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DAVID HUDDART & TIM STOTT
Adventure
Tourism
Environmental
Impacts and
Management
Adventure Tourism
David Huddart • Tim Stott
Adventure Tourism
Environmental Impacts and
Management
David Huddart Tim Stott
Liverpool John Moores University Liverpool John Moores University
Liverpool, UK Liverpool, UK
ISBN 978-3-030-18622-7 ISBN 978-3-030-18623-4 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18623-4
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher,
whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation,
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other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation,
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
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The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in
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Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank their wives, Silvia and Debbie for their
patience and tolerance for understanding that it takes many hours to compile
a book such as this. Over many years the Outdoor Education students of
Liverpool John Moores University have provided an inspiration for the
authors in many ways. David Huddart would like to thank Emeritus Professor
Michael Hambrey; Verena Starke of the Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie
Institution of Washington; Soffia Kristin Jonsdottir of Visit Myvatn; Thomas
Olsen of North Safari Outfitters, Kangerlussuaq and Ralf Rolestshek for per-
mission to use some of their visual material to considerably enhance the text.
Tim Stott would like to thank his son Ewan Stott for providing a significant
number of the photographs used in the chapters on the Andes and Australia.
v
Contents
1 What Is Adventure Tourism?�� 1

1.1 Introduction�� 1
1.2 Global Figures for Tourism and the Adventure Sector �� 2
1.3 Consumer Trends�� 2
1.4 Adventure Tourism�� 2
1.4.1 Growth in Demand�� 5
1.5 Ecotourism�� 6
1.6 Other Popular Forms of Tourism that Share Characteristics
with Adventure Tourism�� 7
1.7 Concluding Remarks�� 8
References�� 9
2 Adventure Tourism in Antarctica �� 11
2.2 Definition of Antarctic Tourism�� 12
2.3 Growing Numbers�� 16
2.4 A Summary of IAATO Member Antarctic Tourism Trends�� 17
2.5 Types of Tourism�� 18
2.5.1 Cruise Ship Tourism�� 18
2.5.1.1 Industry Self-Regulation�� 19
2.5.2 Adventure Tourism in Antarctica�� 21
2.5.3 Land-Based Commercial Tourism�� 22
2.5.4 Last Chance Tourism�� 23
2.5.5 Wildlife Tourism �� 23
2.5.6 Unique Environment Tourism�� 24
2.5.7 Luxury Tourism�� 24
2.5.8 Market Diversification�� 25
2.6 Impacts of Antarctic Adventure Tourism�� 25
2.6.1 Tourism Effects on Penguins �� 26
2.6.2 Whale Behavioural Modification in the Presence of
Whale-Watching Vessels (See Further Discussion
in Fox 2014)�� 28
2.6.2.1 Introduction�� 28
2.6.2.2 Is Anthropogenic Noise a Problem?�� 30
2.6.2.3 Collisions with Whales�� 30
2.6.2.4 Potential Benefits to Whales from Antarctic
Tourism�� 30
vii
viii Contents
2.6.3 Effects on Seal Populations�� 31

2.6.4 Organisms that are Transported to Antarctica:
Invasion by Non-Indigenous Species�� 32
2.6.5 Ship Accidents�� 34
2.6.6 Visitor Impacts on Historical and Archaeological Sites�� 34
2.7 The Management of Antarctic Tourism�� 37
2.7.1 The Role of IAATO�� 37
2.7.2 Governance and Regulations�� 39
2.7.2.1 The Antarctic Treaty System�� 39
2.7.2.2 The Madrid Protocol (1991)�� 39
2.7.2.3 Compliance and Enforcement�� 40
2.7.3 The Polar Code �� 41
2.7.4 Difficulties in Reaching Agreement in a
Consensus-Based System�� 43
2.7.5 Lack of Gatekeeper Mechanisms�� 44
2.7.6 Visitor Rights�� 45
References�� 46
3 The Arctic Islands: Svalbard and Iceland �� 51
3.2 The Arctic Islands �� 53
3.2.1 Svalbard�� 53
3.2.1.1 Adventure Tourism Environmental Impacts
in Svalbard �� 56
3.2.1.2 Environmental Impacts on Vegetation �� 58
3.2.1.3 Introduction of Seeds and Alien Plant
Species �� 59
3.2.1.4 Environmental Impacts on Fauna�� 59
3.2.1.5 Environmental Impact of Snowmobiles�� 63
3.2.1.6 Tourism Impacts on Arctic Foxes�� 64
3.2.1.7 Environmental Impacts on Historical Sites
and Cultural Remains�� 65
3.2.1.8 Geological Sites �� 67
3.2.2 Management of Outdoor Recreation, Tourism and
the Environment in Svalbard�� 68
3.2.3 Impact of Climate Change on Tourism in Svalbard�� 71
3.3 Adventure Tourism in Iceland�� 72
3.3.1 Introduction�� 72
3.3.2 Types of Adventure Tourism in Iceland�� 77
3.3.2.1 Horse-Based Tourism�� 77
3.3.2.2 Hiking and Trampling Pressure �� 80
3.3.2.3 Off-Road Vehicle Impacts�� 81
3.3.2.4 Introduction of Invasive Plants�� 82
3.3.3 Glacier Tourism�� 84
3.3.4 Diving and Snorkelling �� 86
3.3.5 Wilderness Tourism�� 87
3.3.6 Volcanic Tourism�� 88
3.3.7 Whale-Watching Tourism �� 90
Contents ix
3.3.8 Effects of Seal-Watching on Seal Behaviour in

North-West Iceland �� 92
3.3.9 Management of the Outdoor Recreational Impacts�� 94
References�� 96
4 Adventure Tourism in the Russian Arctic�� 101
4.2 Regional Areas of Interest for Adventure Tourism �� 102
4.3 Tourist Numbers�� 104
4.4 Tourism to the Franz Josef Land Archipelago and Novaya
Zemyla�� 106
4.4.1 Problems Related to the Development of Tourism
in FJL�� 111
4.4.2 Entry Permits�� 111
4.4.3 Remoteness and Logistics�� 113
4.4.4 High Price of Cruises�� 114
4.4.5 Lack of Qualified Personnel and Lack of Research�� 114
4.4.6 Chaotic System of Visits �� 114
4.4.7 Lack of Ship Infrastructure �� 115
References�� 119
5 Adventure Tourism in Greenland�� 121
5.2 Environmental Impact of Adventure Tourism�� 126
5.3 Examples of the Potential Development of Wildlife Viewing
around Kangerlussuaq�� 127
5.3.1 Peregrine Falcon Viewing �� 127
5.3.2 Other Adventure Tourism Developments in
Kangerlussuaq�� 136
6 Adventure Tourism in the Canadian Arctic�� 141
6.2 Definition of the Arctic in Canada�� 142
6.3 Tourism Numbers�� 144
6.3.1 North West Territory Tourism Numbers �� 145
6.3.2 Tourism Numbers in the Yukon�� 148
6.3.3 Tourist Numbers in Nunavut�� 148
6.3.4 The Strengths/Weaknesses/Opportunities/Threats
Facing Nunavut Tourism�� 148
6.4 Impacts of Adventure Tourism on Wildlife�� 149
6.4.1 Polar Bear Hunting �� 149
6.4.2 Polar Bear Viewing �� 154
6.4.3 Musk Oxen: Giardia in Musk Oxen on Banks Island �� 157
6.5 Marine Mammals and the Potential Effects of Adventure
Tourism �� 158
6.5.1 Beluga Whales (Delphinapterus leucas)�� 159
6.5.2 Conflicts with Traditional Inuit Beluga Hunting and
Adventure Tourism�� 161
6.5.3 Human Impacts on Narwhal (Monodon monocerus)�� 163
x Contents
6.5.4 Impacts of Recreation on Harp Seals

(Phoca groenlandica) �� 164
6.5.5 Recreational Impacts on Birds�� 165
6.6 Impacts on Terrestrial Vegetation�� 166
6.7 Aboriginal (Indigenous) Tourism�� 167
6.8 Canadian Arctic Pleasure Craft Tourism�� 171
6.8.1 Management Concerns Regarding Pleasure Craft
Travel in the Canadian Arctic as Identified by
Survey of Interviewees�� 172
6.9 Canadian Arctic Cruise Tourism �� 174
6.10 Maintenance of Archaeological Sites�� 175
7 Adventure Tourism in Alaska �� 183
7.2 Adventure Tourism Impacts on Wildlife�� 187
7.2.1 Introduction�� 187
7.2.2 American Black Bears (Ursus americanus) and
Brown Bears (Ursus arctos)�� 188
7.2.2.1 Black Bears (Ursus americanus) �� 189
7.2.2.2 Brown Bears (Ursus arctos)�� 189
7.2.2.3 Winter Recreation and Brown Bears�� 192
7.2.2.4 Bear-Viewing Tourism �� 194
7.2.2.5 Management Approaches to Lessening the
Recreational Impacts on Bears�� 195
7.3 Recreational Impacts on Dall Sheep (Ovis dalli)�� 195
7.4 Winter Recreation Disturbances on Ungulates: Elk (Cervus
canadensis), Caribou (Rangifer tarandus), Musk Oxen
(Ovibos moschatus), White-Tailed Deer (Odocoileus
virginianus), Mule Deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and
Moose (Alces alces)�� 196
7.4.1 Recreation Impacts on Mountain Caribou in British
Columbia and by Extension in Alaska�� 199
7.4.1.1 Snowmobiling�� 199
7.4.1.2 Heli-Skiing�� 201
7.4.1.3 Snow-Cat Skiing�� 201
7.4.1.4 Backcountry Skiing or Ski Touring �� 201
7.4.1.5 Management Recommendations and
Potential Guidelines �� 201
7.4.1.6 Caribou Response to Recreational Aircraft�� 202
7.4.1.7 Caribou Response to Tourist Buses �� 202
7.5 Recreational Impacts on Bird Populations�� 203
7.5.1 Impacts of Recreational Boating on Bald Eagles
(Haliaeetus leucocephalus) �� 203
7.5.2 Impacts on Black Oystercatchers (Haematopus
bachmani) �� 204
7.5.3 Impacts of Boating and Campgrounds on Marbled
Murrelets (Brachyramphus marmoratus) �� 205
7.5.4 Impacts of Cruise Ships in Glacier Bay, Alaska, on
Murrelet Populations�� 205
Contents xi
7.6 Recreational Whale-Watching and Its Potential Impacts�� 207

7.7 Recreational Effects on Killer Whales (Orcinus orca) �� 209
7.8 Recreational Impact on Harbour Seals (Phoca vitulina)�� 210
7.9 Recreational Impacts Caused by Camping �� 212
7.9.1 Hiking Trampling Pressure on the Tundra�� 213
7.9.2 Informal Trails in the Arctic Wildlife Refuges �� 216
7.9.3 Invasive Plants Spread along Trails�� 220
7.10 Impacts of Recreational All-Terrain, Off-Road Vehicles,
with Particular Reference to the Wrangell-St. Elias
National Park and Preserve �� 222
7.11 Impacts of Helicopter-Supported Recreation�� 226
7.11.1 Impacts on Wildlife�� 226
7.11.2 Impact on Mountain Goats�� 227
7.11.3 Other Wildlife �� 228
7.11.4 Wildlife Impact Mitigation �� 229
7.11.5 Impacts on Recreational Cabins and Rural Areas�� 229
7.11.6 Impacts on Recreationists and Recreation Areas�� 230
7.12 Impact of Climbing on Mount McKinley: Human Waste and
Faecal Bacteria�� 230
7.13 Recreational Impacts of Sport Fishing�� 232
7.14 Recreational Gold-Panning Impacts �� 233
7.15 Some Recreational Impacts on Native Human Populations �� 233
8 Adventure Tourism in the Himalayas�� 241
8.2 Types of Adventure Tourism �� 243
8.3 Numbers Taking Part in Adventure Tourism in the
Himalayas �� 247
8.3.1 India�� 247
8.3.2 Nepal �� 247
8.3.2.1 Mountaineering in Nepal �� 249
8.3.2.2 History of Climbing in Nepal�� 249
8.3.2.3 Trekking �� 252
8.3.3 Bhutan �� 253
8.4 Rafting, Canyoning and Bungee Jumping�� 253
8.5 Religious and Cultural Tourism�� 255
8.5.1 Types of Religious Tourism�� 255
8.5.1.1 Pilgrimages�� 255
8.5.1.2 Monastery Visits and Guest Staying�� 255
8.5.1.3 Missionaries �� 256
8.5.1.4 Importance of Religious Tourism in Nepal�� 256
8.5.2 An Example of Religious Tourism from Sikkim�� 256
8.5.3 The Impact of the Earthquakes (2015) on the Tourism
Sector of Nepal �� 257
8.6 Environmental Impacts Related to Tourism and in Particular
8.6.1 Trail Erosion �� 257
8.6.2 Introduction of Non-Native Plants�� 259
xii Contents
8.6.3 Waste Issues�� 260

8.6.4 Disposal of Human Waste�� 262
8.6.4.1 Human Waste Disposal: An Example of
Bio-Toilets in the Himalayas �� 264
8.6.4.2 The Mount Everest Biogas Project�� 264
8.7 Deforestation�� 265
8.7.1 The Theory of Himalayan Environmental
Degradation�� 266
8.7.1.1 What is the Reality of this Environmental
Degradation?�� 266
8.8 Impacts of Recreational Fishing �� 268
8.9 Ski Developments and Potential Environmental Damage�� 272
8.10 Attempts to Manage Tourism�� 273
8.10.1 Banning of Tourism and the Development of Eco
Development Committees�� 273
8.10.2 Khangchendzonga Conservation Committee�� 275
8.10.3 Zero-Waste Trekking�� 276
8.10.4 Ecotourism Service Providers Association of
Yuksam (ESPAY)�� 277
8.10.5 Environmental Education Activities �� 277
8.11 Bhutan’s Tourism Development Policy�� 278
8.12 The Annapurna Conservation Area Project�� 278
8.12.1 Management Approaches and Objectives �� 279
8.12.2 Institutional Arrangements�� 280
8.12.3 Challenges�� 281
8.13 Codes of Conduct, Ethical Codes and Minimum-Impact
Codes for Tourists and Expeditions�� 282
8.13.1 The Nanda Devi Declaration�� 284
9 The Andes �� 291
9.1 Definitions�� 292
9.1.1 Geography of the Andes�� 293
9.1.2 Geology of the Andes�� 293
9.1.2.1 Orogeny�� 293
9.1.2.2 Volcanism�� 294
9.1.2.3 Ore Deposits and Evaporates �� 294
9.1.3 Climate and Hydrology of the Andes�� 294
9.1.4 Glaciers of the Andes�� 295
9.1.5 Flora of the Andes�� 295
9.1.6 Fauna of the Andes�� 297
9.1.7 Population, Human Activity and Economy
in the Andes�� 297
9.2 Adventure Tourist Attractions in the Andes�� 300
9.2.1 Venezuela�� 300
9.2.2 Colombia�� 300
9.2.2.1 The Cocora Valley�� 302
9.2.2.2 Trek to Ciudad Perdida�� 302
Contents xiii
9.2.3 Ecuador �� 302

9.2.3.1 Mount Chimborazo�� 302
9.2.3.2 Hike the Quilotoa Loop, Ecuador�� 303
9.2.3.3 The Galapagos Islands �� 303
9.2.4 Peru �� 306
9.2.4.1 The Inca Trail to Machu Picchu�� 306
9.2.4.2 The Salkantay Trek�� 306
9.2.4.3 Colca Canyon and the Andean Condors�� 306
9.2.4.4 Huascarán and Yungay �� 306
9.2.5 Bolivia�� 307
9.2.5.1 Lake Titicaca�� 307
9.2.5.2 Salar Uyuni�� 309
9.2.5.3 Death Road Mountain Bike Tour �� 309
9.2.6 Chile�� 309
9.2.6.1 Torres del Paine National Park�� 309
9.2.6.2 The Atacama Desert�� 312
9.2.7 Argentina: Aconcagua�� 312
9.3 Environmental Impacts of Adventure Tourism in the Andes�� 312
9.3.1 Aconcagua Case Study �� 314
9.3.1.1 Visitor Numbers �� 314
9.3.1.2 Visitor Impacts on Trails and Vegetation �� 314
9.3.1.3 Human Waste on Aconcagua �� 317
9.3.2 Tourist Threats to Birds and Breeding
Andean Condors�� 318
9.4 Management and Education�� 319
9.4.1 Trails, Soil and Vegetation�� 320
9.4.2 Human Waste�� 321
9.4.3 Birds�� 321
10 East Africa�� 325
10.2 Top Ten Adventure Tourism Attractions in East Africa�� 327
10.2.1 Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya�� 327
10.2.2 Omo River Region, Ethiopia�� 330
10.2.3 Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda�� 330
10.2.4 Zanzibar, Tanzania�� 331
10.2.5 Serengeti National Park, Tanzania�� 331
10.2.6 Watamu, Kenya �� 331
10.2.7 Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania�� 332
10.2.8 Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania �� 333
10.2.9 Lalibela, Ethiopia�� 335
10.2.10 Lake Nakuru National Park, Kenya�� 336
10.3 Other Important East Africa Adventure Tourism
Attractions Not in This Top Ten List�� 337
10.3.1 Murchison Falls National Park �� 337
10.3.2 Kidepo Valley National Park�� 337
10.3.3 The Rwenzori Mountains�� 337
xiv Contents
10.3.4 Jinja, Uganda�� 338

