-standing cabinet, it contains such components
as the motherboard, CPU, RAM and ROM chips, hard and
floppy disks and several input/output ports
T
tab noun a dialog box component that is used to switch between
different sets of data
tab (key) noun the computer keyboard key that is used to move
the cursor to the next tabulation point in a word processor pro-
gram so that data can be spaced evenly on the screen
tape noun a magnetic storage medium commonly used for storing
backup files
taskbar noun а Microsoft Windows desktop component that in-
dicates what programs are currently being used and allows the
user to switch between them
terabit noun a unit of storage capacity equal to 1 009 511 627
776 bits
text editor noun a computer program for editing basic data or
program text, i.e. like a basic word processor
TFT display noun abbreviation for thin film transistor display. A
type of LCD screen display commonly used in portable com-
puters. It uses a separate transistor to control each pixel on the
display
thick /heavy client noun a full-featured computer that is connect-
ed to a network. Unlike thin clients, which lack hard drives and
other features, thick clients are functional whether they are con-
nected to a network or not. While a thick client is fully func-
tional without a network connection, it is only a "client" when it
is connected to a server. The server may provide the thick client
with programs and files that are not stored on the local ma-
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chine's hard drive. It is not uncommon for workplaces to pro-
vide thick clients to their employees. This enables them to ac-
cess files on a local server or use the computers offline. When a
thick client is disconnected from the network, it is often referred
to as a workstation.
thin client noun a low-cost centrally-managed basic computer
with a keyboard and display screen processor and memory but
no CD-ROM drive, floppy disk drive or expansion slots, e.g. a
NetPC or a network computer (NC)
throughput noun the amount of data that passes through a system
in a given period of time
toggle-box noun a screen icon in Windows Explorer that opens or
closes a folder to show or hide its subfolders when the user
clicks on it using a mouse
tooltip noun a label that appear on the screen when the user holds
the mouse pointer over an icon in a Microsoft Windows system
tower chassis noun a personal computer case that stands on end
and can be placed on the floor unlike the normal desktop case
that sits flat on a desk under the monitor
track noun a formatted circular magnetic storage area on a com-
puter disk
traffic noun the volume of signals or data that passes through a
network system
transistor noun a solid state electronic switch or amplifier
trapdoor noun a technique used in a computer crime that in-
volves leaving within a completed program an illicit program
that allows unauthorised - and unknown -entry
Trojan horse noun a technique used in a computer crime that
involves adding concealed instructions to a computer program
so that it will still work but will also perform prohibited duties.
In other words it appears to do something useful but actually
does something destructive in the background.
troubleshoot verb to find and fix faults in a system
troubleshooter noun a person who finds and fixes faults in a sys-
tem
turn off verb to switch off or to disconnect the power supply to a
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machine
turn on verb to switch on or to connect the power supply to a
machine
typesetting noun preparation for printing
U
undo verb to restore a file to the condition it was in before the
last change was made
unencrypt verb to remove the encryption from a file
uninterruptible power supply noun a backup power supply that
works when electrical power to the computer is interrupted. A
small UPS can supply battery power for a few minutes so files
can be saved and the computer can be shut down properly; a
larger UPS can supply power for much longer
Unix noun a popular multi-user multitasking operating system
originally designed for mainframe computers. A wide variety of
versions exist
update noun a change that provides the latest version
update verb to bring up to date, i.e. to change into the latest ver-
sion
upgrade noun a change that improves the features or perfor-
mance of a system
upgrade verb to add components to improve the features or per-
formance of a system
upload verb to copy a file from a client computer to a server in a
network
UPS noun abbreviation for uninterruptible power supply
URL noun abbreviation for uniform (or universal) resource loca-
tor
utility (program) noun a program included with an operating
system that can perform useful common routine tasks or house-
keeping operations, e.g. formatting disks or copying files
V
vacuum tube noun a sealed glass or metal container, evacuated
to a high degree of vacuum, through which a controlled flow of
electrons is directed; the first computers used vacuum tubes as
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on/off switches to indicate the 0s and 1s in digital computations
VDU noun abbreviation for visual display unit. Another name for
a computer monitor.
verify verb to check for accuracy
virtual adj computer-simulated enabling the user to experience
something without needing its physical presence
virtual reality noun a simulated three-dimensional environment
that surrounds the user and is generated by a computer
virus noun a program written with the purpose of causing damage
or causing a computer to behave in an unusual way
virus-check verb to check for viruses
VR noun abbreviation for virtual reality
W
wallpaper noun the background graphics on a Microsoft Win-
dows desktop
Web address noun the Internet address of a webpage
Web developer noun a person who is employed to create web-
sites
Web mail noun a type of email that is accessed from web pages
Web server noun a server computer that stores and provides ac-
cess to websites
Web space noun disk storage space on a web server used for stor-
ing web pages
Web noun common name for the World Wide Web
Webmaster noun a person who administers a Web server
Web page noun a hyperlinked document in a web network sys-
tem
website noun a set of related pages on the World Wide Web
wildcard noun a symbol used in computer commands and for
searching databases. It represents any character or combination
of characters, e.g. using an asterisk searching for *ed would
find all words ending in ed.
window noun a rectangular screen area containing a program
folder or file in a WIMP system
(Microsoft) Windows noun a graphical user interface operating
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system front-end to MS-DOS developed by the Microsoft Cor-
poration. It has been gradually developed into a full operating
system.
wipe (a disk) verb to delete all the files stored on a disk
word-processing noun the process of typing and editing text us-
ing a word processor
word processor noun a type of computer application program
used for typing and editing text documents
workstation noun a powerful desktop computer used by power
users for work that requires a lot of processing, e.g. graphic de-
sign
World Wide Web (the) noun an information service on the In-
ternet that allows document pages to be accessed using hyper-
links
worm noun a computer program that can make copies of itself,
and spreads through connected systems, using up resources in
affected computers or causing other damage
writeable CD-ROM drive noun a compact disk drive that al-
lows the user to write data onto a CD as well as read data stored
on the CD
WWW noun abbreviation for the World Wide Web. The Internet
service used for connecting to multimedia web pages.
X
X (windowing) (system) noun a windowing system used with
different versions of Unix
XGA noun abbreviation for extended graphics array. An IBM
display screen standard with
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СПИСОК ИСПОЛЬЗОВАННОЙ ЛИТЕРАТУРЫ
179
Учебное издание
Ольга Владимировна Федотова
English for Information Technology Students
Учебное пособие
к профессионально-ориентированному
курсу английского языка
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