Что такое математика

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?
( )

. .
, 2000
51(07)
93
22.1
What is
Mathematics?
AN ELEMENTARY APPROACH TO
IDEAS AND METHODS
by
RICHARD COURANT
and
HERBERT ROBBINS
Oxford University Press
93
London New York Toronto
. , .
? 3-e ., . . .: ,
2001. 568 .
ISBN 5900916456
. , ,
.
,
. .
, , , .
22.1
ISBN 5900916456
c , 2001

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I.
4
8
10
13
14
19
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . 2.
(). 3.
.
2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . 2. . 3. . 4. n . *5. . *6. .
7. .
I.
19
20
28
39
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . 2. . . , . .
. . . .
.
2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . 2. . 3. .
3. . . . . . . . . . . .
4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . 2. .
3. f(n). . 4. . .
II.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . 2. . . 3. .
2. . , . . .
39
40
51
59
61
71
71
71
77
3.
4.
5.
6.
1. . 2. : .
3. . . 4. . 5.

. *6. .
.
. . . . . . . . .
1. . 2. .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . 2. . 3. . 4. . 5. . 6. .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . 2. . 3.
. *4. .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . **2.
.
92
98
111
123
II.
128
1. . 2. . 3. .
III. .
137
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
137
1.
140
1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
140
1. . 2. . 3. .
2. , , . . . . . . . .
147
1. . 2. , .
3. . . . . . . . . . . .
155
1. . 2. .
3. . 4. . 5.
.
2.
161
4. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
161
1. . 2. . 3. . 4.
.
5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
167
*1. , .
2. . 3. .
. . *4. . .
6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . . 2.
. 3. .
IV. . .
1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. .
. 2. .
2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . 2. .
3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . 2.
.
4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . 2. . 3. .
5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . 2.
. 3. . 4. .
5. .
6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . *2. . .
7. . . . . . . . . .
8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. .
2. . 3.
. 4. .
5. .
9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . 2. . 3. . 4. . 5. , , .
179
185
185
188
192
200
206
211
217
218
234
.
247
1. . 2. . *3. ,
, .
V.
255
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . 2. .
3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . 2.
. *3. . 4. . 5. .
4. . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . *2. .
3. .
255
256
261
264
276
.
284
*1. . 2. . *3. .
VI.
293
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
293
1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
294
1. . 2. . 3.
. . 4. . 5. . *6. . *7.
.
2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
311
1. an . 2. . 3. e. 4. p. *5. .
3. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
324
1. . . 2.
sin x
. 3.
. 4. x .
x
4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
332
5. . . . . . . . . .
334
1. . *2. .
3. . *4. . .
6. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
339
1. . *2. .
VI.
344
1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
344
1. . 2. q n . 3. n p. 4.
. *5. .
2. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
350
VII.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . . . . . . . . . . . .
351
351
352
1. . 2. . .
3. . 4. .
. *5. .
2. , . .
1. . 2. .
3. . . . . . .
1. . 2. . . 3. . 4. .
4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. , . 2. . 3. . 4. , . *5. ,
.
5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . 2. . 3. . 4. .
5. : .
6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . 2. n .
3. .
7. . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . 2. . 3.
. 4. ,
.
8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
* 9. .
. . . . .
10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . 2. . . 3. ,
. 4. . .
11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . 2. . 3. ,
. 4.
.
VIII.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . 2. . 3. . . 4. .
xr . 5. -
360
363
369
376
382
388
395
398
401
407
421
421
422
.
2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . 2. . 3. . 4. . *5. . 6. .
. 7. . 8. .
3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. . . . . . . . . . . .
5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . 2. .
xr , cos x, sin x. arctg x. 3.
p.
6. () . . . .
1. . e. 2. () . 3. ex , ax , xs . 4. e
ex ln x . 5. . .
7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . 2. . . . . 3. . . 4. .
VIII.
438
450
457
460
467
478
487
1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . 2. . 3. . . .
2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. x. 2.
ln(n!).
3. . . . . . . . . . .
1. . 2. cos x + i sin x =
eix . 3. -. ,
sin x .
*4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
487
494
497
507
. . 511
. . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .

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511
513
519
519
521
524
524
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527
528
1.
534
2. ?
537
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
544
550

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1+2=2+1
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:
1) a + b = b + a,
2) ab = ba,
3) a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c,
4) a(bc) = (ab)c,
5) a(b + c) = ab + bc.
() ,
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27
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28
. I
. 4.
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c = b a,
.
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, d, a:
(a + d) d = a.
, b a
b > a. b a
b < a (. 73 .). b > a (b a)
a 6 b (a b, a b),
, , a > b. ,
2 > 2, 3 > 2.

, . , ; 0. ,
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a + 0 = a,
a 0 = 0.
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aa=0
a. .
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2. (). (, 5, V . .),
29
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0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , 9. , , , ,
300 + 70 + 2 = 3 102 + 7 10 + 2
372.
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a, b, c, d
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7 3 10
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a () a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . ,
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, , 10 103
104 , , 10n ,
30
. I
n . z
z = an 10n + an1 10n1 + . . . + a1 10 + a0
(1)

an an1 an2 . . . a1 a0 .
, ,
a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . , an z
10.
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(2)
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, 214,
109 = 2 72 + 1 7 + 4.

10 B:
B, z;
B. ,
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4 15 7
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31
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32
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1
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1
2
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6
10
2 3 4
3 4 5
4 5 6
5 6 10
6 10 11
10 11 12
11 12 13
5
6
10
11
12
13
14
6
10
11
12
13
14
15
1
2
3
4
5
6
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
2 4 6 11 13
3 6 12 15 21
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5 13 21 26 34
6 15 24 33 42
6
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15
24
33
42
51
265 24, . (
, 145 18.)
5 4, , , 26.
265
24
+ 1456
563
10416
6 , . , , 4 6 = 33 33 + 2 = 35.
33
5 ,
. 1456 5630 6 + 0 = 6, 5 + 3 = 11. 1 1
, 1 + 6 + 4 = 14. : 265 24 = 10416.
. 10 416 , 7 : 72 = 49, 73 = 343, 74 = 2401. , 10416 = 2401 + 4 49 + 7 + 6,
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10 416, , 2610,
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2)
7, 11, 12.
3) 11111 21212 ?
4)
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1 001 111.
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(1941 .; ,
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(
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34
. I
1 + 1 = 10, :
111
101
+ 111
111
100011 = 25 + 2 + 1,
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(16461716),
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a = 2, 3, 4, 5, . . . , 15?
a,
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13. a = 20
20 400; 22. a = 100 101
.)
2. .

1. .
1, 2, 3, 4, . . . : ,
n,
n + 1. , , .

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35
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n,
10, 100, 1000 n.
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, ,
180 1. ,
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180 + 180 = 180 2.
(n = 3),
.
180 2, 180 1,
180 3.
,
.
n = 4, n = 5, . . ,
36
. I
,
A n.
A0 . n = 1 , ,
, 2 . .
,
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22 . .
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,
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r, ) , A1 . , , A .
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An . ,
37
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() r + 1 ,
1,
n.

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2. . n,
n(n + 1)
.
1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + n n
2
,
n
An :
n(n + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n =
.
(1)
2
) r ,
Ar , . . ,
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + r =
r(r + 1)
,
2
, r + 1, :
1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + r + (r + 1) =
r(r + 1)
+ (r + 1) =
2
r(r + 1) + 2(r + 1)
(r + 1)(r + 2)
=
=
,
2
2
Ar+1 .
12
) A1 , , , 1 =
. ,
2
An
n, .
.
1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + n :
Sn = 1 + 2 + . . . + (n 1) + n
Sn = n + (n 1) + . . . + 2 + 1.
, , , ,
n + 1, n,
38
. I
,
2Sn = n(n + 1),
2.
(1) (n + 1)
:
Pn = a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + . . . + (a + nd) =
(n + 1)(2a + nd)
.
2
(2)
,
Pn = (n + 1)a + (1 + 2 + . . . + n)d = (n + 1)a +
=
n(n + 1)d
=
2
2(n + 1)a + n(n + 1)d

(n + 1)(2a + nd)
=
.
2
2
, a = 0, d = 1,
(1).
3. . ( ).
, , n,
Gn = a + aq + aq 2 + . . . + aq n = a
1 q n+1
.
1q
(3)
( , q 6= 1: (3) .)
, , n = 1,

G1 = a + aq =
a(1 q 2 )
a(1 + q)(1 q)
=
= a(1 + q).
1q
1q
,
Gr = a + aq + . . . + aq r = a
1 q r+1
,
1q
, , :
Gr+1 = (a + aq + . . . + aq r ) + aq r+1 = Gr + aq r+1 =
(1 q r+1 ) + q r+1 (1 q)
1 q r+1
+ aq r+1 = a
=
1q
1q
1 q r+1 + q r+1 q r+2
1 q r+2
=a
=a
.
1q
1q
=a
(3) n = r + 1.
.
.
Gn = a + aq + . . . + aq n .
q,
qGn = aq + aq 2 + . . . + aq n+1 .
39
,
Gn qGn = a aq n+1 ,
(1 q)Gn = a(1 q n+1 ),
Gn = a
1 q n+1
.
1q
4. n . n
. ( n),
12 + 22 + 32 + . . . + n2 =
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
,
6
(4)
,

n. , . , An ,
(4), n = r,

r(r + 1)(2r + 1)
12 + 22 + 32 + . . . + r2 =
,
6
, (r + 1) ,
r(r + 1)(2r + 1)
+ (r + 1)2 =
6
r(r + 1)(2r + 1) + 6(r + 1)2
(r + 1)[r(2r + 1) + 6(r + 1)]
=
=
=
6
6
2
(r + 1)(r + 2)(2r + 3)
(r + 1)(2r + 7r + 6)
=
=
,
6
6
12 + 22 + . . . + r2 + (r + 1)2 =
Ar+1 , (4) r + 1 n. , , A1 ,

12 =
1(1 + 1)(2 + 1)
,
6
. , (4) n.

, 1k + 2k + 3k + . . . + nk ,
k .