10.3.5 Mount Kenya National Park�� 338
10.3.6 Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe�� 338
10.4 Environmental Impact�� 338
10.4.1 Wildlife Safaris �� 347
10.4.1.1 Balloon Flights in the Maasai Mara�� 349
10.4.1.2 The Mountain Gorilla�� 349
11 Australia and New Zealand�� 355
11.2 Definitions�� 356
11.2.1 Australia�� 356
11.2.1.1 Geography of Australia�� 357
11.2.1.2 Geology of Australia�� 358
11.2.2 Climate and Hydrology of Australia �� 359
11.2.3 Flora and Fauna of Australia�� 359
11.2.4 Population, Human Activity and Economy
in Australia�� 360
11.2.5 Tourism in Australia�� 361
11.2.6 New Zealand �� 361
11.2.6.1 Geography of New Zealand�� 362
11.2.6.2 Geology of New Zealand�� 363
11.2.6.3 Climate and Hydrology of
New Zealand�� 364
11.2.6.4 Flora and Fauna of New Zealand�� 364
11.2.6.5 Population, Human Activity and
Economy in New Zealand �� 365
11.2.6.6 Tourism in New Zealand �� 365
11.3 Adventure Tourist Attractions in Australia and
New Zealand �� 366
11.3.1 Australia�� 366
11.3.1.1 Climb the Sydney Harbour Bridge�� 366
11.3.1.2 Four-Wheel Drive on Fraser Island,
Queensland�� 366
11.3.1.3 Sail in the Whitsundays, Queensland�� 368
11.3.1.4 Jet Boat Through the Horizontal Falls,
Western Australia�� 368
11.3.1.5 Snorkel with Whale Sharks at Ningaloo
Reef, Western Australia �� 369
11.3.1.6 The Twelve Apostles, Victoria�� 370
11.3.1.7 Kayak Katherine Gorge (Nitmiluk
National Park), Northern Territory�� 370
11.3.1.8 Surf the Jungle at Cape Tribulation,
Queensland�� 370
11.3.1.9 Drive the Gibb River Road, Western
Australia�� 371
Contents xv
11.3.1.10 Abseil in the Blue Mountains,

New South Wales �� 371
11.3.1.11 Raft the Franklin River, Tasmania �� 371
11.3.1.12 Travel the Oodnadatta Track, South
Australia�� 371
11.3.1.13 Ski or Snowboard at Falls Creek�� 371
11.3.1.14 Dive with Great White Sharks in Port
Lincoln �� 371
11.3.1.15 Visit Uluru (Ayers Rock) and
the Olgas�� 373
11.3.1.16 Sky Diving �� 373
11.3.1.17 Scuba-Diving and Snorkelling on the
Great Barrier Reef�� 373
11.3.2 New Zealand �� 373
11.3.2.1 Skiing and Heli-Skiing in the
Remarkables�� 376
11.3.2.2 Caving�� 376
11.3.2.3 White Water Kayaking and Rafting �� 376
11.3.2.4 Swim with Dolphins�� 378
11.3.2.5 Whale Watching �� 378
11.3.2.6 Canyoning�� 379
11.3.2.7 Jet Boating �� 379
11.3.2.8 Mountain Biking�� 379
11.3.2.9 Horse-Riding�� 379
11.3.2.10 Hike Through Abel Tasman National
Park�� 380
11.3.2.11 The Fox Glacier �� 380
11.3.2.12 Hooker Lake/Mount Cook �� 380
11.3.2.13 Hiking the Tongariro Crossing; the
Routeburn Track�� 380
11.3.2.14 Visit Taupo Volcanic Zone and Zorb�� 380
11.3.2.15 Off-road Driving/Quad Bike Safaris�� 381
11.3.2.16 Zip Lining�� 381
11.3.2.17 Bungee Jumping�� 381
11.3.2.18 Sky Diving �� 381
11.4 Environmental Impacts of Adventure Tourism in
Australia and New Zealand�� 381
11.4.1 High Mountains Case Study: Kosciuszko
and Mount Cook (Aoraki)�� 382
11.4.1.1 Trail Impacts�� 382
11.4.1.2 Mountain Biking and Horse-Riding�� 384
11.4.1.3 Human Waste�� 386
11.4.2 Impacts in the Marine Environment�� 387
11.4.2.1 Whale- and Dolphin-Watching�� 387
11.4.2.2 The Australian Great Barrier Reef�� 389
11.5.1 Managing Trails, Soil and Vegetation �� 392
11.5.2 Managing Human Waste in High Mountains�� 395
xvi Contents
11.5.3 Managing Whale and Dolphin Watching�� 396

11.5.4 Managing Scuba-Diving and Snorkelling�� 397
11.5.5 Managing Boat Tours�� 397
12 Scotland�� 403
12.1.1 History�� 405
12.1.2 Geography�� 406
12.1.3 Geology and Geomorphology�� 406
12.1.4 Climate�� 407
12.1.5 Flora and Fauna�� 407
12.1.6 Population and Economy�� 408
12.2 Adventure Tourism in Scotland�� 409
12.3 Environmental Impact�� 410
12.3.1 Walking/Climbing: Mountain Walks/Treks,
Long Distance Trails, Rock Climbing and
Mountaineering (Including Bothies and
Camping)�� 410
12.3.2 Mountain Biking �� 415
12.3.3 Downhill Skiing�� 416
12.3.4 History and Development of Skiing in Scotland�� 416
12.3.5 Environmental Impacts of Skiing in Scotland�� 419
12.3.5.1 Skiing Impacts on Soils and Vegetation�� 419
12.3.5.2 Skiing Impacts on Water Resources�� 422
12.3.5.3 Ski Development Impacts on Birds and
Mammals �� 422
12.3.5.4 Scottish Skiing and Climate Change �� 424
12.4 Wildlife and Nature Encounters�� 424
12.4.1 Field Sports: Deer, Grouse, and Heather
Moorland�� 425
12.4.2 Impact of Recreation on Fresh Waters:
Salmon Fishing and Water Sports �� 425
12.4.3 Whale and Dolphin Watching �� 426
13 Climate Change and Adventure Tourism�� 437
13.1 Principles of Climate Change �� 438
13.1.1 Glacial Periods�� 439
13.1.2 The Present Climate�� 439
13.2 Future Climate Change �� 443
13.2.1 Predictions, Scenarios and Projections �� 444
13.2.2 Climate Models�� 446
13.2.3 Principal Findings of the UN Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change Fifth Assessment Report
(AR5)�� 446
13.3 Effects of Climate Change on Participation Numbers�� 450
Contents xvii
13.4 Case Studies on Impact of Climate Change on Adventure

Tourism �� 452
13.4.1 Sea Level Rise and Coastal Adventure Tourism �� 454
13.4.2 Future Climate Change and Mountaineering
13.4.2.1 Moving Towards Mountains Without
Snow and Ice?�� 456
13.4.2.2 The Future of Mountaineering
13.4.3 Snow Sports: Skiing and Snow Boarding �� 460
13.4.3.1 Impacts of Future Projected Climate
Change�� 460
13.4.3.2 Do Ski Resorts Need to Become
‘Greener’ for Tourism to Become
Sustainable?�� 463
Index�� 471
List of Figures
Fig. 2.1 Antarctica�� 12

Fig. 2.2 Ocean Endeavour in Paradise Harbour�� 13
Fig. 2.3A Map referencing the 25 most popular Landing Sites during
the 2014–2015 season on the Antarctic Peninsula ��14
Fig. 2.3B Landsat image showing the Transantarctic Mountains,
East and West Antarctica and sea areas�� 14
Fig. 2.4A Emperor Penguins, the only animals to breed on
Antarctica��15
Fig. 2.4B Adélie Penguin�� 15
Fig. 2.4C Gentoo Penguin�� 15
Fig. 2.4D Adelie penguins and tourist zodiac at Bourdin Island �� 15
Fig. 2.5 Blue Whale�� 29
Fig. 2.6 Weddell Seal. A Weddell Seal at a breathing hole �� 31
Fig. 2.7 Tourist zodiac and a pair of leopard seals in Mikkelsen
Harbour�� 32
Fig. 2.8A Inside Scott’s Discovery Hut at McMurdo Sound �� 36
Fig. 2.8B Provisions brought by Shackleton at Cape Royds �� 36
Fig. 2.8C Cape Royds historic hut built by Shackleton’s expedition
1907–1909�� 36
Fig. 2.9A Abandoned British base at Port Lockroy before
renovation�� 38
Fig. 2.9B Museum at Port Lockroy after Renovation�� 38
Fig. 3.1 Arctic regions�� 52
Fig. 3.2 Svalbard archipelago�� 53
Fig. 3.3 Svalbard glacier and ice bergs�� 54
Fig. 3.4 Ski Touring with sledges�� 55
Fig. 3.5 Wild Camping in Svalbard with a youth group �� 55
Fig. 3.6 Cruise Liner in Longyearbyen, 2001 �� 56
Fig. 3.7 Walrus�� 61
Fig. 3.8 Thermal Springs along the along the Breibogen Fault�� 68
Fig. 3.9 Iceland�� 72
Fig. 3.10 Eyafjallajökull, April 17th 2010. Major ash eruption�� 73
Fig. 3.11 Katla erupting through the Mýrdalsjökull ice cap in 1918��74
Fig. 3.12 Vatnajökull showing many outlet glaciers all around the
ice cap�� 74
Fig. 3.13A Gullfoss, 6th April 2008. The gorge of the river Hvita�� 75
xix
xx List of Figures
Fig. 3.13B Dettifoss, the largest waterfall in Europe, located in

Jökulsárgljúfur National Park in North-East Iceland�� 75
Fig. 3.14A þingvellir. Painting by þórannin þorláksson in 1900.
Showing Icelandic horses and central rift valley, with a
lake in a fissure�� 76
Fig. 3.14B Northern Lights near Namaskard�� 76
Fig. 3.15 Namafjell geothermal area�� 89
Fig. 4.1 Russian Arctic from the north of Scandinavia in the
west, through Novaya Zemyla, Franz Josef Land to the
Kamchatka Peninsula in the east�� 102
Fig. 4.2 Brown Bear, Kamchatka Peninsula�� 103
Fig. 4.3 Annual Number of Tourists in Kamchatka�� 104
Fig. 4.4A The Uzon and Geyzernaya calderas, Kamchatka�� 105
Fig. 4.4B Volcanoes of Kamchatka�� 105
Fig. 4.5A Franz Josef Land�� 106
Fig. 4.5B Novaya Zemyla, July 29th 2003�� 106
Fig. 4.6 Russian Nuclear Icebreaker Arktika, 26th March 2006��109
Fig. 4.7 Artist’s Depiction of the Snow-covered Hut in which
Nansen and Johansen spent the winter of 1895–6 �� 109
Fig. 5.1 South-West Greenland. Glaciated terrain, rugged scenery
and fjords �� 122
Fig. 5.2 Hvalsey Church, the best preserved church in South-
West Greenland�� 124
Fig. 5.3 Peregrine Falcons. Drawn by John James Audubon for
the book Birds of America, 1827–1838 �� 127
Fig. 5.4 Musk ox herd, near Kangerlussuaq�� 129
Fig. 5.5 Wildlife Management Zones around Kangerlussuaq�� 130
Fig. 5.6 Concession Areas in the Municipality Plan appendix no
7 areas for trophy hunting in Kangerlussuaq �� 131
Fig. 5.7 Musk ox Populations in Greenland�� 133
Fig. 5.8 Hunting zones around Kangerlussuaq �� 135
Fig. 5.9 Ice-Cap Tours, north of Kangerlussuaq �� 137
Fig. 5.10 Dog-Sledding Tours. Dog-sled musher from
Quqertarsuq �� 137
Fig. 6.1 Arctic Region �� 142
Fig. 6.2 Baffin Island�� 143
Fig. 6.3 Ellesmere Island�� 144
Fig. 6.4A Utsingi Point, the eastern arm of the Great Slave Lake,
eastern edge of the proposed Thaydene-Nene National
Park�� 146
Fig. 6.4B Nahinni National Park Reserve, North West Territories,
Virginia Falls (Nailicho)�� 146
Fig. 6.5 Nunivak musk oxen in defensive formation�� 147
Fig. 6.6 Polar Bear�� 150
Fig. 6.7 Polar Bear statue in Churchill, Manitoba�� 155
Fig. 6.8 Beluga Whale�� 159
Fig. 6.9 White Whale and Narwhal (lower image) �� 164
List of Figures xxi
Fig. 6.10 Ringed Seal (Pusa hispida,) The smallest of the Arctic
seals which is common in the Hudson BayN�� 165
Fig. 6.11 Pingos near Tuktoyoyaktuk�� 167
Fig. 6.12 The view from the top of Montana Mountain,
Carcross�� 171
Fig. 6.13 Annual Counts of recorded Pleasure Craft in the
Canadian Arctic, Vessel Count 1990–2012. From
NORDREG Data�� 172
Fig. 6.14 Beechey Island graves of crewman from the 1845
Franklin Northwest passage expedition �� 176
Fig. 7.1A Malaspina Glacier in south-east Alaska�� 184
Fig. 7.1B Agassiz glacier, Libby glacier and Agassiz Lakes �� 184
Fig. 7.2 Augustine Volcano, view from the west, January
12th 2006 �� 185
Fig. 7.3 Black Bear�� 188
Fig. 7.4 Brown Bears at Brooks Falls, Katmai National Park,
Alaska�� 194
Fig. 7.5 Dall Sheep lambs on Alaskan clif�� 196
Fig. 7.6 Caribou on Tundra �� 200
Fig. 7.7 Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) feeding on whale
carcase�� 203
Fig. 7.8A Marbled Murrelet (Brachyramphus marmoratus) at Auke
Bay marina, near Juneau�� 206
Fig. 7.8B Juvenile Kittletz’s Murrelet (Brachyramphus breviros-
tris), Kachemak Bay, Alaska�� 206
Fig. 7.9 Killer Whales off the south side of Unimak Island,
eastern Aleutian Islands, Alaska�� 210
Fig. 7.10 Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, Brook Range, with
tundra shrub willow �� 217
Fig. 7.11 Impacts of Off-Road vehicles on the study segment of
the Tanada Lake Trail (Wrangell-St. Elias National
Park and Preserve, Alaska). a) Partly vegetated trail
unvegetated trail on mineral soil b) Unvegetated trail
on organic soils with ponding c) Trail stream crossing
and channel initiation point with mineral soil d) Trail
stream crossing and channel initiation point with
organic soil and underlain by shallow permafrost �� 225
Fig. 7.12 Mt. McKinley, North America’s highest mountain�� 231
Fig. 8.1 Himalayas�� 242
Fig. 8.2 K2. Photo by Vittorio Sella on the 1909 Italian
expedition �� 243
Fig. 8.3A Everest from the Rongbuk valley in 1921. Photo by
George Mallory�� 244
Fig. 8.3B Everest from the Rongbuk glacier, 9th November
2005 �� 244
Fig. 8.4 Himalayas mosaic. Taken from the International Space
Station, 28th January 2004�� 245
xxii List of Figures
Fig. 8.5 Tilicho lake, Annapurna region, Nepal�� 252