13 + 23 + 33 + . . . + n3 =
n(n + 1)
2
(5)
40
. I
, , , (5) , , :
, n

n(n + 1)
2
n(n + 1)
3
, - , ,
2
19n2 41n + 24
, . . ! ,
3
-
,
,
. ,
(5), ,
; , ,
. ,
,
.
, .
*5. .
(1 + p)n > 1 + np,
(6)
p, p > 1,
n. ( , ,
p , 1.
, , p.)
.
) , (1 + p)r > 1 + rp, , 1 + p, :
(1 + p)r+1 > 1 + rp + p + rp2 .
rp2 ,
; ,
(1 + p)r+1 > 1 + (r + 1)p.
, (6)
n = r + 1.
) , (1 + p)1 > 1 + p. , .
, p > 1, . p < 1, 1 + p , ) ,

41
. (, 3 > 2 1, 3 > 2, .)
*6. . n- (a + b)n . ,
n = 1
(a + b)1 = a + b,
n = 2
(a + b)2 = (a + b)(a + b) =
= a(a + b) + b(a + b) = a2 + 2ab + b2 ,
n = 3 (a + b)3 = (a + b)(a + b)2 =

= a(a2 + 2ab + b2 ) + b(a2 + 2ab + b2 ) = a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3 ,
. ? (a + b)2 . (a + b)2 =
= (a + b)(a + b), (a + b)2 , a + b a, b , . (a + b)3 =
= (a + b)(a + b)2 . (a + b)4 , (a + b)5
. (a + b)n ,
(a + b)n1 a, b, ,
. :
a+b =
(a + b)2 =
a2
(a + b)3 =
a3
(a + b)4 =
a4
2ab
b2
+ 3a2 b + 3ab2 +
b3
+ 4a3 b + 6a2 b2 + 4ab2 +
b4 ,
(a + b)n . , 1, 1 a + b
, ,
( ).
.
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
4
5
6
1
2
6
10
15
1
3
1
4
10
20
1
5
15
1
6
1
1
7
21
35
35
21
7
1
..................................
42
. I
(a + b)n a
b n- .
, ,
(a + b)7 = a7 + 7a6 b + 21a5 b2 + 35a4 b3 + 35a3 b4 + 21a2 b5 + 7ab6 + b7 .
, (), , n- , :
n
C0n = 1, C1n , C2n , C3n , . . . , Cn1
, Cnn = 1.
(a + b)n
n
(a + b)n = an + C1n an1 b + C2n an2 b2 + . . . + Cn1
abn1 + bn .
(7)
, ,

n1
Cin = Ci1
+ Cin1 .
(8)
, , ( C01 = C11 = 1)

Cin =
n(n 1)(n 2) . . . (n i + 1)
n!
=
.
1 2 3 ... i
i! (n i)!
(9)
( n n! (
n-) n :
n! = 1 2 4 . . . n. 0! = 1,
(9) i, 0 n.)

(. . 500).
.
:
1
1
1
n
+
+ ... +
=
.
12
23
n(n + 1)
n+1
2
1
3
n
n+2
+ 2 + 3 + ... + n = 2 n .
2)
2
2
2
2
2
n
n+1
3) 1 + 2q + 3q 2 + . . . + nq n1 = 1 (n + 1)q + nq
.
2
(1 q)
n+1
2
4) (1 + q)(1 + q 2 )(1 + q 4 ) . . . (1 + q 2n ) = 1 q
.
1q
1)
:
1
1
1
+
+ ... +
.
1 + x2
(1 + x2 )2
(1 + x2 )n
2
n
x
x
x
6) 1 +
+
+ ... +
.
1 + x2
(1 + x2 )2
(1 + x2 )n
5)
7)
x2 y 2
+
x2 + y 2
x2 y 2
x2 + y 2
2
+ ... +
x2 y 2
x2 + y 2
n
43
(4) (5), :
8)
12 + 32 + . . . + (2n + 1)2 =
(n + 1)(2n + 1)(2n + 3)
.
3
9)
13 + 33 + . . . + (2n + 1)3 = (n + 1)2 (2n2 + 4n + 1).

10) .
7. .
: As ,
As+1 , As+2 , . . . , s ,
) r > s Ar+1 Ar ,
) , As ,
As , As+1 , As+2 , . . . . , An
n > s. ,
,
, 1, 2, 3, . . .
s, s + 1, s + 2, s + 3, . . .
, (6) . 34, . :
p 6= 0 > 1 n > 2,
(1 + p)n > 1 + np.

(10)
.
, , C
. C
, , , 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, , , 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, . . .
, ; ,
, n,
n > n.
, .
C
, n, 1, 2, 3, . . . , n,
C, .
, , ,
, , ; ,
1 1 1
1, , , , . . . 2 3 4
.
, . ,
44
. I
A1 , A2 , A3 , . . . ,
) r Ar+1 Ar ,
) , A1 .
, , A
, . ,
A , n,
An , .
p,
) 1. Ap
, Ap1 . ).
,
,
.
( )
,
.
, , , , .
,
,
. ,
,
(. . 49).
, ,
,
. , ;
, ,
, -
.
, , ) ) .
. . ,
; , 5 = 10.
. a b
, max(a, b) a b, ,
: a b; a = b, max(a, b) = a = b. , max(3,
5) = max(5, 3) = 5, max(4, 4) = 4. , An
: a b
, max(a, b) = n, a = b.
) , Ar . a b -
. I
45
, max(a, b) = r + 1.
a = a 1,
b = b 1;
max(a, b) = r. a = b, Ar . ,
a = b; , Ar+1 .
) A1 , , , max(a, b) = 1, a b ( )
1.
, An n.
a b ;
max(a, b) = r. , An n; ,
, Ar . , a = b.
, , - , . ( 300 .
),
, ( ),
-, ,

.
( 275 . ), ,
. (16011665), ,
,
, - .
(17071783),
,
. ,
: , , .
(17771855), ,
,
: , .
46
. I
1.
1. . , , ,
, 5 32, ,
- ;
2, 4, 6, 8, . . . ,
, 3,
3, 6, 9, 12, . . . ,

1, 4, 9, 16, . . .
.

. : 10 = 2 5, 111 = 3 37, 144 = 3 3 2 2 2 2, . . ,
, . , p, ,
, . ( a
, , b b,
c, b = ac.) 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, ,
, , 12 , 12 = 3 4.
,
: ,
, ; , , 360 = 3 120 = 3 30 4 = 3 3 10 2 2 = 3 3 5 2 2 2 = 23 32 5.
, 0 1 , .
,
, ,
, . : .
. ( , ).
, . ,
, , ,
, ; ,
, , n.
47
, p1 ,
p2 , . . . , pn .
p1 , p2 , . . . , pn .
, , A,
p1 , p2 , . . . , pn ,
. :
A = p1 p2 . . . pn + 1.
, ,
. A ,
p, . p1 ,
p2 . . A 1, , A
p. ,
, , , , , ,
, .
, .
,
, ,
. , ,
, p1 = 2, n p1 ,
p2 , . . . , pn ; , , p1 p2 . . . pn + 1 ,
, , .
(
),
pn+1 ; , , , ,
.
. , p1 = 2, p2 = 3; .
-
, , ,
. ,
,
N : N , , .
, .
; , ,
, . -
48
. I
, , ()
. . 61. , , ,
.
. ,
,
,
. , ,
, ; ,
.
* ,
, , (. . 37),
m = p1 p2 . . . p r = q 1 q 2 . . . q s ,
(1)
p q . , ,
, ,
p 1 6 p 2 6 . . . 6 pr ,
q1 6 q2 6 . . . 6 qs .
, p1 q1 : , (1)
, , , m,
, m ,
. , : p1 < q1 ,
q1 < p1 . p1 < q1 . ( q1 < p1 , p q.)

m0 = m (p1 q2 q3 . . . qs ).
(2)
m , (1),
m0 :
m0 = (p1 p2 . . . pr ) (p1 q2 q3 . . . qs ) = p1 (p2 . . . pr q2 q3 . . . qs ),
m0 = (q1 q2 . . . qs ) (p1 q2 q3 . . . qs ) = (q1 p1 )q2 q3 . . . qs .
(3)
(4)
(4) , m0 , p1 < q1 ;
(2) , , m0 m.
, m0
( ). (3) , p1 m0 ; , (4)
, p1 q1 p1 ,
49
q2 q3 . . . qs . ( m0 ; . .)
, q p1 . p1
q1 p1 , . . q1 p1 p1 .
, h,
q1 p1 = p1 h,
q1 = p1 (h + 1).
, q1 p1 , , , ,
, , q1 . , , ,
.
. p
ab,
a, b. , p
a, b, ,
a b, ab, p. ,
, p ab,
, t,
ab = pt.
, p t,
ab,
p. , ,
ab , .
. , 2652 13 2652 =
= 6 442, , 442 13.
, 240 6 240 = 15 16, 15, 16
6. ,
, p , .
. a, a
a = pa11 pa22 . . . parr ,
p , . a
b = pb11 pb22 . . . prbr ,
b ,
0 6 b1 6 a 1 ,
0 6 b2 6 a 2 ,
...,
0 6 br 6 ar .
. ,
a ( 1 a)
(a1 + 1)(a2 + 1) . . . (ar + 1).
50
, ,
. I
144 = 24 32
5 3 . : 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 9, 18, 36, 72, 144.
2. .
, - N , . 2 N ,
, 2 (
2), , 3 ( 3), . .,
. ,
,
2 N . -
,
10 000 000.
, .
, ,
. .
. ,
, , ,
.
( ),

n
F (n) = 22 + 1
. , n = 1, 2, 3, 4
F (1) = 22 + 1 = 5,
2
F (2) = 22 + 1 = 24 + 1 = 17,
3
F (3) = 22 + 1 = 28 + 1 = 257,
4
F (4) = 22 + 1 = 216 + 1 = 65 537

. 1732 . 5
22 + 1 = 641 6 700 417; , F (5) .
, ,
,
- .
,
51
, :
f (n) = n2 n + 41.
n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , 40 f (n) ; n = 41
:
f (41) = 412 .
n2 79n + 1601
n = 79 ; n = 80
.
, ,
, . ,
.
.
, n = 1, 2, 3, 4, . . .
, , , , , 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, . . .
3, 7, 11, 15, 19, . . . , , , a, a + d, a + 2d, . . . , a + nd, . . . ( a d
), . ,
,
1, 2, 3, . . .
, .
(18051859), ,
.
; ,
, ,

.
, : , , 4n + 3 6n + 5.
. , , 2, ( 2)
52
. I
, , 4n + 1 4n + 3 ( n). ,
4n + 1 ,

(4a + 1)(4b + 1) = 16ab + 4a + 4b + 1 = 4(4ab + a + b) + 1.
,
4n + 3; p1 , p2 , . . . , pn
N = 4(p1 p2 . . . pn ) 1 = 4(p1 . . . pn 1) + 3.
: N , , , ,
p1 , p2 , . . . , pn , N 1.
, , N ,
4n + 1, N , ,
4n + 1 . ,
, N , 4n + 3, ,
p N , p
4n + 3 .
, , 4n + 3, , ,
.
. 6n +
5.
.
, ,
,
, ,
n ,
.
n An
1, 2, 3, . . . , n.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 . . .
, ,
An :
A1 = 0, A2 = 1, A3 = A4 = 2, A5 = A6 = 3,
A7 = A8 = A9 = A10 = 4, A11 = A12 = 5,
A13 = A14 = A15 = A16 = 6, A17 = A18 = 7, A19 = 8 . .
53
- n,
n = 10, 102 , 103 , 104 , . . . ;
An
A10 , A102 , A103 , A104 , . . .
( ). , , , , An
. n A
n ;
n
n
n
n:
n
An
n
103
106
109
0,168
0,078498
0,050847478
, ,
, , 109
, : 109 , A109 .

. ,
,
A
n n
n. , , , .
,
, y
, n. xy

, x y
x
. 5.
54
. I
. x y ,
xy =
1. ln n
(. 5) ,
x = 1 x = n. (
VIII.) ,
, ,
1
An
n
, -,
ln n
n. , 1
A
, n = 1000, 1 000 000,
n :
n ln n
1 000 000 000 :
n
An
n
1
ln n
103
106
109
....
0,168
0,078498
0,050847478
............
An
1
:
n ln n
0,145
1,159
0,072382
1,084
0,048254942
1,053
............ .........
,
A
, n -
n
1
. :
ln n
n,
, ,
10, 102 , 103 , 104 , . . .
( ),
An
1
:
,
n ln n
n,
1, ,
, , n.
1
A
1
A
, n :
: n
n
ln n
n
ln n
n 1.
(=), , An
n
,
.
ln n
55
, ,
, ,
.

, .
,
, . ,
, (1896)
- (1896) . . .

(18261866) ,
. ,
.
,
.
. 507 .
.
( )
, ,
, .
.
(16901764)
: ,
, 1742 .
, (
2, ) . , 4 = 2 + 2, 6 = 3 + 3, 8 = 5 + 3, 10 = 5 + 5, 12 = 5 + 7, 14 = 7 + 7,
16 = 13 + 3, 18 = 11 + 7, 20 = 13 + 7, . . . , 48 = 29 + 19, . . . , 100 = 97 + 3
. .
, , , ,
, , . ; .
56
. I
, ,
. ,
,
. ,
.

. .
, , 1931 .

(19051938), ,
800 000 .

(
), .
, .
, , ,
800 000 4. .

, 800 000 4.

; ,
N , n > N
.
N ; , . ,
: ,
, (
) , .
,
(.
. 40)1 .
1
. . (1937) N , n > N
:
n = p1 + p2 + p3 ,
()
, , n >
N + 2 .
()
. , ()
57
, , , . , p p + 2.
3 5, 11 13, 29 31 . .
, .
2.
1. . , d, , , , .
, , , , 5. :
0=05+0
1=05+1
2=05+2
3=05+3
4=05+4
5=15+0
6=15+1
7=15+2
8=15+3
9=15+4
10 = 2 5 + 0
11 = 2 5 + 1
12 = 2 5 + 2
. .
1 = 1 5 + 4
2 = 1 5 + 3
3 = 1 5 + 2
4 = 1 5 + 1
5 = 1 5 + 0
6 = 2 5 + 4
. .
, 5
0, 1, 2, 3, 4. , a b 5,
5 . ,
2, 7, 12, 17, 22, . . . , 3, 8, 13, 18, . . . 5,
5 2. , ,
a b d ( d ),
d ; ,
n (,
n
(. . 2).

n > 3, ,
-, .
1939 . . . e41,96
, , () n > C = ee
;
17
1956 . C = ee . ,
C () n, 6 < n < C, n > 6
. . . . .
58
. I
), a b = nd. , 27 15 4,
27 = 6 4 + 3, 15 = 3 4 + 3.
a
b d, : a b (mod d). [ a
b d, a 6 b (mod d).] ,
, mod d .
. , 12;
100 000 ( ).

, ,
:
1) a b d.
2) a = b + nd, n .
3) a b d.
,
. :
1) a = a.
2) a = b, b = a.
3) a = b b = c, a = c.
, a = a0 b = b0 ,
4) a + b = a0 + b0 .
5) a b = a0 b0 .
6) ab = a0 b0 .
, a = b a b (mod d). :
10 ) a a (mod d).
20 ) a b (mod d), b a (mod d).
30 ) a b (mod d) b c (mod d), a c (mod d).
(! .)
, a a0 (mod d) b b0 (mod d),
40 ) a + b a0 + b0 (mod d).
50 ) a b a0 b0 (mod d).
60 ) ab a0 b0 (mod d).
, , . ,
a = a0 + rd,
b = b0 + sd
59
a + b = a0 + b0 + (r + s)d,
a b = a0 b0 + (r s)d,
ab = a0 b0 + (a0 s + b0 r + rsd)d,
.
. ,

. ,
(. 6).
3
. 6.
d, d
, . , , d
. d 0, 1, 2, . . . , d 1; .
d , , 4
5
; , 2
1
8
7
. . 7
d = 6.
.
3
0
60 ) 6
3
12
,
9

10. 10 = 1 + 11,
10 1
(mod 11).

,
102 (1)(1) = 1 (mod 11),
103 (1)
(mod 11),
4
10 1
(mod 11) . .
2
4
10
1
5
11
.
7.
, ,
60
. I

z = a0 + a1 10 + a2 102 + . . . + an 10n ,
11, ,
:
t = a0 a1 + a2 . . .
,
z t = a1 11 + a2 (102 1) + a3 (103 + 1) + a4 (104 1) + . . .
102 1, 103 + 1, . . . 11, z t , z 11
, t. , 11, . .
0 , , 11. , z = 3 162 819
11, 3 1 + 6 2 + 8 1 + 9 = 22 11.
3 9 , 10 1
(mod 3 9), 10n 1 (mod 3 9) n. ,
z 3 9 ,

s = a0 + a1 + a2 + . . . + an
3 9.
7,
102 2,
10 3,
103 1,
104 3,
105 2,
106 1.
. , z 7
,
r = a0 + 3a1 + 2a2 a3 3a4 2a5 + a6 + 3a7 + . . .
7.
. 13.
,
d = 5, , ,

0, 1, 2, 3, 4,
, . , 5,
:
b0
a0
1
2
3
4
0
1
2
3
4
a+b
1 2
1
2
3
4
0
2
3
4
0
1
3
4
0
1
2
4
0
1
2
3
61
ab
b0 1 2 3
a0
1
2
3
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
3
4
0
2
4
1
3
0
3
1
4
2
4
0
4
3
2
1
, ab
5 , a b 0 (mod 5).
:
7) ab 0 (mod d) , a 0 b 0 (mod d),
:
ab = 0 , a = 0 b = 0.
7) , d
. ,
ab 0
(mod d)
, ab d, , ab d , a
b d, . .
a0
(mod d) b 0
(mod d).
, d :
d = r s, r s d,
r 6 0
(mod d),
s 6 0
(mod d)
, ,
rs = d 0
(mod d).
, 2 6 0 (mod 6) 3 6 0 (mod 6), 2 3 = 6 0 (mod 6).

. 1) , : ab ac a 6 0, b c.
2) 0 6
11 18 2322 13 19 7?
3) 0 12
3 7 11 17 19 23 29 113 13?
4) 0 4
1 + 2 + 22 + . . . + 219 5?
2. . XVII , , . p
, a,
ap1 1
(mod p).
62
. I
, (p 1)- a p 1.
: , , 106 1 (mod 7), 102 1 (mod 3)
1010 1 (mod 11). , 212 1
(mod 13) 510 1 (mod 11). ;
:
24 = 16 3
(mod 13),
28 9 4
(mod 13),
12
2 4 3 = 12 1 (mod 13),
52 3
54 9 2
58 4
510 3 4 = 12 = 1
(mod
(mod
(mod
(mod
11),
11),
11),
11).
, ,
a:
m1 = a,
m2 = 2a,
m3 = 3a, . . . , mp1 = (p 1)a.

p. p mr
ms = (r s)a, r, s , 1 6 r < s 6 (p 1). 7) ,
: s r p, p s r;
, , p a. , m . ,
m1 , m2 , . . . , mp1 1, 2,
. . . , p 1, . :
m1 m2 . . . mp1 = 1 2 3 . . . (p 1)ap1 1 2 3 . . . (p 1)
(mod p),
, K = 1 2 3 . . . (p 1),
K(ap1 1) 0
(mod p).
K p, p; , 7) (ap1 1)
p, . .
ap1 1 0 (mod p).
.
. p = 23 a = 5; 23
52 2,
54 4,
58 16 = 7,
516 49 3,
520 12,
522 24 1.
a = 4 5, , - 23,
42 7, 43 28 5, 44 20 = 3, 48 9, 411 45 1, 422 1.
, a = 4, p = 23 ( ),
, (p 1)- , a
63
.
11 p 1
(. , 3).
. 1) ,
28 1
14
38 1
(mod 17),
(mod 29),
14
(mod 17),
(mod 29),
314 1
5
14
(mod 29),
(mod 29).
2) , p = 5, 7, 11, 17 23 a
.
3) : e, ae 1
(mod p), p 1. [: p 1
e,
p 1 = ke + r,
0 6 r < e, , ap1 ae 1
(mod p).]
3. . , , ,
ap1 1 (mod p), (, p
, 2, , , p = 2p0 + 1)
0
p1
a ap = a 2 1
(mod p).
. :
0
ap1 1 = a2p 1 = (ap 1)(ap + 1) 0
(mod p).
p ,
0
0
p, , , ap 1 ap + 1
p; , p > 2
a, p,

a
p1
2
p1
2
(mod p).
, : a
, ? ,
a p x,
a x2
p1
2
p1
(mod p).
a
x , , ,
1 p.
a ( p), p
, p;
, b, p, p, p.
64
. I
, a p
a
p1
2
1 (mod p). ,
p1
b p b 2 1 (mod p).
, ( ), 1, 2, 3, . . . , p 1
p1
p1

.
2
2
, ,
, . (1752
1833); . p
q. :
p1 q1
1) ,
. q
2
2
p , p q.
2) , , .
: q p, p q,
.
,
, ,
. ,
,
.