Fig. 8.6 Earthquakes in 2015 in Nepal. Epicentres marked by
stars, including the 1833 and 1934 earthquakes�� 258
Fig. 9.1 Map of South America showing the Andes running along
the entire western part (roughly parallel to the Pacific
coast) of the continent�� 292
Fig. 9.2A Paron Lake in Huascaran National Park, Peru with
Pirámide peak (5885 m) and it’s glaciers in the back-
ground�� 296
Fig. 9.2B Glacier flowing east from Nevado Huascarán Sur (6,768
m), Peru�� 296
Fig. 9.3A Local shepherd tends her alpaca a valley adjacent to
Huayna potosi (6088 m) near Tuni Lake, La Paz,
Bolivia �� 298
Fig. 9.3B Chincilla living in moraines at 4900m of the Huayna
potosi West glacier near Tuni Lake, La Paz, Bolivia �� 298
Fig. 9.3C Flamingos (mainly associated with hypersaline lakes) at
Salar de Uyuni, amid the Andes in southwest Bolivia,
the world’s largest salt flat �� 298
Fig. 9.3D A hummingbird comes to a feeding station �� 298
Fig. 9.4A Machu Picchu is a 15th-century Inca citadel, located in
the Eastern Cordillera of southern Peru, on a mountain
ridge 2,430 m (7,970 ft) above sea level�� 301
Fig. 9.4B La Paz, Bolivia’s seat of government, is the highest
capital city in the world, at an elevation of approxi-
mately 3,650 m (11,975 ft)�� 301
Fig. 9.5A The Quilotoa is a water-filled caldera and the most
western volcano in the Ecuadorian Andes �� 304
Fig. 9.5B Hiking the Quilotoa Loop, Ecuador�� 304
Fig. 9.6A Memorial gardens at Yungay to the 20 000 people killed
in the 1970 Ancash earthquake�� 308
Fig. 9.6B Christ statue at Yungay, memorial to the 20000 people
killed in the 1970 Ancash earthquake�� 308
Fig. 9.7A Vehicle track crossing the Salar de Uyuni, the world’s
largest salt flat in Bolivia �� 310
Fig. 9.7B Railway track crossing the Salar de Uyuni, the world’s
largest salt flat in Bolivia �� 310
Fig. 9.7C Four wheel drive excursions take tourists around the Salar
de Uyuni, the world’s largest salt flat in Bolivia��310
Fig. 9.8 International tourism receipts of Latin America (in
billions of US dollars) from 2010 to 2017, sorted by
sub-region�� 313
Fig. 9.9 Impacts of recreational use on different environmental
components that have been assessed in the Andes region
(in grey) including the number of studies in relation to
the more general conceptual model of recreation impacts
on the natural environment developed by Wall and
Wright (1977)�� 314
List of Figures xxiii
Fig. 9.10A The number of tourists visiting Aconcagua region during

thirteen consecutive tourist seasons �� 315
Fig. 9.10B Mountaineering activity by type: climbing, short and
long trekking�� 315
Fig. 10.1 A: Cheetah, B: Eland, C: Elephant, D: Giraffe, E:
Hippotamus, F: Hyena, G: Two female lions with cub
(right), H: Male lions, I: Vultures, J: Warthog, K: Water
buffalo, L: White Rhinoceros, M: Zebra, N: Thompson’s
Gazelle, O: Impala, P: Ostrich �� 328
Fig. 10.2 A balloon floats above the Serengeti ecosystem�� 332
Fig. 10.3A Trekkers on the Rongai route, Kilimanjaro�� 334
Fig. 10.3B View of Kilimajaro summit from 3500m on the Rongai
route �� 334
Fig. 10.3C Giant groundsel (Dendrosenecio kilimanjari) is found
on the middle slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro�� 334
Fig. 10.3D The rapidly retreating Furtwängler Glacier is near
Kilimanjaro’s summit�� 334
Fig. 10.3E Kilimanjaro’s Uhuru Peak (5893 m) is the highest
summit on Kibo’s crater rim�� 334
Fig. 10.4 Lake Nakuru National Park is best known for its
thousands, sometimes millions of flamingos nesting
along the shores�� 336
Fig. 10.5A Overnight campsite (camp 1) on the Rongai route
showing vegetation damage and soil compaction�� 341
Fig. 10.5B Camp 4 on the upper Rongai route. Note the two
permanent buildings, toilets (right) and their proximity
to the lake�� 341
Fig. 10.5C Trail damage at Horombo Huts on the Marangu route,
Kilimanjaro�� 341
Fig. 10.5D A section of managed trail on the lower part of Rongai
route, Kilimanjaro�� 341
Fig. 10.5E A typical section of un-managed trail on the Rongai
route, Kilimanjaro�� 341
Fig. 10.5F Kibo camp/huts at 4700m, the last camp before trekkers
make their summit attempt�� 341
Fig. 10.6A Whitewater rafting on the Tana River north of Nairobi,
Kenya �� 342
Fig. 10.6B Damage to river bank soil and vegetation at a kayak and
raft access point on the Tana River north of Nairobi,
Kenya �� 342
Fig. 10.7A Balloon flight at dawn on the Maasai Mara, Kenya�� 346
Fig. 10.7B Tractor and trailer being used to manoeuvre a balloon
on the Masai Mara, Kenya�� 346
Fig. 10.7C Post balloon flight breakfast being prepared for guests
on the Maasai Mara, Kenya. Note the number of
vehicles�� 346
Fig. 10.7D Typical on the Maasai Mara safari vehicle. Note how
close it gets to the lions in left of photograph�� 346
xxiv List of Figures
Fig. 10.7E Safari vehicles in the Maasai Mara keep in touch with
each other by radio. When a good sighting is made by
one vehicle (in this case it was a cheetah), the others in
the area are called in, thus concentrating damage to soil
and vegetation and causing additional stress to the
animal�� 346
Fig. 11.1A Physical map of Australia�� 357
Fig. 11.1B Political map showing the countries of Australia which
has six states—New South Wales (NSW), Queensland
(QLD), South Australia (SA), Tasmania (TAS), Victoria
(VIC) and Western Australia (WA)—and two major
mainland territories—the Australian Capital Territory
(ACT) and the Northern Territory (NT)�� 357
Fig. 11.2A The kangaroo is a marsupial from the family
Macropodidae (macropods, meaning “large foot”)�� 360
Fig. 11.2B The koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) is an arboreal
herbivorous marsupial native to Australia�� 360
Fig. 11.2C Kookaburras are terrestrial tree kingfishers native to
Australia and New Guinea, found in habitats ranging
from humid forest to arid savanna, as well as in subur-
ban areas with tall trees or near running water�� 360
Fig. 11.2D The grey-headed flying fox (Pteropus poliocephalus) is
a megabat native to Australia �� 360
Fig. 11.3A Physical features map of New Zealand�� 362
Fig. 11.3B Map of New Zealand regions (coloured) with territorial
authorities delineated by black lines�� 362
Fig. 11.3C The Lady Knox Geyser in Wai-O-Tapu Thermal area in
New Zealand’s Taupo Volcanic Zone, 27 km south of
Rotorua�� 362
Fig. 11.3D The Hooker Valley in Aoraki/Mount Cook National Park
contains a popular walking track which is 5 km long�� 362
Fig. 11.3E Milford Sound is a fiord in the SW of New Zealand’s
South Island within Fiordland National Park, Milford
Sound Marine Reserve, and the Te Wahipounamu World
Heritage site �� 362
Fig. 11.3F Abel Tasman National Park is a New Zealand national
park located between Golden Bay and Tasman Bay at
the north end of the South Island �� 362
Fig. 11.4 Sydney Harbour Bridge, where tourists are guided to the
134 m “summit”�� 368
Fig. 11.5A Fraser Island is considered to be the largest sand island
in the world�� 369
Fig. 11.5B Fraser Icon Tours 4WD bus taking tourists along its west
coast beach �� 369
Fig. 11.5C Fraser Island’s sandy tracks require 4WD vehicles to get
around�� 369
Fig. 11.5D Sand Island Safaris – a typical adventure tourism
company on Fraser Island�� 369
List of Figures xxv
Fig. 11.5E Fraser Island dingoes are reputedly some of the last
remaining pure dingoes in Eastern Australia �� 369
Fig. 11.6 Falls Creek Alpine Resort is an alpine ski resort in north
eastern Victoria, catering mainly for beginner/intermedi-
ate skiers and boarders �� 372
Fig. 11.7 Shark cage diving from Port Lincoln off South
Australia�� 372
Fig. 11.8A Uluru, also known as Ayers Rock, is one of Australia’s
most recognisable natural landmarks, great cultural
significance for the Aṉangu people�� 374
Fig. 11.8B Kata Tjuta, also known as The Olgas, are rock forma-
tions 25km west of Uluru which has great cultural
significance for the Aṉangu people�� 374
Fig. 11.8C Formerly it was popular to climb to the top of Uluru as
can be seen by the light coloured erosion mark in this
photo�� 374
Fig. 11.8D Today visitors are respectfully requested not to climb the
rock to respect the wishes of the Anangu people�� 374
Fig. 11.9 Sky dive over Mission Beach, Queensland�� 375
Fig. 11.10A A typical day cruise to the Great Barrier Reef (from
Cairns). This cruiser has a glass bottom and some have a
glass tank which allows guests to have a semi-submarine
experience�� 376
Fig. 11.10B Scuba divers prepare for their dive onto the coral reef��376
Fig. 11.11A White water rafting is one of New Zealand’s top
attractions�� 376
Fig. 11.11B Jet boats on the Shotover River near Queenstown…. one
of the area’s top attractions�� 376
Fig. 11.11C Whale watching cruise setting off from Kaikoura, 180
km north of Christchurch �� 376
Fig. 11.11D Sperm whale spotted off Kaikoura�� 376
Fig. 11.11E A guided sea kayak tour in the Marlborough Sound,
Abel Tasman National Park �� 376
Fig. 11.11F Zorbing (globe-riding or orbing), seen here at Rotorua,
NZ, is the recreation or sport of rolling downhill inside
an orb, generally made of transparent plastic�� 376
Fig. 11.11G Fox Glacier sign�� 376
Fig. 11.11H Fox Glacier was one of the few glaciers in the world to
be advancing between 1985 and 2009. In 2006 the
average rate of advance was about a metre a week. Since
then there has been a significant retreat �� 376
Fig. 11.11I Sign for the AJ Hackett Ledge Swing above
Queenstown, NZ�� 376
Fig. 11.11J The AJ Hackett Kawarau Bridge Bungee Jump,
Queenstown NZ �� 376
Fig. 11.11K Paragliding over Queenstown, NZ �� 376
Fig. 11.12A Dolphins Up Close vessel in Akaroa Harbour �� 379
xxvi List of Figures
Fig. 11.12B Swimmers enter the water with snorkels to ‘swim

with Hector’s dolphins’ in Akaroa Harbour, South
Island, NZ�� 379
Fig. 11.13 One of the principal management responses to deal with
all these visitors on Mt Kosciuszko has been hardening
of tracks�� 383
Fig. 11.14A A 24-h mountain biking event taking place in Victoria,
Australia�� 385
Fig. 11.14B Soil compaction and vegetation damage resulting from a
mountain biking event in Victoria, Australia �� 385
Fig. 11.15 The spread of disease by has been a general concern in
Australia for some time. Here travellers are being asked
to help prevent a fruit fly outbreak by placing fruit in this
bin before they enter the Fruit Fly Exclusion Zone �� 387
Fig. 11.16A Scuba Diving, both for certified and introductory divers
is an option on most tourist cruises�� 391
Fig. 11.16B Many cruises include snorkelling as an option�� 391
Fig. 11.17 Typical minimal impact bushwalking sign in Australia ��393
Fig. 11.18A Mt Warning in New South Wales is a popular destination
for walkers�� 394
Fig. 11.18B The author standing on the ring of raised metal walk-
ways referred to by Pickering and Buckley (2003) on the
summit of Mt Warning, New South Wales�� 394
Fig. 11.19 Pohatu Marine Reserve Sign. A marine reserve is a type
of marine protected area that has legal protection against
fishing or development�� 396
Fig. 12.1 The location of Scotland�� 405
Fig. 12.2 Participation in mountain recreation activities in the last
year by John Muir Trust/Mountaineering Council of
Scotland members compared to local residents �� 411
Fig. 12.3 Mountains visited for recreation in the last year by John
Muir Trust/Mountaineering Council of Scotland
members�� 411
Fig. 12.4 The spatial distribution of adventure tourism business in
Scotland in 2003�� 412
Fig. 12.5A Location of Scotland’s five ski resorts �� 417
Fig. 12.5B The funicular railway on Cairngorm mountain was
opened in 2001�� 417
Fig. 12.5C Ski tow on Cairngorm mountain with Cairngorm summit
in the background�� 417
Fig. 12.5D The Lecht ski resort, near Tomintoul, Scotland �� 417
Fig. 12.6 Ski demand in Scotland 1980–1998�� 419
Fig. 12.7 Survey of landowners: Uses of the land�� 427
Fig. 13.1 Variation with time of the Vostok ice core isotope
temperature record, Antarctica, as a difference from the
modern surface temperature value of -55.5 oC�� 441
List of Figures xxvii
Fig. 13.2 Global temperature anomaly based on the instrumental

record of global average temperatures as compiled by
NASA’s Goddard Institute for Space Studies�� 441
Fig. 13.3 The history of atmospheric carbon dioxide concentra-
tions as directly measured at Mauna Loa, Hawaii �� 442
Fig. 13.4 Recent Sea Level Rise. Sea level rise is caused primarily
by two factors related to global warming: the added
water from melting ice sheets and glaciers and the
expansion of seawater as it warms �� 443
Fig. 13.5 This image shows two graphs of changes in glacial and
ice cap mass balance for large regions (Europe, the
Andes, the Arctic, Asian high mountains, North West
USA and South West Canada, Alaska and coast moun-
tains, and Patagonia). Graph (a) shows cumulative mean
specific mass balances of glaciers and ice caps, and (b)
cumulative total mass balances of glaciers and ice caps
(Dyurgerov and Meier, 2005)�� 444
Fig. 13.6 Arctic sea ice extent as of February 3, 2016, along with
daily ice extent data for four previous years�� 445
Fig. 13.7 Confidence levels are a combination of level of agree-
ment and evidence�� 445
Fig. 13.8 Patterns of temperature (left column) and percent
precipitation change (right column) for the CMIP3
models average (first row) and CMIP5 models average
(second row), scaled by the corresponding global
average temperature changes �� 448
Fig. 13.9 Projections of annual mean GMST 1986–2050�� 449
Fig. 13.10 Maps of multi-model results for the scenarios RCP2.6,
RCP4.5, RCP6.0 and RCP8.5 in 2081–2100 of average
percent change in mean precipitation�� 449
Fig. 13.11 Time series of global mean sea level (deviation from the
1980–1999 mean) in the past and as projected for the
future�� 450
Fig. 13.12 Summary of climate change impacts and process
linkages within the mountain cryosphere�� 457
Fig. 13.13 Schematic view of mountain systems and processes
addressed in this paper �� 458
Fig. 13.14 (Top) Northern Hemisphere (NH) spring (March to April
average) relative snow-covered area (RSCA) in CMIP5
(Bottom) NH diagnosed near-surface permafrost area in
CMIP5, using 20-year average monthly surface air
temperatures and snow depths �� 461
Fig. 13.15 Reduction in the number of ski days and the percentage
closure of ski resorts in various regions as a function of
temperature increase�� 462
List of Tables
Table 1.1 Types of activity and categorisation as hard or soft adventure�� 4