.
, , p = 7. 7
02 0,
12 1,
22 4,
32 2,
42 2,
52 4,
62 1
,
7 , 1, 2
4, , 3, 5 6. p , 12 ,
22 , . . . , (p 1)2 . ,
x2 (p x)2
(mod p)
(, 22 52
(mod 7)).
, (p x)2 = p2 2px + x2 x2 (mod p). ,

1, 2, . . . , p 1 p, .
,
p = 5, q = 11. 11 12 (mod 5), 11
5, , ,
5 1 11 1
2
2
65
, 5 11; , ,
5 42 (mod 11). , p = 7, q = 11.
7 1 11 1
, 11
2
2
7 ( 11 22 (mod 7)), 7 11.
. 1) 62 = 36 13 (mod 23). 23
13?
2) , x2 (p x)2 (mod p). , 12 , 22 , 32 , . . . , (p 1)2 .
3.
. , ,
a2 + b2 = c2 ,
(1)
a b , c . ,
, ,
(a, b, c) (1). (a, b, c), ,
.
.
a, b c , . . a
b
a2 + b2 = c2 .
= x,
= y. x
c
y , x2 + y 2 = 1. y
1x
: y 2 = (1 x)(1 + x)
=
.
1+x
t,
u
. , ,
v
: y = t(1 + x) (1 x) = ty,
tx y = t,
x + ty = 1.
,
x=
1 t2
,
1 + t2
y=
2t
.
1 + t2
a
b
u
x y
t,
c
c
v
2
2
a
v u
b
2uv
= 2
,
= 2
.
c
u + v2
c
u + v2
a = (v 2 u2 )r,
b = (2uv)r,
c = (u2 + v 2 )r,
(2)
66
. I
r .
, (a, b, c) , v 2 u2 , 2uv, u2 + v 2 . ,
, (a, b, c), (2), , (2)
a2 = (u4 2u2 v 2 + v 4 )r2 ,

b2 = (4u2 v 2 )r2 ,
c2 = (u4 + 2u2 v 2 + v 4 )r2 ,
a2 + b2 = c2 .
. (a, b, c) (sa, sb, sc), s.
, (3, 4, 5) (6, 8, 10), (9, 12, 15) . .
,
.
, a, b c . ,

a = v 2 u2 ,
b = 2uv,
c = u2 + v 2 ,
u, v (v > u), ,
.
* . .
:
v = 2, u = 1 (3, 4, 5),
v = 3, u = 2 (5, 12, 13),
v = 4,
v = 10,
u=3
u=7
(7, 24, 25),

(51, 140, 149) . .
:
a, b, c,
a3 + b3 = c3 , a4 + b4 = c4 ,
, ,
an + bn = cn ,
(3)
n , 2? , . , ,
, .
,
67
, .
, (3) , n > 2,
,
, .
, ,
.1 ,
n, , n < 619,
n; ,
.
,

.
100 000 ,
, ,
.
, , .
-
,
- .
;
, - .
4.
1. .
a b
, ,
, . , a = 648 b = 7,
q = 92 r = 4.
648 7
63 92
648 = 7 92 + 4.
18
14
4
1
1995 .
: . . .: ,
2000. . . . .
68
. I
:
a b , b ,
q,
a = b q + r,
(1)
r , 0 6 r < b.
. , a b,
b,
bq < a < b(q + 1) = bq + b.
(1) , r = 0.
,
a bq = r > 0,

a bq = r < b,
r 0 < r < b.
.
.
a b - ,
; , a
b. , , , , ,
a 6= 0, , a, a.
, a b ; d
. d
a b, d = (a, b). ,
a = 8, b = 12, , (8, 12) =
4; a = 5, b = 9, (5, 9) = 1. a
b , a = 1804, b = 328,

.
. ( .) ,

a=bq+r
(2)
,
(a, b) = (b, r).
(3)
, u, a b,
a = su,
b = tu,
r, r = a bq = su qtu = (s qt)u; ,
v, b r,
b = s0 v,
r = t0 v,
69
a, a = bq + r = s0 vq + t0 v = (s0 q + t0 )v. ,
a b b r,
. a b
b r, , a b b
r. (3).
.
1804 328.
1804 328
1640 5
164
,
1804 = 5 328 + 164.
(3) ,
(1804, 328) = (328, 164).
, (1804,
328) , . .
328 164
328 2
0
328 = 2 164 + 0, (328, 164) = (164, 0) =
= 164. , (1804, 328) = (328, 164) = (164, 0) = 164, .

.
,
a b, .
, (a, 0) = a, , b 6= 0.

a = bq1 + r1 (0 < r1 < b)
b = r1 q2 + r2 (0 < r2 < r1 )
(4)
r1 = r2 q3 + r3 (0 < r3 < r2 )
r2 = r3 q4 + r4 (0 < r4 < r3 )
..................
, - r1 , r2 , r3 , . . .
. , ,
70
. I
,
:
b > r1 > r2 > r3 > r4 > . . . > 0.
(5)
, (
b , ,
r ) 0:
rn2 = rn1 qn + rn ,
rn1 = rn qn+1 + 0.
, ,
(a, b) = rn ;
, (a, b) (5).
(3) (4); ,
:
(a, b) = (b, r1 ),
(b, r1 ) = (r1 , r2 ),
(r1 , r2 ) = (r2 , r3 ),
(r2 , r3 ) = (r3 , r4 ), . . . , (rn1 , rn ) = (rn , 0) = rn .
.
: ) 187, 77; ) 105, 385; ) 245, 193.
(4)
(a, b): d = (a, b),
k l,
d = ka + lb.
(6)
, (5).
(4)
r1 = a q1 b,
r1 k1 a + l1 b (
k1 = 1, l1 = q1 ).
r2 = b q2 r1 = b q2 (k1 a + l1 b) = (q2 k1 )a + (1 q2 l1 )b = k2 a + l2 b.
,
r3 , r4 , . . . ,
rn = ka + lb,
.

(61, 24): 1, 1
61 = 2 24 + 13,
24 = 1 13 + 11,
13 = 1 11 + 2,
11 = 5 2 + 1,
2 = 2 1 + 0.
71

13 = 61 2 24,

11 = 24 13 = 24 (61 2 24) = 61 + 3 24,

2 = 13 11 = (61 2 24) (61 + 3 24) = 2 61 5 24
, ,
1 = 11 5 2 = (61 + 3 24) 5(2 61 5 24) = 11 61 + 28 24.
2. . ,
d = (a, b) d = ka + lb,
,
, . 42.
, . 43, . ,
.
. ab p,
a, b p.
, a p; (a, p) = 1, p
: p 1.
k l,
1 = ka + lp.
b, :
b = kab + lpb.
ab p,
ab = pr,

b = kpr + lpb = p(kr + lb),
, b p. , ,
ab p, a , b p;
, , a, b p, ab p.
. , abc p,
, ,
ab c p.
, p a, b, c, ab , ,
(ab)c = abc.
.
n
72
. I
. .

. , N :
N = p1 p 2 . . . p r = q 1 q 2 . . . q s .
p1 , ,
(. ), qk . qk ; , p1 qk .
p1 = qk , p2
, qt .
p2 = qt , , , p3 , . .
p, 1. q
, , 1.
, p q , ;
, .
3. f(n). . ,
a b ,
1:
(a, b) = 1.
, 24 35 , 12 18
.
a b ,
k l,
ka + lb = 1.
(a, b), . 64.
. : ab r,
r a , b r. (: r a
, k l,
kr + la = 1.
b).
. 65, p
a, a p.
n ; f(n) 1 n,
n. f(n), , -
. f(n) -
73
n:
f(1) = 1, 1

1
f(2) = 1,

1
2
f(3) = 2,

12
3
f(4) = 2,

13
4
f(5) = 4,

1, 2, 3, 4
5
f(6) = 2,

1, 5
6
f(7) = 6,

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
7
f(8) = 4,

1, 3, 5, 7
8
f(9) = 6,

1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8
9
f(10) = 4,

1, 3, 7, 9
10
. .
, f(p) = p 1, p ; ,
p , 1 p, 1, 2, . . . , p 1
p. n

n = pa11 pa22 . . . parr ,
p , ,

1
1
1
f(n) = n 1
1
... 1
.
p1
p2
pr
, 12 = 22 3

1
1
2
1
f(12) = 12 1
1
= 12
= 4,
2
.
, .
. f(n), , . 55.
: n a n,
af(n) 1
(mod n).
4. . .
,
,

.
, 840 611

840 = 1 611 + 229,
229 = 1 153 + 76,
611 = 2 229 + 153,

153 = 2 76 + 1,
74
. I
, , , (840, 611) = 1.
, , :
229
1
840
=1+
= 1 + 611 ,
611
611
229
611
153
1
=2+
= 2 + 229 ,
229
229
153
229
76
1
=1+
= 1 + 153 ,
153
153
76
153
1
=2+ .
76
76
, 840

:
611
840
=1+
611
2+
1
1
1+
2+
1
76
a = a0 +
a1 +
1
a2 + . . .
(7)
1
an
a , .
.
.
2
,
5
43
,
30
169
.
70
* , . ,
, . , , , ,
. , :
ax + by = c,
(8)
a, b, c , x, y. .
d = (a, b); ,
, k l
ak + bl = d.
(9)
75
, (8) x = k, y = l , c = d.
, c d,
c = d q,
(9)
a(kq) + b(lq) = dq = c,
(8) x = x = kq,
y = y = lq. , (8) c x, y, c d = (a, b): , d
a b, , c. , ,
(8) ( ) , c
(a, b).
, , x = x , y = y (8),
. x = x0 , y = y 0 -
; x = x0 x , y = y 0 y
ax + by = 0.
(10)
,
ax0 + by 0 = c
ax + by = c

a(x0 x ) + b(y 0 y ) = 0.
(10), ,
x =
rb
ra
, y=
r . (
(a, b)
(a, b)
. : (a,
b) . 66.)
(8):
x = x +
rb
,
(a, b)
y = y
ra
.
(a, b)
. ax + by = c, a, b
c , , c
(a, b). x = x , y = y
,
x = x +
rb
,
(a, b)
y = y
ra
,
(a, b)
r .
. 3x + 6y = 22 , (3,
6) = 3 22.
7x + 11y = 13 x = 39, y = 26,
:
11 = 1 7 + 4,
7 = 1 4 + 3,
4 = 1 3 + 1,
(7, 11) = 1,
1 = 4 3 = 4 (7 4) = 2 4 7 = 2(11 7) 7 = 2 11 3 7.
76
7 (3) + 11 (2) = 1,
7 (39) + 11 (26) = 13.

x = 39 + 11r,
y = 26 7r,
r .
. :
) 3x 4y = 29;
) 11x + 12y = 58;
) 153x 34y = 51.
. I
II

, ,
, , . ,
,
,
.
,
.
,
.
.
1.
1. . , .
, , , , , , ,
. , ,
, ,
.
, .
, , ,
, , 1.
, . , 54 .
78
. II
, , :
,
. ,
, , , , 53 54 .
,
,
n .
; ,
12 , 100 ,
16 , 60 , 60 , . . , 1
n , ,
n
m ,
m
. n
( m : n). , ,
,
m
:

n

, ,
. m n ,
m
.
n
( )
,
, . , ,
, , . , , :
c
ad + bc
a
+ =
,
b
d
bd
a c
ac
= ,
b d
bd
a
= 1,
a
ac
a
= ,
bc
b
(1)
a, b, c, d . ,
4
25+34
10 + 12
22
2
+ =
=
= ,
3
5
35
15
15
3
8
24
= 1,
=
=
3
12
34
2 4
24
8
=
= ,
3 5
35
15
2
.
3
,
, . .

,
79
- , () . (1), ,
:
p+q=q+p
( ),
p + (q + r) = (p + q) + r ( ),
pq = qp
( ),
(2)
p(qr) = (pq)r
( ),
p(q + r) = pq + pr
( ).
, , :
a
c
ad + bc
cb + da
c
a
+ =
=
= + ;
b
d
bd
db
d
b
(1),
. , , .
2. . .

.
.

.
. b a
a b c,
a + c = b, . . a + x = b.
b a b > a, a + x = b
.
, 0
a a.
1, 2, 3, . . .
(b a) = (a b)
b < a: ,
. -
80
. II
1, 2, 3, . . . , , ,
,
. , ,
(1) (1) = 1,
(3)
,
a(b + c) = ab + ac.
, , , , (1) (1) =
1, , a = 1, b = 1, c = 1, (1) (1 1) =
1 1 = 2, (1) (1 1) = (1) 0 = 0.
, , (3)
, , ,
. , ,
.
, , ,
: ,
.
, , (1)
(1) +1. : +1, 1; 1 ,
1 = (+1) (1).
,
,
, b
. , , x =

a

ax = b
(4)
, a b. (, a = 2, b = 3),
b
, ,
a
b
b
(4)
a = b,
a
a
. , , .
1 3 0
, ,
. . , 0
. 0, 0 1 = 0 2 1 = 2.
81
, , ,
.
, , . , , a + x = b ax = b x = b a x =
b
,
a
a . ,
, ,
. .
, , III.
, , , , ,
.
,
, ,
. , , . , 3
0, 2 .
4
,
, ,
XVII , , , .
, . , .
3. . .
82
. II
, , 0
1 (. 8). ,
, , . , ,
, 0.
n,
n ;
n. n,
,
.
; , .
3
. 8.
I, 1 A 
A), B A . ( A < B),
() A B , > A
< B. A B, , ( ) [A, B]
( (
), (A, B)).
A 0,
, A
|A|.
: A > 0, |A| = A; A < 0, |A| = A. , A B
, |A + B| = |A| + |B|;
A B , |A + B| < |A| + |B|.
2 . , 83
,
|A + B| 6 |A| + |B|,
A B.
:
. , ,
, . ,

1
n , 0,
,
n
(A, B);
n
. , ( ,
), . :
. ,

, ,
, , ,
.
2. .
,
1. . a b, , a
b r. b
a: b r ,
a. , r,
, ; , , a , n,

a
m ,
n
b:
m
b = a.
(1)
n
(1), , a b , :
a
, a
n
n , b m . b a ,
m n (n 6= 0),
84
. II
(1). . 9, ,
a [0, 1],
, 0.
,
m
.
n
5
3
5
16
3
2
. 9.
. ,
, ,
. , .
,
:
( ). , ( ,
, ), .
, .
, ,
, . ,

.
, , ( , ). XIX ,

. .
:
. , , x. ,
, :
x2 = 12 + 12 = 2.
( x 2.) x
, p q,
2 . , 85
x =
p
,
q
p2 = 2q 2 .
(2)
p
, ,
q
p q.
2 , p2 ,
, , p ,
. p = 2r. (2) :
4r2 = 2q 2 ,
2r2 = q 2 .
2 , , q 2 , , q . , p q , . .
p
2, ,
q
. , (2) , x
.
, , 2
.
,
, .
0, ( )
. , ( ) . ,
,
0
1
2
,
. 10. 2
.

. ,

, .
, , .
, 0, . ,

, ,
86
. II
. ,
, ,
,
.
, , , .

,
. ,
.

. 1) , 3 2, 3, 5, 3 3 .
(:
.
65.)
2) , 2 + 3 2 + 3 2 . (:
,
,
r, ,
3 = r 2 , , 2
.)
3) , 2 + 3 + 5 . .
2. : . , : ,
, ,
10, 100, 1000 . .
.
2
1
+
,
. , 0,12 =
10
100
, 101 ,

1
2
n
10
a n .
a
n ,
f = z + a1 101 + a2 102 + a3 103 + . . . + an 10n ,
z , a 0, 1, 2, . . . , 9, , . . f
: z,a1 a2 a3 . . . an .
,
p
, q = 10n ; , ,
q
f = 1,314 = 1 +
3
1
4
1314
+
+
=
.
10
100
1000
1000
, p q ,
, 10n .
2 . , 87
, ,
10, 2
1
4
1
= 0,2;
=
=
. , =
5
10
250
1000

0,004;
3
n , n: ,

1
b
= n
3
10

10n = 3b,
, 3
10.
- P ,
; , ,
1

2.
3
10
P :
,
; P
. .
, P .
10 ,
101 , , P , ,
. , P 0,2 0,3.
0,2 0,3 10 , 102 ,
, P , , .
, , , P 103 . , P 0,230 0,231.
a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . , an , . . . ,
: n, P
In , 0,a1 a2 a3 . . . an1 an ,
0,a1 a2 a3 . . . an1 (an + 1), In 10n . n = 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . , , I1 , I2 , I3 , . . . ,
101 , 102 , 103 , . . . . ,
, P 1
. , P ,
3
88
. II
a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . 3, P In
1
0,333 . . . 33 0,333 . . . 34, . .
0,333 . . . 33
3
0,333 . . . 34, .
, n- 0,333 . . . 33 1
, n . 3

1
= 0,333 . . . ,
3
,
.
2, 1,
. , ,
. , , n- ,
, :
12 = 1 < 2 < 22 = 4
(1,4)2 = 1,96 < 2 < (1,5)2 = 2,25
(1,41)2 = 1,9881 < 2 < (1,42)2 = 2,0264
(1,414)2 = 1,999396 < 2 < (1,415)2 = 2,002225
(1,4142)2 = 1,99996164 < 2 < (1,4143)2 = 2,00024449 . .
, P ,

, z,a1 a2 a3 . . . , , n, P
10n z,a1 a2 a3 . . . an .
, ( )
. : .
, , . XIX
, , ,
.
, XVII , ,
,
.
,
2 . , 89
. ,
,
.
.
102 .
3
2 3 5 , -
3. . .
, , s sn , n
1
1, 2, 3, . . . , , : s = , s1 = 0,3,
3
s2 = 0,33, s3 = 0,333 . . . ,
,
. .,
2n , n
, , n = 100, n = 100 000 . . ,
, ,
1
1
1
1
1
+ + +
+ ... + n.
(3)
2
4
8
16
2
n
1
, sn 1
2
sn =
, ,
n. , , n
, .
, ,
. sn ,
, sn 1, n
,
1=
1
1
1
1
+ + +
+ ...,
2
4
8
16
(4)
, , . ,
:
, 1 sn , , n
( ). , (4),
+ . . . , , ,
, :
1 ( n, )
sn =
1
1
1
1
+ 2 + 3 + . . . + n .
2
2
2
2
(5)
90
. II
:
sn 1 n .
(6)
, . q:
q, q 2 , q 3 , q 4 , . . . , q n , . . .
1
1 < q < 1, , q = q = , q n
3
5
n. q
, q n : + , ; 1
1
, q n . , q = , q 2 = ,
3
9
1
1
1
1
1
1
4
2
3
4
q = , q = , . . . ; q = , q = , q = , q = , . . .
27
81
2
4
8
16
3
, q n , n ,
, , ,
q n 0 n ,
1 < q < 1.
(7)
( , q > 1 q < 1, q ,
.)
(7).
. 34, n p > 1 (1 + p)n > 1 + np. q -
, , , q =
q =
1
, p > 0.
1+p
1
= (1 + p)n > 1 + np > np,
qn
9
.
10
(. (4) . 74)
0 < qn <
1 1
.
p n
, q n 0
1 1
, p n
n ( p
). , q n 0. q , q =

1
, q n 1+p
1 1
1 1
; , .
p n
p n

sn = 1 + q + q 2 + q 3 + . . . + q n .
( q =
(8)
1
.)
2
(. . 32), sn
2 . , 91
. sn q,
qsn = q + q 2 + q 3 + q 4 + . . . + q n+1
(8a)
, (8) (8), , , 1 q n+1 ,

.
(1 q)sn = 1 q n+1 ,
, 1 q,
sn =
1
q n+1
1 q n+1
=
.
1q
1q
1q
, n
. , q n+1 = q q n ,
1 < q < 1, :
sn
1
1q
n ,
1 < q < 1.
(9)
,
1
,
1q
1 + q + q2 + q3 + . . . =
,
1+
1 < q < 1.
(10)
1
1
1
1
+ 2 + 3 + ... =
=2
1
2
2
2
1
2
(4);
9
9
9
9
9
1
+ 2 + 3 + 4 + ... =
= 1,
10
10
10
10
10 1 1
10
, , 0,9999 . . . = 1. 0,2374
0,23739999 . . . .
VI , , .
. 1) ,
1 q + q2 q3 + q4 . . . =
1
,
1+q
|q| < 1.
n
2) a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . , an =
? (n+1
n
1
:
1
n+1
n+1
, .)
n2 + n + 1
3) 2
n ? (: n n+1