Table 3.1 People Ashore, Landing sites and Longyearbyen overnights�� 57
Table 3.2 Wear on vegetation in square metres, London, Kongsfjorden �� 67
Table 3.3 Recreation Purchased by Tourists whilst in Iceland 2016
(figures in %)�� 77
Table 3.4 Possible Environmental Impacts of Horse-Riding and
Horse-Keeping�� 78
Table 3.5 Trail degradation �� 81
Table 3.6 Glacier Tourism around the south margin of Vatnajökull �� 85
Table 3.7 Environmental Damage that Visitors Notice�� 88
Table 4.1 Number of Ships and Passengers to Franz Josef Land,
2000–2013�� 111
Table 5.1 Tourist Air Passengers into Greenland (After Visit
Greenland 2016)�� 125
Table 5.2 Cruise Ship Statistics 2017 (After Visit Greenland 2017)��125
Table 5.3 Musk Ox Kills 2010–2012 in Greenland (Adapted from
Olsen, 2015)�� 135
Table 6.1 NWT Growth of Tourism and Market Sectors Involved �� 145
Table 6.2 National Park Visitation in the NWT�� 147
Table 6.3 Visitation to the Yukon. Adapted from Tourism Yukon
2016 End of Year Report �� 148
Table 6.4 The Polar Bear Conservation Hunt: Economic Attributes��151
Table 6.5 Harvest Quotas for Nunavut (NU) and the Inuvialiut
Settlement Region (ISR) and the number of Polar Bears
killed in Canada 2008–9 to 2014–15�� 152
Table 6.6 Number of Cruise Ships present in the Canadian Arctic�� 174
Table 6.7 Iceberg Counts from the Canadian Ice Service Fall
Survey 2000–2007�� 174
Table 7.1 Participation Rates for Popular Outdoor Recreation
Activities in Alaska compared with the average for
the USA (Source from the 1994–5 NSRE Survey) �� 186
Table 8.1 Tourist Figures for Sikkim for the period 2011–2014�� 247
Table 8.2 International Arrivals in Nepal 1990–1997 and % change
per year�� 248
Table 8.3 Numbers in Nepal Tourism 2000–2016�� 248
Table 8.4 The Adventure Tourist Arrivals to Nepal in 1988 by
country�� 249
xxix
xxx List of Tables
Table 8.5 Annual Trekking and Mountaineering Numbers for Nepal

1993–2017�� 249
Table 8.6 Number of Climbers granted Permits and Royalties for
2017 for selected Mountains, where the grand total of
climbers was 2240 and the royalties $3,894,158�� 250
Table 8.7 Litter Deposited by Trekkers in 1988 in kg�� 260
Table 8.8 Tourists in the Lidder Valley, Kashmir�� 263
Table 9.1 Countries of the Andes, their capital cities, population and
population density, Gross Domestic Product and Percentage
of the population with less than $2 per person per day�� 300
Table 10.1 Top ten African countries based on international tourist
arrivals 2013–15�� 326
Table 10.2 Top ten African countries based on international tourist
arrivals 2013–15�� 326
Table 10.3 Top Ten Adventure Tourism attractions in East Africa as
listed by https://www.tripsavvy.com/�� 327
Table 10.4 List of adventure tourism activities (after Buckley, 2006)
with their relevance to East Africa indicated (+ very
relevant; - of some relevance; o not relevant) �� 339
Table 10.5 Summary of the major findings relating to recreational
motorboat activities (adapted from Whitfield and Becker,
2014)�� 343
Table 11.1 Top 30 nature-based activities undertaken by
international and domestic tourists in 2008
(source: Simmons, 2013, p. 345)�� 367
Table 11.2 Examples of research in Australia and New Zealand
concerned with the environmental impacts of hiking,
horse riding and adventure races�� 386
Table 11.3 Whale watching numbers in Australia 1991-2008
(source: O’ Connor et al., 2009, p.162)�� 388
Table 11.4 Whale watching numbers in New Zealand 1994-2008
(source: O’ Connor et al., 2009, p.186).�� 388
Table 12.1 List of Adventure Tourism Activities�� 410
Table 12.2 Response and recovery (after 3 months-8 years) of 4
montane heath communities on Cairngorm in relation to
variation in intensity of trampling (0–240 tramples)�� 413
Table 12.3 Management practices adopted by�� 428
Table 13.1 Proxy indicators of climate-related variables�� 440
Table 13.2 Changes in total outdoor recreation participants between
2008 and 2060 across all activities and scenarios �� 451
Table 13.3 Changes in total outdoor recreation days between 2008
and 2060 across all activities and scenarios�� 453
Table 13.4 Top 30 nature-based activities undertaken by international
and domestic tourists in 2008�� 454
What Is Adventure Tourism?
1
at least two of the following three elements:

Chapter Summary physical activity, natural environment and cul-
This chapter considers a definition of adven- tural immersion. While the definition of adven-
ture tourism that includes physical activity, ture tourism only requires two of these
the natural environment and cultural immer- components, trips incorporating all three would
sion. Both hard and soft adventure can be give tourists the fullest adventure tourism experi-
important. The trends and numbers involved ence. For example, the World Tourist Organisation
in this tourism area are discussed, including (2014) in its Global Report on Adventure Tourism
the growth in demand. Other types of often suggests that a trip to Peru involving trekking
related niche tourism types are considered (physical activity) along the Machu Picchu trail
and defined, such as ecotourism, wildlife (natural environment) and genuine interaction
tourism, sustainable and responsible tourism. with local residents and/or indigenous peoples
(cultural immersion) would be an excellent
example. A similar example would be Nand Raj
Jat in Uttarakhand (India) which incorporates all
1.1 Introduction three elements, including a twenty-day trek along
Himalayan trails, an interaction with local resi-
Tourism is one of the most rapidly growing eco- dents and an opportunity to watch and take part
nomic sectors in the world, and adventure tour- in local religious practices.
ism is one of its fastest growing categories. As Between 2010 and 2014, the adventure tour-
travellers seek new and different experiences, ism industry grew by 195% and the adventure
adventure tourism continues to grow in popular- segment of this is enjoying rapid growth, but
ity (Wicker 2017). Increasingly, countries in all globally it remains a relatively small player in the
stages of economic development are prioritising industry. The adventure tourism industry is also
adventure tourism for development and market helping to raise awareness of sustainability, the
growth, because they recognise its ecological, need to support local communities and promote
cultural and economic value. social responsibility. These values help to secure
To date no definition of adventure tourism the future of the sector. Adventure tourism practi-
exists in the United Nations World Tourism tioners and policymakers adhere to sustainable
Organisation (UNWTO) literature, but the environmental practices because they know that
Adventure Travel Trade Association (ATTA) without pristine natural environments and
defines adventure tourism as a trip that includes meaningful cultural experiences, their destina-
© The Author(s) 2020 1

D. Huddart, T. Stott, Adventure Tourism, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18623-4_1
2 1 What Is Adventure Tourism?
tion would lose its competitiveness and tourists nue from a trip goes to airlines, hotels and other
would go somewhere else. international companies. In contrast, in adven-
ture travel 70–80% of the revenue goes to local
communities; while 65.5% of total travel expen-
1.2 lobal Figures for Tourism
G diture per adventure travel remains in the desti-
and the Adventure Sector nations or destination the traveller has visited.
Tourism accounts for 30% of all services and one

in eleven jobs in the global economy, and in 2010 1.4 Adventure Tourism
the global value for the adventure market
amounted to more than US$614 billion. By 2013, When applied in a tourism context the term
this figure had tripled to more than US$1843 bil- adventure tourism embraces all types of com-
lion. The growth in turnover comes from an mercial outdoor tourism where there is a signifi-
increase in the number of adventure tourists, as cant excitement element involved, but it is a
42% of all tourists participate in one or more broad term: Buckley (2006) lists at least forty
adventure activities in the course of their holiday, activities involved in adventure tourism. It is a
and an overall increase in the amount of money term that is not easily defined, as different peo-
spent per holiday. Currently 69% of all adventure ple have different perceptions of what might be
tourists come from Europe, North America and considered an adventure. It involves adventurous
South America, but this will change in the future. travel where there is exploration and physical
In 2014, 53% of all adventure travellers were exertion, and the travel has a perceived or real
women and 47% were men; they were generally risk involved; the adventure tourists often step
well educated, with 37% of adventure travellers outside their comfort zone and experience a rush
spending four years or more in tertiary education or flow (Buckley 2012). However, it has to cater
and more than 11% having a professional qualifi- for differences in clientele, as there will be dif-
cation. They were also financially well off, with ferent expectations, different physical abilities,
an average income approximately US$45,500. different likes and dislikes and different psycho-
logical make-ups involved. The experience is not
about taking risks or pushing personal boundar-
1.3 Consumer Trends ies, and it is important for participants to know
and respect their personal limits whilst they are
When we split adventure travel into ‘hard’ and in unfamiliar regions. Adventure tourism is
‘soft’ categories, a pattern emerges. Travellers closely related to nature-based tourism (Buckley
in the soft category (for example, non-extreme et al. 2003), and there is also an overlap with
activities, cruise tourism, cultural activities, ecotourism. Adventure tourism is ‘nature tour-
community involvement and guided tours) ism with a kick, nature tourism with a degree of
spent about US$825 per trip. In comparison, on risk taking and physical endurance’ (Christ et al.
a global level, non-adventure tourists spend 2003). It focuses on doing, whilst the other cat-
about US$430 per person per holiday (exclud- egories mentioned often focus on seeing. There
ing travel costs). This is about 40% less than the is a wide range of outdoor recreation activities
amount spent by adventure tourists, who also packaged as commercial adventure tour prod-
spend more money in local communities— ucts, ranging from hiking trips to expensive and
where the economic impact is more tangible. equipment-intensive tours involving expedition
More extreme adventure travellers only spend cruise ships and helicopters. The activity can be
about US$338 per trip (excluding travel costs), part of independent travel, where the travellers
but spend significantly more money on gear and provide the adventurous experience for them-
equipment that they require for their holiday. In selves through the use of fixed site facilities,
mass tourism, approximately 80% of the reve- such as ski resorts, where there is a retail and
1.4 Adventure Tourism 3
accommodation component as part of the pack- 1. some real or perceived risk related to a physi-
age. Buckley (2006) identifies four component cal activity, remoteness or unfamiliar
types: independent travel, which involves at location;
least some commercial transport and accommo- 2. occurring in a natural environment that is rela-
dation but includes some activity that the travel- tively unexplored and with minimal or no
ler treats as adventurous; fully packaged, guided urban influences;
commercial adventure tours, departing on 3. a physical activity that tests both mental and
defined dates from specified gateways; fixed-site physical endurance;
adventure activities available to both tourists and 4. cultural immersion;
the local population, but where tourists make up 5. a minimalism that supports eco-, responsible
a significant percentage of the clientele, as in ski and sustainable tourism and discourages
resorts; and finally all the ancillary businesses mindless consumerism, although some of the
and economic sectors linked to adventure tour- luxury cruises that occur do not support this
ism through recreational equipment, adventure- element.
branded clothing and a significant proportion of
the amenity-migrant property market (where Adventure is not about how wild, high or
people move to an area to live or purchase a sec- extreme an activity is. It is primarily a mental
ond home, especially to take part in adventurous attitude to travel that shapes the values that visi-
activities). Buckley (2010) suggests that on a tors bring with them on their holiday. In other
global scale the outdoor and adventure tourism words, adventure is a subjective concept that
subsectors of the tourism market make up around revolves around how individual travellers like to
one-fifth of the global tourism market and travel shape their own experiences. The key for adven-
sector, and one that as we have noted continues ture travel is that the holiday should be based on
to expand. ATTA created a definition of adven- experiences, and that added value comes from
ture tourism and the adventure tourist. Such a really getting to know a destination through
tourist is one who includes at least two of the physical activity, cultural encounters and experi-
three following elements in his or her leisure encing the natural environment. Activities like
travel: physical activity, engagement with nature, these allow individual travellers to extend their
and cultural interaction and learning. Through own boundaries culturally, physically and geo-
this definition, it is seen that most tourists can be graphically, and these boundaries vary from per-
considered adventurers. The challenge for tour- son to person. Regardless of how tourism
ism will therefore always be to stimulate eco- professionals organise or categorise adventure
nomic and social development in a way that travel, adventure will always be a subjective term
factors in nature, culture and the environment. for travellers, because it is related to individual
Adventure travel addresses all these chal- experience. Adventure to one traveller may seem
lenges in a way that provides opportunities for routine or mundane to another. Adventure tour-
local communities to develop, and it takes ists push their own cultural, physical and geo-
account of the tourists’ diverse understanding of graphic comfort limits, and those limits differ for
what a responsible and sustainable adventure- each person. Rantala et al. (2018) suggest that the
based holiday involves. Hence adventure travel is boundaries between adventurous activities and
a form of travel where visitors interact with the tourism are blurred, and they explore the diffuse
environment and nature, take part in physical use of concepts such as wilderness, nature guid-
activities and are part of a cultural exchange that ing and adventurous activities. Nevertheless,
combines at least two of these elements. There adventure tourism has been widely studied, and
could also be an extra element of self exploration the literature review of 2119 references in Rantala
and connecting with self. It is possible therefore et al. (2018) indicates that the work was dispersed
to define adventure tourism as having some of the amongst many different subject disciplines and
following five elements: academic journals; their conclusion is that a
reconceptualisation of adventure tourism is Table 1.1 Types of activity and categorisation as hard or
soft adventure
required. Cheng et al. (2018) find a total of 114
publications on adventure tourism that revealed Activity Type
three broad areas of foci in adventure tourism Archaeological expedition Soft
Attending local festival/fairs Other
research. These are adventure tourism experi-
Backpacking Soft
ence; destination planning and adventure tourism Birdwatching Soft
operators. Studies examining non-Western tour- Camping Soft
ists in their own geographical contexts and non- Canoeing Soft
Western tourists in Western geographical contexts Caving Hard
are under-represented. We hope to show in this Climbing (mountain/rock/ice) Hard
book that there are important environmental Cruise Other
Cultural activities Other
impacts caused by adventure tourism that need to
Eco-tourism Soft
be managed, and that education of participants Educational programs Soft
and company operators is necessary for the sus- Environmentally sustainable activities Soft
tainable use of the environments in which adven- Fishing/fly-fishing Soft
ture tourism takes place. Getting to know the locals Other
There are two main categories of adventure Hiking Soft
activities, hard and soft adventure, and vigorous Horseback riding Soft
Hunting Soft
debate often surrounds which activities belong in
Kayaking/sea/whitewater Soft
each category (see Table 1.1). The easiest way to Learning a new language Other
identify an adventure trip as hard or soft adven- Orienteering Soft
ture is by its primary activity. Rafting Soft
Both hard and soft adventures are highly Research expeditions Soft
lucrative segments of the adventure tourism sec- Safaris Soft
tor. The cost of the permit to access the summit of Sailing Soft
Scuba diving Soft
Mount Everest, a hard adventure activity, was
Snorkelling Soft
estimated to be US$11,000 per person in 2015. Skiing/snowboarding Soft
When all of the other factors are added in, such as Surfing Soft
training, gear, airfare and tour guides, the average Trekking Hard
total cost is about US$48,000 per person. Walking tours Other
Commercial adventure travel tour operators Visiting friends/family Other
offering soft adventure activities charged an aver- Visiting historical sites Other
Volunteer tourism Soft
age of US$308 per day in 2012. With an average
trip length of 8.8 days, the average total cost of a Source: Adapted from Adventure Tourism Development
Index 2016 Report
soft adventure trip was US$2710 per person, not
including flights. In addition to hard or soft
adventure activities, there are also different types average of one extra day. They spend more money
of adventure tourists. For example, adventure on equipment and gear, because they value brands
enthusiasts, such as avid kayakers, cyclists or that fit their highly specialised needs, and they
birdwatchers, become progressively more skilled seek out locations that are difficult to access or
at a specific outdoor or athletic activity. These are newly emerging but not yet popular. On the
enthusiasts are described as passionate about a other hand, extreme adventurers, such as base
certain sport or activity, tending to pursue the jumpers, those who cross the Greenland Ice Cap
same activity trip after trip, and seeking new and or runners of 100 km races, are not so much tour-
exciting destinations in the process. ists as independent travellers and thrill-seekers.
Although enthusiasts’ spending is on a par Extreme adventurers spend less money, because
with other types of adventure traveller, their more they have their own equipment, may not seek
frequent international trips typically last an commercial support to practise the activity, seek
1.4 Adventure Tourism 5
out locations that are difficult to access, and often In the adventure tourism sector, the trend has
camp or provide their own transport. been towards the removal of the middle man, tour
Extreme adventurers constitute a very small operator or travel agent, who has traditionally
segment of the sector. Thus, although they can connected the consumer in the source market to
have public relations and marketing value for a the provider or ground handler in the destination
destination or company, they do not typically market. As the traveller can access information
require attention from tourism development pol- and trusted consumer reviews online, he is now
icy makers and land managers. more likely to go straight to the provider. The
AdventurePulse: USA Adventure Traveller
Profiles, a study of the US adventure travel mar-
1.4.1 Growth in Demand ket, indicates that 71% of US adventure travellers
are making arrangements solely on their own.
In 2012, global tourism arrivals passed the 1 bil- While emerging economies are slowly outpac-
lion mark. As one of the fastest growing seg- ing developed economies for departures and
ments, adventure tourism arrivals naturally spending, the UNWTO predicts that by 2015,
increased as well. In 2010, the first global adven- arrivals in emerging economies will have
ture tourism market sizing study was conducted exceeded those in advanced economies; and by
by ATTA, the George Washington University and 2030, 57% of arrivals will be in emerging econo-
Xola Consulting. It found that the global value of mies. To accommodate this surge in demand,
adventure tourism was US$89 billion. The study supply is expected to increase. The makeup of the
was repeated in 2013 and found that 42% of trav- sector is predominantly small, owner-operated
ellers departed on adventure trips, making the businesses. In fact, in 2013 the average size of
sector worth US$263 billion, an increase of ATTA’s member companies was forty-four
195% in two years. This remarkable growth was employees.
attributed to an increase in international depar- Destinations around the world are focusing on
tures, an increase in travellers going on adventure adventure as a key niche segment, because of its
trips and an increase in average spending. economic and sustainability benefits. They are
Overall, 69% of international departures origi- working to provide professional education for
nated in Europe, North America or South adventure travel companies to support local peo-
America; the same was true of adventure tour- ple in participating in the tourism economy.
ism. Between 2009 and 2010, South America’s Increasingly, destinations are recognising that
hard adventure travel population grew from 1.4% travellers are seeking more authentic products.
of all departures to 8%. The same time period Around the world, destinations are gearing their
saw a 5% increase in the soft adventure popula- advertising and branding to appeal to adventure
tion. In fact, the UNWTO Tourism Highlights of travellers. For example, Norway capitalises on its
2014 notes that ‘with rising levels of disposable towering fjords and glaciers with the slogan
income, many emerging economies have shown ‘Powered by Nature’; Greenland emphasises its
fast growth over recent years, especially in mar- ruggedness with ‘Greenland, Be a Pioneer’; New
kets in Asia, Central and Eastern Europe, the Zealand touts its culture, mountains, wildlife and
Middle East and Africa.’ Additionally, the report hiking with ‘100% Pure New Zealand’; Nepal’s
notes that Chinese travellers are the top spenders Naturally Nepal logo includes a stylised high
while on vacation, and that developed economies peak and a tagline “Once is not enough”;
will benefit from the favourable exchange rate for Kyrgyzstan, surrounded by glaciers, emphasises
Russian and Chinese travellers via inbound tour- its mountainous assets in its adventure tourism
ism. Widespread increases of projected arrivals marketing with the tagline “Something New,
from Russian, Chinese, and Latin American trav- Something Different”; and Slovenia beckons
ellers will change the shape of tourism demo- with hiking, mountains and caves in its ‘I Feel
graphics in the years to come. Slovenia’ campaign.
The trend is far-reaching. In 2011, 79% of of local communities, or to foster respect for dif-
tourism boards reported that the adventure tour- ferent cultures and for human rights. Since the
ism private sector had begun to emerge and/or 1980s, ecotourism has been considered a critical
grow in their destination. endeavour by environmentalists, so that future
In 2010, Greenland shifted its marketing to generations may experience destinations rela-
focus exclusively on the adventure sector. Its tively untouched by human intervention.
messaging and imagery were designed to capture Generally, ecotourism involves interaction with
the imaginations of tourists who sought off-the- biotic components of the natural environments. It
beaten track adventures and authentic cultural focuses on socially responsible travel, personal
interactions. Greenland’s marketing focused growth and environmental sustainability, and
equally on cultural, and especially culinary, typically involves travel to destinations where
activities through its ‘Taste of Greenland’ pro- flora, fauna and cultural heritage are the primary
gramme, and emphasised adventure activities attractions. It intends to offer tourists an insight
with the launch of a blog entitled ‘99% into the impact of human beings on the environ-
Backcountry’. This portrayed a modern ment and to foster a greater appreciation of our
Greenland, where girls in traditional costumes natural habitats. Responsible ecotourism pro-
ride scooters, the message resonating with how grammes include those that minimise the nega-
locals saw themselves. tive aspects of conventional tourism on the
UNWTO predicts that there will be 1.8 billion environment and enhance the cultural integrity of
arrivals globally by 2030, and that growth of local people. Therefore, in addition to evaluating
international tourism arrivals in emerging econo- environmental and cultural factors, an integral
mies will grow at double the pace of developed part of ecotourism is the promotion of recycling,
nations. Developed nations will see arrivals from energy efficiency, water conservation and cre-
emerging economies fuelling their growth; but as ation of economic opportunities for local com-
knowledge of adventure tourism options in these munities. For these reasons, ecotourism often
destinations is currently limited, there is a need to appeals to advocates of environmental and social
invest in building their markets—and this is cur- responsibility. It has three central principles: it is
rently happening. non-consumptive/non-extractive, it creates an
ecological conscience and it holds ecocentric
values and ethics in relation to nature. Lane
1.5 Ecotourism (2013) outlines the related types of niche tour-
ism. He defines adventure tourism as physical
Much of ecotourism is commercial outdoor rec- outdoor activities such as snorkelling, diving or
reation, and this has been discussed in much skydiving, where operators may not necessarily
detail by Buckley (2004, 2006, 2010). Ecotourism be operating in a sustainable manner or provid-
is a form of tourism that involves visiting fragile, ing education. Cultural tourism relates to the dis-
pristine and relatively undisturbed natural areas, covery of the cultural heritage of the destination,
intended as a low-impact and often small-scale such as learning from a local artist, and the focus
alternative to standard commercial mass tourism. is not on nature or wildlife. Green tourism applies
It is defined as responsible travel to natural areas to any tourism activity or facility operating in an
that conserves the environment, sustains the environmentally friendly way, incorporating
well- being of the local people, and involves renewable energy use or composting. Lodges
interpretation and education (TIES 2015, www. may be owned by a large corporation or lack a
ecotourism.org/news/ties-announces-ecotour- focus on conservation and education. Nature
ism-principles-revision). Its purpose may be to tourism is where wildlife is viewed in its natural
educate the traveller, to provide funds for eco- habitat, such as from jungle lodges in the Amazon
logical conservation, to directly benefit the eco- or cruise-only ships in Antarctica. These trips
nomic development and political empowerment may not have an educational component and are
1.6 Other Popular Forms of Tourism that Share Characteristics with Adventure Tourism 7
not necessarily environmentally sustainable or conservation and community development in the