1
1
+ 2
n
n
.
1
1
1
+ 2
n
n
1+
92
. II
4) q 1, ,
1
1 + 2q + 3q 2 + 4q 3 + . . . =
2 . (:
(1 q)
3 . 36.)
5)
1 2q + 3q 2 4q 3 + . . . ?
6)
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n
,
n2
12 + 22 + 32 + . . . + n2
,
n3
13 + 23 + 33 + . . . + n3
.
n4
(: , . 3133.)
4. .
p
,
q
, .
, , .
1 q 1, q 1
. , q k . ,
k. ,
;

1
1
. , = 0,166666666 . . . ; = 0,142857142857142857 . . . ;
6
7
1
122
11
= 0,09090909 . . . ;
= 0,1109090909 . . . ;
= 0,122222222 . . . . .
11
1100
90
( ,
,
0, , ,
.) , , ,
.
, , . , ,

p = 0,3322222 . . .
: p =
33
+ 103 2(1 + 101 + 102 + . . .).
100
2 . , 93
:
1 + 101 + 102 + 103 + . . . =
1
1
1
10
10
.
9
,
p=
33
10
2970 + 20
2990
299
+ 103 2
=
=
=
.
100
9
9 103
9000
900
, .

p = 0,a1 a2 a3 . . . am b1 b2 b3 . . . bn b1 b2 b3 . . . bn . . .
B = 0,b1 b2 b3 . . . bn .
p = 0,a1 a2 a3 . . . am + 10m B(1 + 10n + 102n + 103n + . . .).
,
q = 10n . , (10) ,
1
,
1 10n
p = 0,a1 a2 a3 . . . am +
10m B
.
1 10n
. 1) 1
1
2
3
1
2
:
,
,
,
,
,
, .
2)
11
13
13
13
17
17
142 857 , 2,
3, 4, 5 6 .
1
.
,
7
3) , 1,
5, 7 12.
1
4)
.
3
5) 0,11212121 . . . , 3 5.
5.
. . 82
: .
,
, .
, , : ,
(
, , . 5),
. ( ,
94
. II
, ,
, : a
a 1 .
, , , 0,999 . . . = 1, . . 3.)
; . : , I,

; ,
, . ,
10 . ,
.
I1 , I2 ,
I3 , . . . , In , . . . ; ,
n-
In n.

.
In 10n ,
, , 2n ,
,
1
.
n
, :
, ,
. ( , ,
, ,
, .)
, , ;
, .

.
:
.
, .
, ,
,
, ? :
2 . , 95
. 11. .
( ) ,
,
. ,
. ,
,
, .
,
,
, . ,
. , . ,

, , ,
, ,
.

, ,
96
. II
, , . .,
, ,
, . ,
, a b
, a b,
, , .
ab, a b a/b.
, , 1 ,
. , , .

,
, , , ,
,
. , , . ,
,
, XIX
, .
, ,
,
. , , , ,
, . ,
, , ,
.
, , . ,
VI,
, ,

, .
2 . , 97
*6. . . (18311916),
. Stetigkeit und irrationale
Zahlen1 (1872) Was sind und was sollen die Zahlen?2 (1887) .
.
; ,
.
, -
A B ,
b B , a A.
.
,
.
1) a A. , , , A
6 1, B
> 1.
2) b B. ,
, , A
< 1, B > 1.
3) A,
B. , , ,
A ,
2, B ,
2. A B ,
, ,
2, .
, A a
B b , ,

a + b
, a
2
b , , A, ,
B, , , A,
B.
,
A, B, , ,
, , , , 1
2
. . .
? . .
98
. II
. ,
,
: I1 , I2 , I3 ,
. . . , A
, , In ,
B .
,
,
A B. ,
(18451918).
,
, , , ,
, ,
. ,
1)
, 2)
.
, , , , a1 , a2 , a3 , . . .
. ,
(am an )
, m n
. (
: n-
10n .)

, ,
a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . b1 , b2 , b3 , . . . ,
an bn n. , ,
. .
3.
1
1. . XVII . , ,
, , .

1
, ,
, ,
. 513 .
99
. .
, , . 1629 . (16011665) 1637 .
(15961650).
, ()
.
, , , , .

, x y, .
,
y
. P (. 12)
P
x y.
Q
.

y
(), O P , x
x
O
P
, OP 0
x OQ0 y. . 12. x y,
OP 0 OQ0 , P . , x
y ,
P . x y ,
P (. 13);
, ; x , y ,
, , , x , y ,
.
P1 x1 , y1 P2
x2 , y2
d2 = (x1 x2 )2 + (y1 y2 )2 .
(1)
(. 14).
2. . C x = a, y = b,
P , C r, -
100
. II
y
II
(x2 , y2)
y2
y2
y1
y1
IV
III
(x1 , y1)
x1
O
. 13.
14.
x2
x1
x2
C r.
(1) ,
x,
y
y,
(x a)2 + (y b)2 = r2 .
(2)
r R
C
O
. 15.
2
, ( )
, P x, y
C r.
,
x2 + y 2 2ax 2by = k,
(3)
k = r a b . , (3),
a, b k k + a2 + b2 ,

(x a)2 + (y b)2 = r2 ,
r2 = k + a2 + b2 . , (3) r, C a, b.
. , ,
x y = 0, y
. y
x = 0. ,
, x = y x = y. ,

ax + by = c,
(4)
101
a, b, c , .
, (4) , x y,
,
, .
y
B
A x
. 16.
, ,
x2
y2
2 + 2 =1
p
q
(5)
(. 16). x A(p, 0) A0 (p, 0) y B(0, q) B 0 (0, q). ( P (x, y) , , (x, y),

: P x y.)
p > q, AA0 2p ,
BB 0 2q .

P , F ( p2 q 2 , 0)
F 0 ( p2 q 2 , 0) 2p.
,
(1). F F 0
p
, e =

p2 q 2
.
p
x2
y2
2 =1
2
p
q
(6)
. , -
102
. II
A F
. 17.
x A(p, 0) A0 (p, 0) (. 17).

AA0 2p . , , qx py = 0, ; .

P , F ( p2 + q 2 , 0)
F 0 ( p2 + q 2 , 0) 2p.
;
p
e =
p2 + q 2
.
p
xy = 1
(7)
, ,
(. 18). , OP 0 P Q0
(. . 12), P , P 1.

xy = c,
(7a)
c ,
103
, .
, ( )
.
. 18. . , P (x, y), 1
:
.
. ,
,
ax + by = c,
a0 x + b0 y = c0 ,
(8)

(8); . (, x2 + y 2 2ax 2by = k ax + by = c)
.
104
. II
4.
1. .
1, 2, 3, . . .
. , , : n, , ,
n + 1. ,
- , ,
, ,
.
,
.
, ,
,
; , .
. ,
XIX , , .

;
,
. .
(), ,
,
.
, ,
.

,
. A
B ,
A
B, B
A, , A B
105
, .
,
,
. ,
, : ,
1, 2, . . . ,
n.
,
. , , , , .
, . ,
, ,
, P

x:
P x.

, . (
S, S 0 ,
S, .)
, , . .
- n ,
,
n 1
. , , ,
. ,
1 2 3 4 5 ... n ...

2 4 6 8 10 . . . 2n . . .
, ,
.
,
.
106
. II
2.
.
,
( )
. ,
, , .
, ,
: a ,
b , . .; ,
, . ,
, r1 , r2 , r3 , r4 ,
. . . , .
() . , , .

, , , ,
,
1 2 3 4 ... n ...

r1 r2 r3 r4 . . . rn . . .
.

.
a
, a b
b
; ,
a
3
a- b- . ,

b
4
. ,
, , ,
, . 1,
2 ;
1
1
; ;
2
107
2
3; 4;
2
, . ., . 19.
2
3
4

1 1 2
3 2 1 1 2 3 4
,
,
, 3, 4,
,
,
,
,
,
,
, 5, . . .
2 3 2
2 3 4 5 4 3 2
1, 2,
,
1 , ,
:
1, 2,
1 1
3 2 1 1
,
, 3, 4,
,
,
,
, 5, . . .
2 3
2 3 4 5
,
. , ,
, .
. 1) , ,
, . , ,
, .
2) , S T , S + T
(. . 131) . , ,
, n ; , , , , .
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
1
6
1
7
2
2
2
3
2
4
2
5
2
6
2
7
3
2
3
3
3
4
3
5
3
6
3
7
4
2
4
3
4
4
4
5
4
6
4
7
5
2
5
3
5
4
5
5
5
6
5
7
6
2
6
3
6
4
6
5
6
6
6
7
7
2
7
3
7
4
7
5
7
6
7
7
.............................
. 19.
108
. II
, ,
,
, , , .
. : (
) . ,
( ) ,
.
. .
, , ,
, . : , ,
,
.
, , ,
,
.
. ,
,
, , :
1- N1 ,a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 . . .
2- N2 ,b1 b2 b3 b4 b5 . . .
3- N3 ,c1 c2 c3 c4 c5 . . .
.........................
Ni , a, b, c, . . .
, . ,
.

,
, .
. a, , a1 , 0 9 (
, : 0,999 = 1,000 . . . ); b
b2 , 0 9; c c3 . . (
: a =
109
1, a1 6= 1, a1 = 1 a = 2;
b, c, d, e, . . . )
z = 0,abcde . . .
z ; ,
, ,
, ,
,
n- , n-
. , , , z. ,
.
. 20.
,

. ,
, , , 0 1.

1
2

, ,
3
3
, . 20. ,
(, , ) .
. , [A, B] [C, D] (. 21).
,
, , . (
110
. II
) 0 1. , ,
, . ,

a1 , a2 , a3 , . . .
(1)
a1 , C
D
1

, a2 1
.
21.
1
102
10

. . 102
(1),
( ,
),
1
,
10
, . . . ( ,
.)

1
1
1
1
1
1
+ 2 + 3 + ... =
= .
10
10
10
10 1 1
9
10
, , (1) , ,
, 1, 1
; .
9
,
.
, , , . e
n , e , ,
10

e
e
. e ,

9
9
, .
, , .
.
, .
3. .
. A B, A
111
, B. ,
,
:
,
, ,
; , , ,
. , ,
:
, .
, : . A B, , , ,
( ).
,
. ,
, A () B, B A,
, , , B
, A. . ,
,
( , ).
, , ,
.
* , ,

. , , , A, B,
, A.
. B
,
A. A,
A,
A, ,
. (, A 1, 2, 3, B 8
{1, 2, 3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1}, {2}, {3} .)
112
. II
B , -
A. , B A A, . . ,
A A
B, . . A:
a Sa ,
(2)
Sa A, a
A. , B,
. . T A, a. T ,
, x A :
Sx , (2) x, x, . T A,
x, Sx x.
T Sa a,
Sa a, T a, Sa a,
T a. , T (2). ,
A ( A) B.
a {a}
A
B, A. ,
, B , A.
* . A n , B 2n . A
, B ,
0 1. (: A
, ,
a1 a2 a3 . . . ,
an = 1 0, , n-
A .)
,
,
. , 1, ,
, . ,
, :
.
. .
(x, y) - , x y
x = 0,a1 a2 a3 a4 . . . ,
y = 0,b1 b2 b3 b4 . . . ,
113
( ), , 1
0,25000 . . . , 0,24999 . . .
,
4
(x, y)
z = 0,a1 b1 a2 b2 a3 b3 a4 b4 . . . .
, (x, y) (x0 , y 0 ) z z 0 ; ,
.
( ,
: , ,
0,2140909090 . . . , 0,25000 . . . ,
0,24999 . . . ,
.)
,
.
, ,
. ,
; 0 1 ,
,
. , , .
V.
4. . ,

. , ,
, .

, . : A, ,
A0 , A; , A0 , A0 . A0
A.
,
114
. II

,
,
.
,
, .
, , -, ,
.
, , , . 102.
,
()
, ,
- , ,
.
, , , , , . , ,
. ( )
.
, , ,
, .
, ,
, ,

.1
5. . ,
,
, - ,
,
. ,
1
,
, ., , [11] [15] (
). . .
115
. ,
. .
, . , A ; A ,
, A .
. , . , , S,
: S ,
, . S ,
, , S. .
, ;

.
C. C ,
. : C
? ,
, .1 C ,
, C
. , , C , , ,
, .
. , C .
C , . .
, C
. , ,
C .
6. .

. , ,
,
,
1

, . .,
, . - . . .: ,
1966, . I, 2. . .
116
. II
, ,
.
( , ),
. , . , ,
, ,
, , .
,
, . , 1
, ,
, , ,
-, . , ,
: ?
, ,
. ,
, ,
.
,
,
,
, .
,
, , , . ,
. , ,
, ,
,
.2
1940 . 1963 . .
- .
. .
. [11] [38]. . .
117
5.
1. .
. ,
- .
, .
,
,
.
,
, ,
.
, ,
. , ax = b, b
x. x = ,
a
,
( a 6= 0)
.
x2 = 2
(1)
,
. , . ,

x2 = 1
(2)
,
. , ,
,
. , i
, , i2 = 1. ,
. , i2 =
1, ,
118
. II

.
i
, , 2i, 3i, i, 2 + 5i, , a + bi, a b
. , , ,
, :
(2 + 3i) + (1 + 4i) = (2 + 1) + (3 + 4)i = 3 + 7i;
(2 + 3i) (1 + 4i) = 2 + 8i + 3i + 12i2 = (2 12) + (8 + 3)i = 10 + 11i.
, :
a + bi, a b ,
a b.
,
i , i2 1. ,
)
(a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i,
(3)
(a + bi)(c + di) = (ac bd) + (ad + bc)i.
,
(a + bi)(a bi) = a2 abi + abi b2 i2 = a2 + b2 .
(4)
, , , . , , , ,
a + bi,
(. . 75):
(a + bi) (c + di) = (a c) + (b d)i,

(5)
(a + bi)(c di)
a + bi
ac + bd
bc ad
=
= 2
+ 2
i.
2
2
c + di
(c + di)(c di)
c +d
c +d
( , c + di = 0 + 0i, c2 +
+ d2 = 0. , , . .
0 + 0i.) ,
(2 + 3i) (1 + 4i) = 1 i,
2 + 3i
2 + 3i 1 4i
2 8i + 3i + 12
14
5
=
=
=
i.
1 + 4i
1 + 4i 1 4i
1 + 16
17
17
, a + 0i
119
a. , ,
0 + bi = bi .
(1 + i)(2 + i)(3 + i)
a + bi.
(1 i)
3

1
3
+i
2
2
. 1)
2)
a + bi.
3) a + bi :
1+i
,
1i
1+i
,
2i
1
,
i5
1
,
(2 + i)(1 3i)
(4 5i)2
.
(2 3i)2
4) 5 + 12i . (: 5 + 12i = x + yi,

.)
i, a + bi,
x2 = 1
: x = i x = i. , ,
i i = (i)(i) = i2 = 1. ,
: ,
ax2 + bx + c = 0
(6)
. , (6)
, :
b
c
x= ,
a
a
b
b2
b2
c
x2 + x + 2 = 2 ,
a
4a
4a
a

b 2
b2 4ac
x+
=
,
2a
4a2
b
b2 4ac
x+
=
,
2a
2a
b b2 4ac
x=
.
2a
x2 +
(7)
, b2 4ac > 0, b2 4ac (6) ;
2
2 4ac =
b
b2 4ac < 0,
4ac
b
>
0,
= (4ac b2 ) = 4ac b2 i, (6)

. , ,
x2 5x 6 = 0
5
25 24
51
=
= 3 2,
2
2
x =

x2 2x + 2 = 0
120
x =
. II
48
2 2i
=
= 2 = 1 + i 1 i.
2
2
2. .
XVI
, .
,
. ,
, . XIX .,

,
,
. , ,
,
.
,
(17451818), (17681822) , y
z

, , ,
x
O
.
,
z = x + yi
. 22. x, y. ,

x-,
. z y-. x, y
,
(. 2)
.
x
z = x + 0 i, y z = 0 + yi.
z = x + yi
- ,
z = x yi
121
z. z
z x.
z r,

r2 = x2 + y 2 = (x + yi)(x yi) = z z.
r =
x2 + y 2 z -
r = |z|.
z ,
z. 1 ,
1.
|z| = 0, z = 0. |z|
z . ,
:
|z1 z2 | = |z1 | |z2 |.
,
. 117.
. 1) ,
z1 = x1 + y1 i z2 = x2 +
y2 i.
2) , , , .
(: .)

z1 = x1 + y1 i
z2 = x2 + y2 i,
z1 + z2 = (x1 + x2 ) + (y1 + y2 )i.
z2
z1
, z1 + z2 z1
,
x
O

0, z1 , z2 . . 23.

. ,
(. . 76):
|z1 + z2 | 6 |z1 | + |z2 |.
122
. II
, .
. |z1 + z2 | = |z1 | +
|z2 |?
x Oz z f (. . 22). z
z
|z| = |z|,
:
f = f.
, z ,
, 360 ,
Oz. ,
f,
f + 360 ,
f 360 ,
f + 720 ,
f 720 ,
f + 1080 ,
f 1080 ,
...
...
. , ,
x = r cos f,
y = r sin f,
z
:
z = x + yi = r(cos f + i sin f).
(8)
z=i

z=1+i
z=1i
z = 1 + 3 i
r=
1,
r = 2,
r = 2,
r = 2,
f = 90 ,
f = 45 ,
f = 45 ,
f = 120 ,
i = 1 (cos 90 + i sin 90 ),
1 + i = 2 (cos 45 + i sin 45 ),
1 i = 2 (cos(45 ) + i sin(45 )),
1 + 3 i = 2 (cos 120 + i sin 120 ).

.
(8) , .
z = r (cos f + i sin f)
123
z 0 = r0 (cos f0 + i sin f0 ),

zz 0 = rr0 (cos f cos f0 sin f sin f0 ) + (cos f sin f0 + sin f cos f0 )i .
, ,
cos f cos f0 sin f sin f0 = cos(f + f0 ),
cos f sin f0 + sin f cos f0 = sin(f + f0 ).
,
zz 0 = rr0 {cos(f + f0 ) + i sin(f + f0 )}.
(9)
rr0
f + f0 . , ,
, y
zz
(. 24). ,
, - .
, z
z
. ,
z, z; r = |z|
. z 0 x
O
0
, r = 1.
z z 0 z f0 . . 24.
r0 6= 1, , , - : ,

r0 . , z1 = i ( 90 ); z2 = i (
90 , ); z3 = 1 + i z4 = 1 i.
(9) , z = z 0 ;
:
z 2 = r2 (cos 2f + i sin 2f).
z,
z 3 = r3 (cos 3f + i sin 3f);
, , n, ,
z n = rn (cos nf + i sin nf).
(10)
124
. II
, z ,
r = 1, ,
. (16671754):
(cos f + i sin f)n = cos nf + i sin nf.
(11)

. . n = 3

(u + v)3 = u3 + 3u2 v + 3uv 2 + v 3 .
:
cos 3f + i sin 3f = cos3 3f 3 cos f sin2 f + i(3 cos2 f sin f sin3 f).
, . ,
,
. ,
cos 3f = cos3 f 3 cos f sin2 f,
sin 3f = 3 cos2 f sin f sin3 f.

cos2 f + sin2 f = 1,
:
cos 3f = cos3 f 3 cos f(1 cos2 f) = 4 cos3 f 3 cos f,
sin 3f = 4 sin3 f + 3 sin f.
, sin nf cos nf
sin f cos f, n.
. 1) sin 4f cos 4f.
2) , z : z = cos f +
1
i sin f, , = cos f i sin f.
z
3) ,
a + bi
.
a bi
4) : z1 z2 , z1 z2
, z2 z1 .
5) z1 , z2 , z3 ;
z z2
1
.
z1 z3
6) , .
z z1
z z1
7) , 3
4

z3 z2
z4 z2
, z1 , z2 , z3 , z4
, .
125
8) : z1 , z2 , z3 , z4
,
z 3 z1 z 4 z 1
:
z3 z2
z4 z2
3. . n- a b, bn = a. , 1 : 1 1,
12 = (1)2 = 1. 1 , 1, :
, 1 1, : i
i. ,
1
1
(
).
, .
, n . 25.
n 1. - n-
, 1
.
. 25 ( n = 12).
1.
a = cos
360
360
+ i sin
,
n
n
(12)
n- 360 . a a = a2 , , a
360

. a3 . .; n n
1, . .
an = 1,
(11),

360
360
cos
+ i sin
= cos 360 + i sin 360 = 1 + 0 i = 1.
n
, a = a xn = 1.
1
a2 = cos
720
720
+ i sin
.
n
n
126
. II
,
(a2 )n = a2n = (an )2 = 12 = 1,

720
720
+ i sin n
= cos 720 + i sin 720 = 1 + 0 i = 1.
(a2 )n = cos n
n
, n
1, a, a2 , a3 , . . . , an1
n 1.
,
. ,
1
an
a1 = =
= an1 ;
a
a

an = 1, an+1 = (an ) a = 1 a = a,
. ., . , , , .
n , n- 1,
: 1
1.
, n- 1,
xn 1 = 0,
(13)
n- , .