responsible. Responsible tourism is where the areas being developed’ (Christ et al. 2003, p. 5).
minimisation of environmental degradation of Conservation tourism is commercial tourism
the destination is a priority, but there may be no that makes a net positive contribution to the con-
focus on the environment and no economic ben- tinuing survival of threatened plant or animal
efit to the host destination. Finally, sustainable species, and while there are a variety of ways in
tourism does not deplete resources and allows for which tourism can make positive contributions to
smaller numbers of tourists to experience nature conservation, the key issue is to calculate net out-
so as not to disturb natural patterns. There may comes after subtracting the negative impacts. A
not be a focus on the preservation of the natural broader definition of conservation tourism is
habitat or any economic benefit to the host tourism that delivers experiences that support the
destination. protection of natural and cultural resources
However, the term ecotourism, like sustain- through impact (creating financial incentives for
able tourism, is considered by many to be an oxy- conservation). influence (educating travellers,
moron. Like most forms of tourism, ecotourism communities and other stakeholders on the value
generally depends on air transportation, and this of protecting the integrity of nature and culture)
long-distance travel has significant environmen- and investment (driving financial support for
tal impacts and contributes to global climate conservation from the travel sector and
change (Simmons and Becken 2004). travellers).
Additionally the overall effect of sustainable Responsible tourism is tourism that creates
tourism is probably negative, as ecotourism phil- better places in which people can live and visit.
anthropic aspirations can mask commercial and Responsible tourism can take place in any envi-
immediate self-interest. Here we can see consid- ronment, and many cities have adopted responsi-
erable overlap and misconceptions relating to the ble tourism policies. It can also be defined as
terms adventure tourism, ecotourism, nature- responsible travel to natural areas that conserves
based tourism and sustainable tourism. the environment and sustains the well-being of
The differences between adventure tourism local people (Christ et al. 2003).
and mass tourism are clear, but the differences Community-based tourism is defined by the
between adventure tourism and other types of Mountain Institute and Regional Community
tourism can be more nuanced. There follow defi- Forestry Training Center as a visitor–host interac-
nitions of other popular types of tourism that tion that has meaningful participation for both,
share characteristics with adventure tourism, and that generates economic and conservation
such as minimising negative impacts and increas- benefits for local communities and environments.
ing local benefits. Volunteer tourism is the practice of individu-
als going on a working holiday, volunteering
their labour for worthy causes. It includes work
1.6 ther Popular Forms
O that is not paid and is sometimes also called
of Tourism that Share Voluntourism.
Characteristics SAVE tourism encompasses scientific, aca-
with Adventure Tourism demic, volunteer and educational tourism, as
defined by the SAVE Travel Alliance. SAVE
Sustainable tourism is tourism that takes full tourism may include remunerated work.
account of its current and future economic, social Another definition of ecotourism, from the
and environmental impacts, addressing the needs International Ecotourism Society, is purposeful
of visitors, the industry, the environment and host travel to natural areas to understand the culture
communities. Sustainable tourism ‘seeks to mini- and natural history of the environment, taking
mize the negative footprint of tourism develop- care not to alter the integrity of the ecosystem,
ments and at the same time contribute to while producing economic opportunities that
make the conservation of natural resources ben- a US$263 billion global market. In 2014, tour
eficial to local people. Alternatively, ecotourism operators noted that the top four trends in adven-
is travelling to relatively undisturbed or uncon- ture tourism were the softening of adventure
taminated natural areas with the specific objec- travel, customisation of trip experiences, multi-
tive of studying, admiring and enjoying the generational groups and cultural experiences. In
scenery and its wild plants and animals, as well other words, the trends indicate the broadening of
as any existing cultural manifestations (both past adventure as a choice of travel by the larger mar-
and present) found in these areas (Ceballos- ket. This data came from more than 300 compa-
Lascurain 1996). nies in sixty-nine countries. Governments
Geotourism is defined as tourism that sus- acknowledge this trend as well. Before 2007,
tains or enhances the geographical character of a 52% of tourism boards surveyed (ninety-one in
place: its environment, culture, aesthetics, heri- total) noted that they did not recognise adventure
tage and the well-being of its residents. tourism as a stand-alone sector in their destina-
Nature-based tourism is the segment in the tion. That number sharply decreased to a mere
tourism market in which people travel with the 8% in 2011 out of the same group of tourism
primary purpose of visiting a natural destination boards/ministries.
(Kuenzin and McNeeley 2008).
Nature tourism is travel to unspoiled places
to experience and enjoy nature (Christ et al. 1.7 Concluding Remarks
2003).
Wildlife tourism is based on encounters with The main aim of this book is to discuss how a
non-domesticated (non-human) animals in either wide range of recreational adventure activities
the animals’ natural environment or in captivity. can have an impact on the environment and how
It includes activities historically classified as the activities are associated with an important
‘non-consumptive’ as well as those that involve and growing branch of the tourist industry, adven-
killing or capturing animals (Higginbottom ture tourism. Environmental impacts are identi-
2004). Swarbrooke et al. (2003) provide a fied and possible management and education
detailed chapter on this topic as one aspect of approaches to minimise these impacts are dis-
adventure tourism. cussed in a series of chapters from various world
There are also some obscure forms of adven- regions, ranging from the polar Antarctic, through
ture tourism, including disaster and ghetto tour- the Arctic islands of Svalbard, Iceland, Greenland
ism, spiritual tourism and even ethno-tourism, and the Franz Josef Land archipelago to the
where indigenous peoples are observed. The lat- North American Arctic region of Alaska, the
ter is controversial because it can bring indige- Canadian Arctic and the Russian continental
nous peoples into contact with diseases to which Arctic, which includes the Kamchatka peninsula.
they have no immunity, and there is always the Adventure tourism in the world’s high mountain
possible degradation or destruction of a unique regions is considered in relation to the Himalayas,
culture or language. the Andes and some of the East African mountain
It is important to note that none of these types ranges, whilst we complete our world survey by
of tourism, which can be included in a broad dis- including a chapter on Australia and New Zealand
cussion of adventure tourism, is mutually exclu- and on Scotland. These are world regions that are
sive, and definitions can be overlapping. These important in the adventure tourism industry, and
‘brands’ all have a specific or even niche market where the authors have research experience and
value, because they resonate with a particular have travelled extensively. This detailed regional
segment of consumers. approach to the environmental impacts of adven-
Adventure tourism used to be a relatively ture tourism on a world scale is a major and up-
fringe or small niche of the overall tourism sec- to-date contribution to the literature. For example,
tor, but today it has become more mainstream as in Swarbrooke et al. (2003) there is only a brief
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Adventure Tourism in Antarctica
2
represented prohibitive conditions and major

Chapter Summary constraints for human activity (Lamers et al.
An outline of the characteristics of Antarctic 2008). Nevertheless, the Antarctic tourism indus-
tourism is given, including the growth in the try first began to overcome these limitations in
number of tourists. The types of tourism are the late 1950s, when operators from Chile and
defined and described as (a) cruise ship tour- Argentina took around 500 paying passengers to
ism, with industry self-regulation, (b) adven- the South Shetland Islands by means of a naval
ture tourism, (c) land- based commercial transportation ship. In 1969, cruise ships began
tourism, (d) last chance tourism, (e) wildlife visiting the waters. Between 1977 and 1980,
tourism, (f) unique environment tourism and commercial airlines out of New Zealand and
(g) luxury tourism. The environmental Australia conducted low-level ‘flightseeing’
impacts of Antarctic tourism are described in tours, taking some 11,000 tourists over the area
general, and specifically their effect on pen- in forty-four flights (Spennemann 2007). Scenic
guins; whale behavioural modification (noise flights (known as ‘overflights’) to Antarctica had
and collisions); seals; invasion of non-indige- begun in the 1950s, but peaked in popularity dur-
nous organisms; and ship accidents and visitor ing the 1970s. During such trips, passengers view
impacts on historic and archaeological sites. the Antarctic landscape from the air, but the
There is discussion of how Antarctic tourism planes do not land. Over 10,000 tourists had
is managed: the role of the International experienced such flights by the 1979–1980 sea-
Association of Antarctica Tour Operators son. The operation of overflights ceased in 1979
(IAATO), governance and regulations, the when Air New Zealand Flight TE901 crashed
Antarctic Treaty System, the Madrid Protocol, into Mount Erebus, killing all 257 passengers
the Polar Code, difficulties in reaching agree- (Liggett et al. 2011). Qantas began offering over-
ment in a consensus-based system, lack of a flights again during the 1994–1995 season, and
gatekeeper mechanism and visitor rights. today there is one additional overflight operator
from Chile. Overflights account for only a small
fraction of modern Antarctic tourism.
The late 1980s marked the beginning of the
2.1 Introduction modern Antarctic tourism industry, with the
introduction of ship-based expedition-style tours,
Antarctica’s remote location, extreme climatic including equipment and mechanisms to enable
conditions, and the presence of land and sea ice tourists to physically alight on land, which
and rugged topography (Fig. 2.1) have always remains the prominent form of travel there.
© The Author(s) 2020 11

D. Huddart, T. Stott, Adventure Tourism, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18623-4_2
12 2 Adventure Tourism in Antarctica
Fig. 2.1 Antarctica from NASA’s Blue Marble dataset. Source: Blue Marble dataset, https://visibleearth.nasa.gov/
view_cat.php?category1D=1484. (Photo: Dave Pape)
2.2 Definition of Antarctic

Tourism What makes Antarctica a particular con-
cern is that there is no regulation of tourism
at present, except self-regulation by mem-
Hall (1992) defined Antarctic tourism as all bers of the International Association of
existing human activities other than those Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO). Due
directly involved in scientific research and mainly to its remoteness and to technologi-
the normal operations of government bases. cal difficulties in relation to access,
An Antarctic tourist could be defined as a Antarctica has been a relative latecomer in
person who travels to Antarctica for a pur- having to consider the impacts of tourism
pose other than to work there, but Haase on the continent. However, as tourist num-
(2008) suggested that Antarctic tourism was bers have increased over the years, so too
‘all human activities either mainly pursuing have concerns about the impacts on the
recreational and/or educational purposes or continent and their management.
unequivocally catering for those who engage
in recreational and/or educational activities in
the Antarctic Treaty area south to 60° S Lat.’.
2.2 Definition of Antarctic Tourism 13
Fig. 2.2 Ocean Endeavour in Paradise Harbour, a wide embayment behind Lemaire and Byde Islands, indenting the
west coast of Graham Land. (Photo: Copyright M. J. Hambrey)
Since the inception of the IAATO in 1991, since 1989. About fifty of these sites have received
records of tour itineraries and site visits have more than 100 visitors in any one season and
been continually maintained. In recent years about the same number have been visited just
these expeditions have largely been conducted once. A cursory examination of the tour data indi-
using vessels carrying from six to 500 passengers cates that visits are concentrated at fewer than
(Fig. 2.2). The ships sail primarily to the Antarctic thirty-five sites. Fewer than ten sites receive
Peninsula region. Some itineraries also include around 10,000 visitors each season. The Peninsula
South Georgia and the Falkland Islands. These is an appealing destination as it is close to South
voyages generally depart from Ushuaia America, has a relatively mild climate and little
(Argentina), Port Stanley (Falkland Islands) and, sea ice, hosts multiple scientific stations and con-
to a lesser extent, from Punta Arenas (Chile), tains a diverse array of wildlife and scenery
Buenos Aires (Argentina) or Puerto Madryn (Farreny et al. 2011). From 2003–2009, the
(Argentina). Committee for Environmental Protection (CEP)’s
By far the most visited area of Antarctica is the tourism study noted that the top twenty most vis-
Antarctic Peninsula (see Fig. 2.4A for the main ited Antarctic landing sites were all in the Antarctic
locations in Antarctica and major bases). Molenaar Peninsula (2012). Activity is highly concentrated:
(2005) puts the figure at 95%. According to among these top twenty sites, 54% of visitor land-
IAATO records (IAATO website), approximately ings occurred at just seven of them. The top five
200 sites, including twenty research stations, have visited sites were: Whalers Bay, Port Lockroy,
been visited in the Antarctic Peninsula region Half Moon Island, Neko Harbor and Cuverville
Fig. 2.3 (a) Overall change in vessel traffic from Island, (6) Petermann Island, (7) Brown Station,
the 1993–1994 season to the 2012–2013 season, (8) Jougla Point, (9) Danco Island, (10) Brown
and (b) overall change in vessel traffic from the Bluff, (11) Vernadsky Station, (12) Telefon Bay,
2008–2009 season to the 2012–2013 season (the (13) Barrientos Island, Aitcho Islands, (14) Orne
five seasons following the Lynch et al. 2010 analy- Harbour, (15) Yankee Harbour, (16) Mikkelsen
sis). For orientation, the top twenty-five most pop- Harbour, (17) Damoy Point/Dorian Bay, (18)
ular landing sites (in the 2013–2014 season) are Paradise Bay, (19) Pléneau Island, (20) Hannah
indicated by numbers (in order of rank): (1) Neko Point, (21) Port Charcot, (22) Great Wall Station,
Harbour, (2) Cuverville Island, (3) Goudier Island, (23) Yalour Islands, (24) Waterboat Point/Gonzalez
(4) Half Moon Island, (5) Whalers Bay, Deception Videla Station, (25) Bellingshausen Station
2.2 Definition of Antarctic Tourism 15
Fig. 2.4 (A) Emperor penguins, the only animals to Gentoo penguin. (From: www.dreamstime.com/publ-
breed on Antarctica. (Author: Guiseppe Zibordi, NOAA domain-image-frees) (D) Adélie penguins and tourist
Corps Collection). (B) Adélie penguin. (Photo: Penny Zodiac at Bourdin Island. (Photo: Copyright M. J.
Scott (PDP) http://publicdomainphotography.com). (C) Hambrey)
Fig. 2.4 (continued)
Island, each of which averaged more than 10,000 desire to visit as a tourist, to see the wildlife and
visitors per season during 2003–2009. In contrast, dramatic scenery, and to experience (arguably)
the most heavily visited site in the Ross Sea, Cape Earth’s last remaining wilderness (Bowerman
Royds, averaged 320 tourists per season from 2012). Modern Antarctic ecotourism has
2005–2011. It appears that tourists have visited increased rapidly since its beginning in the
over 300 sites since records began, and 100–200 1960s. Between 1992 and 2002, the annual
sites are visited regularly each season (Tin et al. number of tourists more than doubled. In the
2008), which may serve to destroy the very wil- Antarctic summer of 2000–2001, approximately
derness that many tourists to Antarctica are hop- 12,250 people walked on the Antarctic conti-
ing to experience. However, Naveen and Lynch nent, and in 2006 this number reached 35,000.
(2011) have produced a detailed documentation of The 2007–2008 season showed huge growth
sites visited by tourists to assist in the implemen- and marked the busiest season to date, with
tation of the 1991 Protocol on Environmental 46,265 reported tourists visiting Antarctica.
Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, which is an Actual numbers of visitors may be higher, as
excellent compendium for the start of manage- reported numbers come from members of
ment by tour companies of their visitors and by IAATO only. The reported numbers decreased
the countries that administer these locations. after that season, concurrent with the global
financial crisis and the ban on heavy fuel car-
riage by ships in Antarctic waters, impacting the
2.3 Growing Numbers 2011–2012 season, but numbers have been ris-
ing again since. Of the estimated 44,000
In recent decades, tourism has increased signifi- Antarctic tourists in the 2016–2017 season,
cantly in Antarctica. It is no longer only science 12,400 were expected to be involved in site
and exploration that draw people to visit, but a landings.
2.4 A Summary of IAATO Member Antarctic Tourism Trends 17
Each person landing on Antarctica has some Most tourism is ship-based, but in recent years
form of impact on the environment, such as the new market segments have come online, such as
inadvertent dispersal of seeds of non-native, or airborne and land-based tourism. The Antarctic
alien, species, disruption to wildlife and foot- Treaty System (ATS) and the Antarctic Treaty
prints. The number of tourists in the Antarctic Consultative Parties (ATCPs) formally regulate
Treaty area is estimated at three times the num- tourism, and the 1991 Environmental Protocol,
ber of National Antarctic Program (NAP) per- known as the Madrid Protocol, provides the regu-
sonnel during the 2016–2017 summer season. latory framework for human activities in the
There is some degree of overlap between tourist region, including tourism. ATCP decisions are
activity and personnel involved in NAPs, such implemented through national legislation of flag
as scientists taking part in recreational activities states. IAATO handles day-to-day management
while on the continent. In turn, some NAPs sup- of tourism, working alongside the ATCPs and
port the tourist industry through the accommo- other organisations. Maritime law also guides
dation of tourists and the establishment of some activity, given the ship-based nature of the
tourist facilities, visitor centres and souvenir majority of tourism (Jabour 2014).
shops on the Antarctic continent (Bastmeijer The main Antarctic tourist markets, histori-
et al. 2008). All forms of transport into the cally found in North America, Europe and
Antarctic Treaty area also impact the environ- Australia, are evolving as well. Not surprisingly,
ment and have the potential to cause catastro- considering the costs involved in Antarctic tour-
phe. The majority of travel for tourism is by ism, these regions represent some of the wealthi-
ship, which has a significantly lower carbon est countries in the world. It is believed that
footprint than air travel. Antarctic tour companies will continue to merge
One recent study suggests a conservative or may be taken over/bought out by larger travel
projection of growth to 120,000–160,000 visi- companies which have access to more extensive
tors to Antarctica annually by 2060 (Woehler resources for marketing Antarctic itineraries
et al. 2014). Considering the historical increase (Lamers et al. 2008). Demand for global tourism
in Antarctic tourism, recovery to nearly double products is already expanding considerably in
the previous peak over the next fifty years seems China, Russia, India and other growing econo-
a reasonable forecast. An increase in the number mies, and this trend is expected to continue. The
of vessels travelling to the area is also likely, 2013–2014 season saw an increase in the number
particularly large vessels, as well as increased of Chinese visitors, making up a total of 9% of all
numbers of tourist flights, to more areas, and visitors, while ten years prior, this population
over greater periods of time each year (Woehler represented only 0.2% of all visitors. This puts
et al. 2014). Thus, demand for Antarctic tourism China just behind the USA (33%) and Australia
is expected to increase in the coming years. This (11%), and ahead of Germany (8%) and the UK
is anticipated in traditional markets especially, (8%) (IAATO 2014).
as a result of growing media attention, greater
affluence, increased spare time, urbanisation,
ageing populations, and the growing global 2.4 Summary of IAATO
A
interest in ecotourism and adventure tourism Member Antarctic Tourism
(Lonely Planet 2013). The popularity of the Trends
region can be seen in the more mainstream
travel media, which is likely to contribute to The total number of tourists in the Antarctic
even greater interest. Lonely Planet listed Treaty area has followed an overall increasing
Antarctica as number two of the ten best desti- trend driven mainly by a recent sharp increase in
nations for travel in 2014. Referred to as the ship-to-shore landings. With more people present
adventure of a lifetime, Lonely Planet describes in the area, the sense of remoteness could be
Antarctica as a pristine continent with abundant compromised. Due to a lack of studies carried out
wildlife and majestic landscapes. on the impacts of landings, their cumulative
effects, such as the introduction of invasive spe- the tourists visiting the Antarctic Treaty area are
cies via mechanisms such as ship fouling and doing so because they care about the environment
wastewater discharge, and the continued distur- (Vereda 2016), so they would likely choose opera-
bance to penguin nesting sites, are not fully quan- tors endorsed by IAATO for their safe, low-impact
tified. The need for data on these impacts will and environmental sustainability measures.
become more important as we face the possibility
of increased numbers, especially in high traffic
areas such as the Antarctic Peninsula (Haase 2.5 Types of Tourism
et al. 2009). It would be appropriate for tour
operators to be levied to provide funding for 2.5.1 Cruise Ship Tourism
research to be carried out, providing data and the
analysis of that data, on the impact of their indus- Currently the cruise ship industry is managed
try on the Antarctic Treaty area. through the ATS, non-governmental organisa-
Looking over a longer term at the number of tions (NGOs) (self-regulation), guidelines, vari-
passenger landings, there has been an overall ous treaties and a series of international laws
increase from 1995 in the past twenty years, (Bauer and Dowling 2006). There is a difference
although there was a decline between 1999 and of opinion within the academic community on
2003, and again between 2007 and 2010, the latter whether the Antarctic cruise ship industry is
being the result of the economic recession and a working well not only to meet the needs of the
ban on heavy fuel use by the International Maritime cruise ship operators and their clients, but for the
Organization (IMO). The potential for further greater wellbeing of the continent as a whole and
increase is limited by IAATO regulations in terms the rest of the world, and whether it is being man-
of the number of landings per site, the sites used aged sustainably for future generations. It appears
and the protocol that must be followed when visit- from the literature reviewed that this difference
ing sites designated as Antarctic Specially of opinion depends on what discipline the writers
Protected Areas (ASPAs) and/or Antarctic come from. As a broad generalisation, it appears
Specially Managed Areas (ASMAs). The growth that the tourism/science-based authors, such as
in tourist numbers and in the variety of their activi- Liggett et al. (2011) and Bauer and Dowling
ties raises concerns of potential overuse and (2006), believe strongly in self-regulation,
increases the threat of impact on wildlife, the natu- namely by the IAATO, and have confidence in
ral environment and even cultural heritage. the self-imposed management of Antarctica
Since 2004, 98.8% of Antarctic tourists have through the ATS. Although they acknowledge
travelled to the area via ship (IAATO 2017). The that more regulations will be required in the
trend of increasing numbers of operators in the future, there is not much discussion about the
market has the potential to create tension in the cur- realities of which laws are working or not work-
rent IAATO member system. Haase et al. (2009) ing and the validity of these laws within the inter-
discussed a recent case in which a group of opera- national community.
tors with ships of carrying capacity greater than In contrast, Molenaar (2005) and Wright
500 wanted to become members of IAATO. Initially, (2008), who are more legally or politically moti-
IAATO declined the request, but then reversed its vated, appear to think that it is only as a result of
decision after the operators threatened to create luck, or a lack of evidence to the contrary, that the
their own self-organised group. IAATO felt it was region remains largely free of the negative
more important to maintain a united membership impacts of tourism. These authors are often criti-
to prevent becoming fractured over less important cal of other authors, preferring to plan for the
issues. There is always the potential for operators expected disaster than wait for it to happen and
to work outside of any regulating body, but it is clean up the mess afterwards. There are also a
hoped that market demands for safety and sustain- growing number of knowledgeable authors who
ability would not support such ventures. Many of are taking a more moderate approach in their
2.5 Types of Tourism 19
writing, such as Haase et al. (2009), who are of once the fee for the flag has been paid. It is also
the opinion that a middle road between the laxity the case that in this context of self-regulation, all
of self-regulation and strictly codified regulation parties must trust the morals and truthfulness of
needs to be found as the best answer to the sover- the cruise ship operators when told that there
eignty issue. have been no significant incidents or accidents in
Wright (2008) highlights the seriousness of the Southern Ocean.
legal issues arising from the Antarctic cruise Vessels registered with flags of convenience
industry and points out that most of the interna- states account for more than 50% of all tourism
tional treaties, regulations and laws that are appli- vessels visiting Antarctica. Flags of convenience
cable to the sea are not applicable to Antarctic countries are notorious for their lack of interest in
waters. This is because the region does not fit the enforcing international conventions obligations
definition of areas governed by such treaties, reg- upon oceangoing commercial ships. Critics feel
ulations and laws since it does not fall under the these nations are not only reluctant to discipline
jurisdiction of a single sovereign state. This is major contributors to their economies; but even
compounded by sovereignty disputes and the more alarming, they simply may not have the
very real fact that many of the world’s states do resources to effectively enforce regulations or
not recognise sovereignty claims by other states. even punish polluters (Wright 2008). It would
States that do not recognise Antarctic claims to seem an appropriate time to ask whether an oper-
sovereignty treat the Antarctic waters as part of ator that is flying a flag of convenience should be
the high seas. This creates further legal complexi- considered as trustworthy as an operator that has
ties. Molenaar (2005) also shares Wright’s con- a flag from a country which actively involves
cerns in this area. Wright (2008) further highlights itself in matters in the Southern Ocean and
that despite sovereignty claims, much of the Antarctica. Molenaar (2005) highlights that in
Southern Ocean is beyond any of the claimant legal terms this situation is in many ways similar
states’ jurisdiction. Included in this are the land to that of the law of the high seas, whose regime
and maritime zones beyond the coastal state relies on the freedom of the high seas and the
jurisdiction of Africa, Australia and South primacy of flag state jurisdiction. He believes that
America, and claims on the Antarctic continent. regulation of human activities in Antarctica and
This is in addition to the areas adjacent to its surrounding waters is weakened by the
unclaimed portions of the Antarctic continent. In absence of undisputed sovereignty over the
these areas the flag state of a cruise ship has Antarctic continent.
exclusive jurisdiction (Wright 2008). She also The issue at the core of all these authors’ con-
highlights that when a commercial cruise ship cerns is that of legal liability when there is an
navigates international waters, it must be regis- accident in Antarctica. The issue of liability in the
tered with a country and have that state confer Antarctic Treaty System has been debated for
nationality on the ship. While on the high seas, years and has not as yet been comprehensively
the flag state retains exclusive legislative and addressed, further highlighting the inability of
enforcement jurisdiction. the ATS to regulate these very serious issues and
The cruise industry tends to flag its ships with respond in a timely manner?
states allowing open registries, called ‘flags of
convenience’ (Wright 2008). These are usually 2.5.1.1 Industry Self-Regulation
flagged in developing third world countries. Industry self-regulation has played an important
Non-US flag registries dominate the cruise regis- role in the management of the Antarctic cruise
try, as US laws are considered to be some of the industry to date. Recognising the potential envi-
most restrictive and punitive in the world. This ronmental impacts that increasing rate of tourism
causes further concern as states that issue cruise could cause, seven private tour operators joined
ships with a ‘flag of convenience’ often have no together in 1991 to form the International
further interest in the activities of the operator(s) Association of Antarctica Tour Operators. There
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well bodies for the souls to grow in, and most of the time he sleeps in
the hospital. I think he likes me and I think he's glad because I want
to be a doctor, too, but mutti doesn't like me to be around because I
laugh or sing or make noise and that disturbs her unhappiness."
"Oh, Erna," Flip whispered again.
"I don't want to go home," Erna said. "I thought it was going to be so
wonderful to be with Jackie. Her mother tells wonderful stories and
she wrote me the most wonderful letter saying how much she would
love to have me for the holidays and she wrote my mother and the
Dragon saying she'd take good care of me and everything and we
were going to go to the theatre to see a play and to the opera, but
my mother wrote the Dragon and said I couldn't and the Dragon
called me to her living room after breakfast and told me. I don't want
to go home."
The night before Flip had heard Maggie Campbell talking to Solvei
Krogstad in the Common Room and almost crying because she was
going to have to stay at the school during the holidays, but Erna was
continuing, "If I could stay at school it wouldn't be so bad, it would be
all right. Lots of girls stay at school. Gloria's going to stay, and Sally,
because her parents have gone back to the United States, and lots
of them are going to stay. The Dragon takes a chalet at Gstaad for
the holidays and Sally stayed last year and said it was wonderful. I
love school. I just love it. I wish I could stay here always."
Flip sat quietly on her desk and let Erna talk. This miserable girl was
very unlike the brash gamin she was used to, and she ached with
sympathy. "I'm sorry, Erna, I'm awful sorry," she said softly.
Erna took a tight ball of a handkerchief out of her blazer pocket and
dabbed at her eyes. "Don't tell Jackie I almost cried."
"I won't."
"Sometimes I dream my mother is like Jackie's mother," Erna said,
"and comes in and looks at me after I'm in bed to see that I'm
covered, and comes in and kisses me in the morning to wake me up.
Was your mother like that, Flip?"
Flip nodded.
"It must have been awful when she died."
Flip nodded again.
"I don't think Gloria's mother loves her too much, but Glo doesn't
seem to care. Well, it must be almost time for Call Over. Come on.
We'd better go down and get in line. The holidays won't last too long
and then I can come back to school." Erna gave her desk lid a slam
and walked briskly to the door.
2
While she was brushing her teeth that night Flip thought more about
Erna. It somehow had never occurred to her that anyone could really
love the school. She herself was learning not to hate it, and was
beginning to have fun, and to lose some of the dreadful shyness that
had tormented her; but she hadn't even thought of really loving
school so that she would be miserable whenever she had to leave.
She felt a sense of warm companionship with Erna, now that each
had witnessed and tried to comfort the other's unhappiness.
When she got back to the room Erna was already in bed, rubbing
mentholatum on her chapped hands; Gloria was combing the snarls
out of her hair; and Jackie was wrapping a towel around her hot
water bottle.
"Hi, Pill," Jackie greeted her. "We've been wondering something."
Flip hardly noticed any more whether they called her 'Flip' or 'Pill.'
When Jackie said 'Pill' it sounded like an affectionate nick-name, not
a term of contempt, and only Esmée continued to use it in a
derogatory manner. "What have you been wondering?" she asked.
"Well, you've been seeing Percy every Sunday for a while now. Have
you learned anything about her private life?"
"Jackie has a crush on Percy, Jackie has a crush on Percy," Gloria
droned.
"If you want to call it that," Jackie said. "I admire her more than
anybody in the world except my mother and I'm not ashamed of it."
"Needn't get huffy, ducky." Gloria threw her comb down in disgust
and tried to get her snarls out with her fingers. "I must need a new
perm. My hair's just awful. It's the way Black and Midnight washes it
with that beastly old soap. I'm just as curious about Percy as you
are. Where do you suppose Mr. Percy is? Come on, Pill. You must
have found out something."
"I haven't," Flip said. "Not a thing. Nobody's ever said anything about
her husband." She thought of Denise, but said nothing.
"Couldn't you ask?" Gloria rubbed a camphor stick over her lips as
though it were lipstick.
"Good heavens, no!" Flip cried, aghast.
"Of course she couldn't ask," Jackie exclaimed. "What are you
thinking of, Glo?"
"Well, I'd ask if I wanted to know."
"Oh, yes you would!"
"Well, I would!"
"Well, maybe you would," Erna said, "but Flip wouldn't, and neither
would I."
This would have crushed Flip, but Gloria merely took her nail
scissors out of the manicure box her mother's Emile had sent her for
her birthday, and started to clip her toe nails.
"Sometimes when Percy thinks no one is looking at her she gets the
saddest look in her eyes." Jackie said, "It's as if she hurt deep
inside."
"Maybe her husband died on her wedding night and she's mourned
for him ever since," Erna suggested.
"Gee, I wish I could put nail polish on my toe nails," Gloria sighed,
"but Black and Midnight would spot it somehow ... maybe he was
killed in the war."
"Switzerland wasn't in the war, dopey," Erna said.
"Well, maybe he was French or something, dopey," Gloria retorted.
"Or maybe he ran away and left her."
"Hah," Jackie snorted. "I bet if anybody left anybody Percy would do
the leaving."
"Well, maybe he was an awful drunkard and she left him. I bet she's
divorced."
"She wears a wedding ring," Jackie said. "She wouldn't wear her
wedding ring if she were divorced."
"Well, maybe he has amnesia and he's just wandering about."
Jackie snorted again, then said, "I used to think that when she went
out every Sunday afternoon maybe he had T.B. or was insane or
something and in a sanitarium and she went to see him. But now we
know she just goes to see this Paul." The bell rang and Jackie
tucked her hot water bottle carefully under the covers and got in after
it.
Lying in bed after Miss Tulip had turned out the lights, and after she
had said her prayers, Flip, too, wondered about Madame Perceval.
Often she had noticed the sad look in her eyes and thought perhaps
it had something to do with Denise. And she was worried because
sometimes at night when she dreamed about her mother, her
mother's face would be interchangeable with Madame Perceval's.
But this night she fell asleep and dreamed that she was running to
meet her mother down a long path, and just as she got up to her, her
mother turned into Eunice Jackman, who was saying, "Really,
Philippa, you're too clumsy for words. Can't you get out of my way?"
3
Flip saw the dark man once again on the Sunday before the
holidays. She was at the gate-house and Paul had sent her out to
the kitchen to ask Thérèse for some bread and jam. When she
opened the kitchen door, there he was leaning against the sink and
drinking a cup of coffee. As Flip pushed open the door he put the
cup down quickly and slipped out.
"What do you want?" Thérèse asked crossly.
"Some bread and jam, please, Thérèse."
Thérèse gave her the bread and jam and when Flip got back to the
living room she asked Paul, "Who is that man?"
"What man?"
"I don't know. There was a man in the kitchen drinking coffee but he
went away when I came in."
"I'll go see," Paul said.
Flip waited, gnawing away on a chunk of bread and jam while Ariel
tried to scramble onto her lap and share it with her.
Paul returned, saying, "Thérèse says there wasn't anybody there."
"There was," Flip persisted. "I saw him."
Paul sat down on the floor and helped himself to bread and jam.
"Oh, well, he was probably one of Thérèse's boy friends. She's
always having her boy friends in and feeding them things and then
she pretends that they weren't there and she gave the food to Ariel.
Just think, Flip, next Sunday you won't have to go back to school.
You'll be living here."
Flip sighed, curled on the fur rug with Ariel licking her ear, and the
warmth from the fire flickering over her body. "That will be wonderful.
I can ski all day long and we can talk and talk and talk—" She had
almost forgotten her disappointment at not being with her father.
4
The last day before the holidays really was as much fun as Erna
and Jackie had told Flip it would be. The girls packed all morning
and even Miss Tulip turned a deaf ear when they ran shouting up
and down the corridor. Erna and Jackie chased Flip who crashed in
to Madame Perceval at the head of the stairs and apologised
abjectly, though her face was still flushed with pleasure and fun.
"Just a little more quietly, Flip," Madame Perceval said, but she
smiled with satisfaction as she sent Flip running back to the others.
After lunch they were all sent out for a walk. Signorina took the walk
and she didn't make them march in line but let them throw snowballs
and tumble about in the snow. And she, too, smiled as she watched
Flip catch up the snow in her scarlet mittens and hit Esmée Bodet
square in the face. Of course Esmée spoiled it by pretending there
was ice in the snow and trying to cry, but Signorina said briskly,
"Now, Esmée, don't put on. You know you aren't hurt in the least.
You just wish your aim were as good as Philippa's."
Esmée stuck out her lip and drew Gloria and Sally aside to read
them her latest epistle from André who was at school in Villeneuve.
After tea the term marks were read out in Assembly Hall. Flip was
third for her class with Solvei Krogstad first, and Maggie Campbell
second. Then there was a scramble to change for dinner and when
they got down to the dining room the huge fireplaces at either end
were blazing and there was a big lighted Christmas tree in one of the
bay windows. There was chicken for dinner, and all kinds of
unaccustomed delicacies, and the tables were lit by candle-light, and
Erna and Jackie called to Flip to come and sit with them so she
didn't have to stand miserably around looking for a vacant seat as
she used to do whenever there were unsupervised tables, and all
through the meal they sang Christmas carols of all languages. As
each group started a carol of its country, the others would try to join
in, sometimes just humming along with the tune, sometimes picking
up the words of the chorus. And the big room was full of warmth and
light and happiness and Flip wanted to push back her chair and go
about the room and hug everybody.
If it could just be like this always, she thought.
After dinner the faculty gave their annual play. They had written it
themselves and in it they were all inmates of an Old Ladies Home.
They had chosen girls from the different classes to be matrons and
maids. Liz Campbell, Maggie's sister and one of the older girls, was
the nurse, and convulsed them all by telling Fräulein Hauser she was
just pretending to have a sore throat to get out of her walk. Kaatje
van Leyden with a black wool wig and a uniform borrowed from Miss
Tulip was the matron and scolded Madame Perceval for not making
her bed properly and having untidy drawers. The girls took off the
teachers and the teachers took off the girls and the audience
screamed with laughter during an all too brief half hour.
Then, while the actors got out of costume there was a wild game of
musical chairs played by the entire school, from the youngest to the
oldest. Flip astonished herself and everybody else by being left by
the last chair with Gloria, who had got there by the simple method of
pushing everybody else out of the way; but finally Flip sat down in
triumph while Gloria sprawled, defeated, but grinning, on the floor.
Then the phonograph was turned off and Mlle. Desmoulins, the
music teacher, took her place at the piano. They sang more
Christmas carols and the school song, during which Martha Downs
and Kaatje van Leyden went about quietly turning out all the lights
until the room was lit only by the fire and the candles on either side
of the piano.
Mlle. Desmoulins started playing Auld Lang Syne and Gaudeamus
Igitur, and the girls all crossed their arms and joined hands, making
three big circles, one within the other, and sang in gentler voices
than they had used all evening. And it did not seem strange to Flip,
standing between Erna and Solvei, that tears were streaming down
Erna's cheeks and her mouth trembling so that she could scarcely
sing, nor that there was a quaver in Solvei's usually steady voice.
As they were getting ready for bed Erna turned to Flip and said with
serious eyes, though her voice was bantering, "Flip, do something
for me, will you?"
"Okay, what?"
"When you say your prayers tonight please pray that I won't have to
go home for the spring holidays. I know they won't let me stay with
Jackie but please pray that I can at least stay at school."
"Okay, Erna," Flip said. "If that's what you want I'll pray for it. But I'll
pray that the holidays won't be as bad as you think they will, too, if
you don't mind."
"It won't do any good," Erna said, "but go ahead and pray for it."
5
On the first day of the Christmas holidays Paul drove over with
Monsieur Laurens to get Flip. He would not come into the school but
waited outside, standing tall and straight beside the car, and as
ready to flee as a mountain chamois. Most of Flip's classmates were
standing with her in the Hall, surrounded by coats and parcels and
suitcases and when they heard Monsieur Laurens tell Flip that Paul
was outside they all made excuses to drift towards the window.
"What a dream boy," Flip heard Sally whisper to Esmée. "How did
Flip ever get to know someone like that?"
"He must be younger than he looks," Esmée whispered back, and
Flip repressed a grin.
Jackie and Erna came over to say good-bye to her. "Have wonderful
hols, Flip," Erna said, shaking hands with her.
And Jackie squeezed her arm and whispered, "See you next year,
Pill. Your Paul looks divine!"
Smiling and happy, Flip followed Monsieur Laurens to the car.
Paul took her up to her room in the gate house. It was a tiny
cupboard of a place across the hall from Paul's room, painted a soft
blue, with immaculate white curtains at the window. It was so small a
room that the four poster bed took up the entire space; there wasn't
even place for a bureau or a chair, and Flip was given a carved sea-
captain's chest in the hall in which to keep her things.
"And remember, don't close your door, Flip," Paul warned her. "The
room's so small I guess you wouldn't want to, anyhow, but the latch
is broken and you can't open the door from the inside."
"I'll remember," Flip promised.
As soon as Flip was unpacked she changed out of her uniform and
into her ski clothes. Madame Perceval, who had stayed at the school
until the majority of the girls were safely off on their various trains,
had arrived, and they spent the day skiing. They took a funicular up
the mountain and skied until dark, stopping at an inn for lunch. Then,
at Flip's favorite time of day when the sky was an intense green-blue
and the bare branches of the trees were a delicate filigree against it
and the first stars began to tremble above the mountain, they skied
back to the gate house.
"Are you having a good time, Flip?" Paul asked anxiously. "Is
everything all right?"
"It's wonderful!" Flip assured him. "I'm having a beautiful time."
After dinner she brought her sketch pad and pencil downstairs with
her and sat in front of the fire, idly sketching Paul and Monsieur
Laurens. Monsieur Laurens was easy, with his peaked eyebrows, his
long thin nose, and his pipe and his carpet slippers run down at the
heels; but she could not caricature Paul.
"Let me see," Paul said.
She showed him the pad. "I can't do you," she told him. "I can do
your father but I can't do you. I can't do Madame either. Why is it,
Madame, that I can't do you and Paul?"
Madame Perceval did not answer the question. Instead she said,
"Some day you must try a real portrait of Paul. I'll let you use my
oils."
"Oh, would you, Madame!" Flip cried. "I'd love to try. Paul would
make a wonderful portrait. Would you really sit for me, Paul?"
Paul grinned rather shyly. "If you'd like me to."
"Come on out in the kitchen," Madame said, "and we'll have a snack.
And then it's time for you two to be in bed, holidays or no holidays."
After Flip was in bed Paul crossed the hall and knocked on her open
door.
"Hello," Flip whispered.
"Are you sleepy, Flip?" Paul asked, "or shall we talk for a few
minutes?"
"Come and talk."
Paul had his eiderdown wrapped around him and he climbed up onto
the foot of the bed and sat at her feet.
"You look like an Indian chief," Flip said laughing.
Paul laughed, too, and then sighed, "I'm so glad you're here!"
"Me, too," Flip said.
She kneaded her feet against her hot water bottle and pulled her
blankets up under her chin and the moonlight came in the window
and the snowlight and the room seemed very bright and cold. She
burrowed into the pillows and Paul wrapped his eiderdown tightly
about him so that only his face and a lock of dark hair showed, and
they giggled with pleasure at being there together, warm and
comfortable and awake, with all the days and nights of the holidays
stretching out before them.
"I'm hungry again," Paul whispered.
"I am, too," Flip whispered back.
"Are you hungry enough to do anything about it?"
"No."
"Me either." Then, after a moment, Paul whispered, "Flip—"
"What?"
"You remember your mother, don't you?"
"Yes," Flip said. She had started to say 'of course' but stopped
herself because Paul didn't remember his mother.
"Tell me about your mother," Paul asked in a low voice.
"Well—" Flip paused. She still found it difficult to speak about her
mother because it seemed to make an ache in her chest and she
remembered how engulfing that ache had been when she got out of
the hospital and came home, her knee still in a cast. When she was
able to walk again she would go into her mother's closet and shut
the door and lean against her mother's clothes and hold them to her
and bury her face in them because they seemed to retain the lovely
fragrance she always associated with her mother. And one day she
went to the closet and all her mothers clothes were gone and the
closet was empty and her grandmother came in and said,
"What are you doing there, honey?"
And she asked, "Where are mother's clothes?"
And her grandmother said, "I put one or two things aside but most of
them I gave away. Come on, lamb, get on your things and we'll go
for a little walk in the park."
Paul reached out his hand and touched Flip's foot through the
covers. "Don't you want to talk about her? I think I'd like to talk about
my mother if I remembered her."
"Yes. I want to talk about her," Flip said. "I was just trying to think
what to tell you about her."
"What did she look like?"
"She was very beautiful. I don't mean beautiful like Eunice but really
beautiful. You know. From the inside as well as the outside. And she
was—well, I knew nothing could go wrong as long as she was there.
I mean no matter what happened as long as she was there it would
be all right. Once when we were spending the summer in Goshen
the nearest house to us burned down in the middle of the night and it
was terrible. But before any of the children had time to be frightened
or anything mother had them in our kitchen all in their nightclothes
and was feeding them cocoa and sandwiches and making them all
laugh and they stayed with us the rest of the summer while the
house was being rebuilt. I was only five then but I remember the way
they all stopped being frightened the night of the fire just because
mother was there and they knew she'd make everything all right.
And always every night she told me a story before I went to sleep.
And in the morning she'd come in to wake me and her hair would be
all around her like a cape. Father painted her and painted her. She
was about the only grown person he ever painted. He's never
painted Eunice. Only sketches. I'll show you a picture of her
tomorrow. Mother, I mean. And she used to laugh all the time and
everything was fun. Even the times I was sick and had to be in bed.
She made that fun, too. And I had a governess but when I remember
it seems to me mother was with me most of the time and we used to
go to plays together and to La Bohéme and Traviata at the opera."
Paul didn't say anything and Flip looked over in the moonlight and
there he was, sound asleep, his mouth a tiny bit open. She crawled
out from under the covers and shook him gently. "Paul. Paul. You'd
better wake up and go to bed."
He rolled over sleepily and slid off the bed and stood there swaying
for a moment as though he were still asleep. "Good night Flip. Thank
you," he said softly, and crossed the hall to his room.
Flip clambered back under the covers and put her head down and
hardly had time to draw the covers about her and rub her feet
against the slippery warmth of the hot water bottle before she, too,
was asleep.
6
A few days after the holidays began Flip and Paul were skiing
alone. Madame Perceval had gone to spend the day with some
friends in Ouchy, and Monsieur Laurens was deep in his book. Flip
and Paul, their skis over their shoulders, had climbed a good
distance up the mountain and were preparing to ski down when a
voice behind them called, "Paul."
They turned around and Flip saw the dark man with the too-brilliant
black eyes.
"Paul," he said again.
Paul stared at him blankly.
"Don't you know me?" he asked.
"No," Paul said.
"Alain, are you sure you don't know me?"
"What do you mean?" Paul said. "My name is Paul Laurens. What do
you mean?"
"Your name is Alain." The man took a step towards them and Paul
pushed Flip back a little. "Your name is Alain Berda. Are you sure
you don't know me?"
"Why should I know you?" Paul demanded.
"Because I am your father, Alain," the man said.
For a minute Flip thought Paul was going to fall. All the color drained
from his face and if he had not been holding on to Flip's arm he
could not have remained standing.
"No," he said. "No. You are not my father." And his voice came out
as hoarse and strange as Flip's had on the morning she woke up
with laryngitis.
"I know it's a surprise to you," the man said. "You are happy where
you are and you don't want to remember the past. But surely you
must remember your own father, Alain."
"You are not my father," Paul repeated firmly.
Now the man came a step closer and Flip felt as though she were
going to be sick from distaste and loathing of him. She put her arm
firmly about Paul. "If Paul says you aren't his father that's that. Good-
bye."
The man smiled, and when he smiled his face seemed even more
frightening than when he was serious. "Perhaps you're thinking that
I'm a shabby sort of person to be your father, Alain; but if I'm shabby
it's because of the months and years I've spent searching for you."
"How did you find me?" Paul asked, and his voice was faint.
"I heard that a child answering to my lost son's description might be
in a boarding school in Switzerland. You can imagine the months I've
spent searching all the Swiss schools. I have spent hours watching
the boys in the school up the mountain. I even looked at the girls'
school down the mountain, hoping perhaps to come across someone
who might have known you. That is when I first saw this young lady
here." He nodded at Flip.
"Why did you tell me you were going to tend the furnace?" Flip
asked.
"I couldn't very well tell you I was looking for a lost boy, could I? Then
I saw Paul, as he is now called, and I knew that my search had come
to an end. I've been watching you from a distance to make sure, but
now there's no doubt in my mind that you're my son Alain." He
opened his arms as though he expected Paul to run into them, but
Paul clutched Flip even tighter.
"You are not my father," he said again, and Flip could feel him
trembling all over. She herself was shaking and she felt very cold as
she stood there in the snow with her arms about Paul.
"Go away!" Paul cried. "You're playing a horrible trick on me."
"I don't want to hurry you, Alain," the man said. "I know this must be
a great shock to you. But remember that you have found not a
stranger but a father who will love and protect you. Why don't you
take me home to Monsieur Laurens and we'll talk it over with him?"
"No," Paul said. "You mustn't see my father."
"But why not, Alain?"
"My father is working. You mustn't disturb him."
"But about something so important, Alain?"
"No," Paul reiterated. "You mustn't see my father."
"Alain," the man said. "Suppose I could prove to you that I was your
father?"
"How could you prove it? You're not my father. Stop calling me
Alain."
"Alain," the man's voice was pleading. "Suppose I showed you a
picture I have of you and me when you were little?"
After a moment Paul said, "Let me see the picture."
"It's up the mountain in the chalet where I'm staying. Come with me
and I'll show it to you."
"No." Paul's voice was flat and colorless with shock and fear. "Bring
it to me."
"Very well," the man said. "I'll bring it to your house this evening."
"No." Paul said again. "No. You can't go there. I'll meet you
somewhere."
"Where?"
"Bring it to the chateau. Leave it there for me."
"I can't leave that picture lying around, Alain. It's all I've had of my
son for a long time. But I'll bring it to the chateau tonight after dinner,
at eight o'clock, and you can look at it and see if it helps you to
remember."
"Very well. I'll be there," Paul said.
The man moved towards him as though to kiss him, but as Paul
drew back in repulsion the man dropped his arms to his side and
stood there looking at him. "I suppose it is too much to ask that you
should know me all at once; but when we have lived together for a
little while I am sure things will be different."
"Bring me the picture," Paul cried in a choking voice.
"Very well, Alain," the man said. "I will leave you now but I will see
you at the chateau this evening." And he turned and started up the
mountain and in a moment disappeared in a clump of trees.
When he was out of sight Paul bent down and fastened on his skis.
His lips were pale and tightly closed and he did not say a word. Flip
put on her skis and silently followed him down the mountain.
When they got to the gate house Paul said, "Don't tell my father."
"What are you going to do, Paul?"
"I don't know. But I know I can't tell my father."
"Why not?"
Paul's voice shook. "He might believe him. If my father believed him
I'd have to go with him."
"You don't remember him? You don't remember him at all, Paul?"
Flip asked.
Paul shook his head.
"You don't think he is your father?" Flip asked.
Paul shook his head again and he was shivering.
"We'd better go in," Flip said. "You're cold."
Georges Laurens was shut up in his tiny study and Flip and Paul
crouched in front of the fire.
"Thank goodness Aunt Colette isn't here," Paul said. "She'd guess
something was the matter right away."
"I wish she were here!" Flip cried. "She'd know what to do."
But Paul shook his head again. "I know what I have to do."
"What, Paul?"
"I have to go to the chateau tonight and see that picture. Maybe that
will help me to remember."
"You don't look like him," Flip said. "You don't look like him at all."
"No." Paul picked up the poker and jabbed miserably at the logs.
"But you don't seem as if you looked at all like either your mother or
father, from their pictures."
"I don't," Flip said. "I look like my grandmother."
"Well, you see, then? It doesn't mean anything if I don't look like him.
But Flip, I'm sure if I saw my father I'd remember him. Don't you think
I would?"
"I don't know," Flip said. "It seems to me you would."
Paul knocked all the logs out of place with the poker and had to take
the tongs to put them back. "He's so hideous, Flip. Like a snake. Or
a rat. And Flip. If I were really his son and he'd spent all that time
looking for me, it would be because he loved me, wouldn't it? And I
didn't feel that he loved me at all. If only he'd had that picture with
him. If only I could get it without going to the chateau to meet him
tonight."
They sat looking into the fire. A log broke in half and fell, sending up
a shower of sparks, and suddenly Flip thought of something that
made a prickly feeling begin at the base of her spine and go all the
way up her back. At last she said, "I know how you can get the
picture without having to go to the chateau."
"How?" Paul asked eagerly.
"I'll go."
"Don't be a little idiot," Paul said. "As if I'd let you. Anyhow he
wouldn't give it to you."
"I could pretend I was you."
"I wouldn't let you."
"I could wear your ski clothes."
"They wouldn't fit you."
"They'd fit well enough," Flip said. "I'm not so much shorter than you.
And I could put my hair under your cap and in the dark he wouldn't
be able to tell the difference."
Paul put his head down on his knees. "I won't let you do that."
"If you go," Flip said, "I'm afraid he'll never let you come back. He
doesn't want me."
"Wouldn't you be afraid to go?"
"Yes," Flip admitted. "I would be. But I'd be more afraid to have you
go than I would be to go myself."
"No," Paul said firmly. "It's wonderful of you to think of it. But it is
impossible."
And Flip knew there was no use arguing with him.
Thérèse came in and stood arms akimbo in the doorway,
announcing, "lunch is on the table and it's good onion soup so come
and eat it while it's hot."
"I'm not hungry," Paul whispered.
"I'm not either," Flip whispered back. "But we've got to pretend we
are. Does Ariel like onion soup?"
"Ariel likes anything."
"Well, that's all right, then," Flip said.
7
A wind came up during the afternoon and by dinner time it was
howling about the gate house. Flip had thought up a scheme in
which in spite of Paul's opposition, she would be the one to make the
trip to the chateau. But it was so daring, so dangerous, that
whenever she thought of it she began to shiver. Her shivers started
somewhere deep inside of her, the way she thought a tidal wave
must start deep inside of the ocean, and then it seemed to break
over her like a wave. Gloria said that when you shivered like that
when you weren't cold it meant that somebody was walking over the
place your grave was going to be.
They sat by the fire, Flip and Paul, huddled there all afternoon,
scarcely saying a word, listening to the wind rise. Fortunately
Georges Laurens was absorbed in his work and their silence did not
penetrate his concentration any more than their conversation would
have.
"If he'd just leave the picture for me," Paul said.
"He won't. He'll be there. He wants to make sure he gets you." Flip
hugged Ariel for comfort.
After dinner they went upstairs and sat on Paul's bed.
"I'll go in five minutes," Paul said, staring unhappily down at the floor.
"Paul—" Flip started.
"What?"
"I want to give you something to take with you for good luck."
"I need good luck," Paul said.
"Well, in the old days a knight always carried the handkerchief of his
lady. Would you like to carry my handkerchief?"
"Yes," Paul said.
"It's under my pillow. But it's a clean one."
"I'll get it and then I'll go." Paul got up and crossed the hall to Flip's
room. She followed close at his heels and stood in the doorway, and
when he had reached the head of the big bed and was feeling under
her pillow for the handkerchief she slammed the door on him, the
door that did not open from the inside.
"Flip! What are you doing!" Paul cried. "Open the door!"
"No," Flip called softly through the door. "I'm going to put on your ski
clothes and go to the chateau." And she rushed into Paul's room and
pulled on his brown ski trousers and red sweater, and pulled his
striped stocking cap over her hair.
"Let me out! Flip, you devil! Let me out!" Paul cried, pounding
against the door.
Flip took a hasty look at herself in the mirror as she pulled on Paul's
mittens.—I'll be all right in the dark, she told herself. And "Good-bye,
Paul," she called through the door to him. "I'll be back with the
picture as fast as I possibly can."
Ignoring his frantic shouts she hurried down the stairs. She was
afraid that Georges Laurens would hear the commotion and come to
investigate, but as she tiptoed past his study, she saw that he was
deep in concentration, and Paul's cries were falling on deaf ears.
Madame Perceval had taken Ariel with her so she need not be afraid
that the bulldog would arouse Monsieur Laurens or even Thérèse.
She let herself out of the house.
It was one of the coldest evenings of the winter and the wind slapped
at her face like a cruel hand. Clouds were scudding across the moon
and their shadows on the snow seemed alive and Flip kept jumping
with fear as the shadows moved and made her think they belonged
to some animate creature.
"He is not Paul's father, he is not Paul's father, please God make him
not be Paul's father," she kept saying under her breath.
The chateau loomed up, a gaunt ruin. A night bird flew out of one of
the windows with a cry that sent Flip's heart into her mouth, and
various shutters and loose boards were banging in the vicious wind.
She stood still on the snow for a long time before she dared to go on.
Then she almost ran, jumping sidewise like a startled pony to avoid
the shadows that moved so strangely across the white ground.
Although she was expecting it, when she heard a whispered "Alain"
her tense body jerked and she stopped stock still.
"Alain," the voice came again, and the man moved out from the
shadows.
"Here I am," Flip whispered.
"It's cold," he said. "Are you warmly dressed?"
"Yes. Where is the picture?" She kept on whispering because that
way the man was not as apt to realize that it was a girl's voice.
"Come with me and I'll give it to you."
"I want to see it now," Flip whispered.
"You couldn't see it in this light. It's up in my chalet just up the
mountain. It's warm there and I'll have some nice hot soup for you."
"I've finished dinner," Flip whispered, "and I don't want to go to your
chalet. I just want to see the picture."
"You still don't remember that I'm your father?" the man asked, and
he stepped forward and took her wrist in his hand.
"No!" Flip cried, trying to pull away. "No! You promised I could see
the picture! Let me go!"
"And so you shall see the picture, Alain, if you will come with me."
From one of the turrets of the chateau an owl cried, making them
both jump, but the man did not loose his hold on her wrist. He took
the bony fingers of his other hand and held her chin and turned her
face up to the moonlight and said, "You mustn't be afraid of me,
Alain, my boy," and then he shouted, "What kind of a trick is this?
You're the girl!"
Before he knew what she was doing Flip had squirmed out of his
grasp and was pelting across the snow, but he was after her and
caught her with furious fingers. Flip screamed and fought, biting and
clawing like a little wild beast, and the night was full of her screams
and the man's snarls and the banging of boards and shutters and the
cries of disturbed birds. Neither of them saw when a shutter was

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Adventure Tourism: Environmental

Impacts and Management 1st ed. 2020

ISBN 978-3-030-18622-7 ISBN 978-3-030-18623-4 (eBook)

Cover illustration: David Merron Photography/gettyimages

1 What Is Adventure Tourism?���������������������������������������������������������� 1

2.6.3 Effects on Seal Populations������������������������������������������ 31

3.3.8 Effects of Seal-Watching on Seal Behaviour in

6.5.4 Impacts of Recreation on Harp Seals

7.6 Recreational Whale-Watching and Its Potential Impacts���������� 207

8.6.3 Waste Issues������������������������������������������������������������������ 260

9.2.3 Ecuador ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 302

10.3.4 Jinja, Uganda������������������������������������������������������������ 338

11.3.1.10 Abseil in the Blue Mountains,

11.5.3 Managing Whale and Dolphin Watching������������������ 396

13.4 Case Studies on Impact of Climate Change on Adventure

Fig. 2.1 Antarctica���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 12

Fig. 3.13B Dettifoss, the largest waterfall in Europe, located in

Fig. 8.5 Tilicho lake, Annapurna region, Nepal������������������������������ 252

Fig. 9.10A The number of tourists visiting Aconcagua region during

Fig. 11.12B Swimmers enter the water with snorkels to ‘swim

Fig. 13.2 Global temperature anomaly based on the instrumental

Table 1.1 Types of activity and categorisation as hard or soft adventure������ 4

Table 8.5 Annual Trekking and Mountaineering Numbers for Nepal

at least two of the following three elements:

© The Author(s) 2020 1

Tourism accounts for 30% of all services and one

not necessarily environmentally sustainable or conservation and community development in the

one-page discussion of the environmental management (Ecotourism series) (Vol. 1, 213pp).

represented prohibitive conditions and major

© The Author(s) 2020 11

2.2 Definition of Antarctic

Fig. 2.4 (continued)

Вам также может понравиться

1 What Is Adventure Tourism?�� 1

2.6.3 Effects on Seal Populations�� 31

3.3.8 Effects of Seal-Watching on Seal Behaviour in

6.5.4 Impacts of Recreation on Harp Seals

7.6 Recreational Whale-Watching and Its Potential Impacts�� 207

8.6.3 Waste Issues�� 260

9.2.3 Ecuador �� 302

10.3.4 Jinja, Uganda�� 338

11.3.1.10 Abseil in the Blue Mountains,

11.5.3 Managing Whale and Dolphin Watching�� 396

13.4 Case Studies on Impact of Climate Change on Adventure

Fig. 2.1 Antarctica�� 12

Fig. 8.5 Tilicho lake, Annapurna region, Nepal�� 252

Table 1.1 Types of activity and categorisation as hard or soft adventure�� 4

2.2 Definition of Antarctic