(xn 1) = (x 1)(xn1 + xn2 + xn3 + . . . + 1).
(14)
0 ,
, (14)
x = 1, ,
xn1 + xn2 + xn3 + . . . + x + 1 = 0.
(15)
a, a , . . . , a ;
, . , , 1
2
n1
1 + i 3
,
a = cos 120 + i sin 120 =
2
1 i 3
a2 = cos 240 + i sin 240 =
2

x2 + x + 1 = 0,
127
, . 1 ( 1)
x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1 = 0.
(16)
,
. 1
.
w = x +
x
(16) x2 :
x2 +
1
1
+ x + + 1 = 0,
x2
x

1 2
1
, , x +
= x2 + 2 + 2,
x
w + w 1 = 0.
(7) 1
w1 =
1 +
2
w2 =
1
2
, 1
:
1
1
x + = w1 , x2 + ( 5 1) x + 1 = 0,
x
x+
1
= w2 ,
x
x2
1
( 5 + 1) x + 1 = 0.
2
(7).
. 1) 6- 1.
2) (1 + i)11 .
3)
3
3
5
1 + i,
7 4i ,
i,
i .
4)
1 7
(i i7 ).
2i
*4. . ax2 +
+ bx + c = 0 xn 1 = 0 ,
:
n
f (x) = xn + an1 xn1 + an2 xn2 + . . . + a1 x + a0 = 0
(17)
. 3- 4-
XVI . ,
: , , ,
.
128
. II
5- ,
.
(1799) , , ; ,
> 5 ,
, (. . 138).
, ,
(17), n , a ,
a = c + di,
f (a) = 0.
a (17). . 289291. ,
, ,
( , ,
):
n
f (x) = xn + an1 xn1 + . . . + a1 x + a0
(18)
n :
f (x) = (x a1 )(x a2 ) . . . (x an ),
(19)
a1 , a2 , . . . , an , f (x) = 0. ,
,
f (x) = x4 1
:
f (x) = (x 1)(x i)(x + i)(x + 1).
a f (x) = 0,
(19), x = ar f (x),
, f (x), .
x a1 , x a2 , . . . f (x)
n ; ,
f (x) = x2 2x + 1 = (x 1)(x 1)
, x = 1, , 2. , n
n x a, n .

xk ak = (x a)(xk1 + axk2 + a2 xk3 + . . . + ak2 x + ak1 ),
(20)
129
a = 1
. , , a =
a1 (17),
f (a1 ) = an1 + an1 an1
+ an2 an2
+ . . . + a1 a1 + a0 = 0.
1
1
f (x) ,
f (x) = f (x) f (a1 ) = (xn an1 ) + an1 (xn1 an1
) + . . . + a1 (x a1 ).
1
(21)
(20), x
a1 ,
, , .
,
f (x) = (x a1 )g(x),
g(x) n 1:
g(x) = xn1 + bn2 xn2 + . . . + b1 x + b0 .
( , b, .) g(x).
, a2 g(x) = 0,
g(x) = (x a2 )h(x),
h(x) n 2. n 1 (, , ), , ,
f (x) = (x a1 )(x a2 ) . . . (x an ).
(22)
(22) , a1 , a2 ,
. . . , an (17), , (17) . , y (17), (22)
f (y) = (y a1 )(y a2 ) . . . (y an ) = 0.
(. 115),
, .
, y ar 0, . . y = ar ,
.
6.
1. .
x, ,
an xn + an1 xn1 + . . . + a1 x + a0 = 0
(n > 1, an 6= 0),
(1)
130
. II
ai . , , 2 ,

x2 2 = 0.
, , ,
, , .
, n = 1.
. , , :
.
,
, .
.
(1)
h = |an | + |an1 | + . . . + |a1 | + |a0 | + n,
.
n
(1) h. n
. , h; ,
,
, 1, 2 . .
,
. ( transcendere , );
,
.

. ,

, ;
, ( - )
. ,
, ,
, ( p e,
. . 319322) .
131
**2. . . (18091862).
.
, ,
, , ,
, .
, ,

.
,
, ,
.
, z
f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + . . . + an xn = 0
(an 6= 0),
(2)
.
,
x n. , ,
z = 2 2, x2 2 = 0 2,
; z = 3 2 3, x3 2 = 0, ( III)
. n > 1
p
, z = q
qx p = 0 1.
z
; ,

p1 p2
,
, ...
q 1 q2
, ,
pr
z.
qr
:
z n > 1, p
1
n+1 ; ,
q

p
1

(3)
z > n+1 .
q
132
. II
,
, .

z = a1 101! + a2 102! + a3 103! + . . . + am 10m! + . . . =
= 0,a1 a2 000a3 00000000000000000a4 000 . . . ,
ai 1 9 (
ai 1), n!, (. . 36),
1 2 . . . n. ,
,
. zm , ,
am 10m! .

|z zm | < 10 10(m+1)! .
(4)
, z n. ,
p
p
(3) = zm = m! ,
q
|z zm | >
10
1
10(n+1)m!
m. (4)
1
10
1
< (m+1)! = (m+1)!1 ,
10(n+1)m!
10
10
(n + 1)m! > (m + 1)! 1 m.

m, n (
).
. , z .
. , z n > 1, (1),
f (z) = 0.
zm
(5)
p
= m ,
qm
zm z.
2
n
f (zm ) = f (zm ) f (z) = a1 (zm z) + a2 (zm
z 2 ) + . . . + an (zm
z n ).
zm z
un v n
= un1 + un2 v + un3 v 2 + . . . + uv n2 + v n1 ,
uv
:
f (zm )
2
= a1 + a2 (zm + z) + a3 (zm
+ zm z + z 2 ) + . . .
zm z
n1
. . . + an (zm
+ . . . + z n1 ). (6)
133
zm z, m
zm z .
m :

f (zm )
< |a1 | + 2|a2 |(|z| + 1) + 3|a3 |(|z| + 1)2 + . . .

zm z
. . . + n|an |(|z| + 1)n1 = M , (7)

M , z
. m ,
p
zm = m qm , M ;
qm
|z zm | >
|f (zm )|
|f (zm )|
.
>
M
qm
(8)
p pm q qm .

n

a q + a1 q n1 p + . . . + an pn
|f (zm )| = 0
(9)
.
n
zm
q
p
= f (x) = 0,
q
f (x) (x zm ), , , z
n. , f (zm ) 6= 0. (9)
, ,
. , (8)
(9)
1 1
1
|z zm | >
(10)
n = n+1 ,
q q
.
,
, . ,
. (18631922) , (3)
n
+ 1.
n + 1
2
. . ,
(
n) 2 n.
,
.
, , , . (
p, III, .)

1900 .
134
. II
, , ,
, .
. - ,

.
, ,
,
2 2
( ).
- , . ,
, , .

, . ,

2 2 , ab , a ,
0 1, a b .
II

1. . , , . () A,
, ; , A, A.
, A
, , A
2, 3, 5, 7, . . .
,
(
). ,
,
. ,
, , -
. II
135
.
,
, , ;
.
I
, , ( ),
A, B, C, . . . - I. I
, A, ,
, B , C
, . . I
, A -
, B . . I, ,
. , , ,
A
I, . , A
, (
) x = x,
I I, ; , A -
( x 6= x),
, .
, A B, ,
A B, B A, A
, B.
A B,
B A.
, A , 10, B , 5,
, 10, 5. A B
B A. ,

A = B.
, A B,
, A B
.
A B a 6 b . , -
136
. II
:
1) A A.
2) A B B A, A = B.
3) A B B C, A C.
A B
. a 6 b ,
() a b a 6 b b 6 a,
A B
. , A , 1, 2, 3,
A = {1, 2, 3},
B , 2, 3, 4,
B = {2, 3, 4},
A B, B A.
, A, B, C, . . . I
, a, b, c, . . .
.
, , A B
, , A I,
4) A
5) A I.
4) , , , . , A
, ,
A;
, , A.
,
,
. A B - .
, , A B , , A,
B ( , A B).
A + B.1 ,
, A B , , A B. AB.2
1
A B. . .
. II
137
A
. 26.
.
A B
A = {1, 2, 3},
B = {2, 3, 4}.
A + B = {1, 2, 3, 4},
AB = {2, 3}.
A + B AB . ,
:
6)
8)
10)
12)
14)
16)
18)
A + B = B + A.
7) AB = BA.
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C.
9) A(BC) = (AB)C.
A + A = A.
11) AA = A.
A(B + C) = AB + AC.
13) A + (BC) = (A + B)(A + C).
A + = A.
15) AI = A.
A + I = I.
17) A = .
A B
A + B = B,
AB = A.
. , 10) , , A, A, A; 12) , , A
B, C,
, A B, A C. ,
, ,
A, B, C, . . .
,
,
, ,
, .
2
A B. . .
138
. II
, , ,
6), 7), 8), 9) 12)
, . , , ,
. , 10), 11) 13)
,
. ,

(A + B)n = (A + B) (A + B) . . . (A + B) = A + B,
11). 14), 15) 17) ,
I
0 1
.
16) .
.
A - I. A I I,
A. A0 . , I , A
, A0 ,
1. A A0 ,
, :
19)
21)
23)
24)
25)
A + A0 = I.
20) AA0 = .
0
= I.
22) I 0 = .
00
A = A.
A B B 0 A0 .
(A + B)0 = A0 B 0 . 26) (AB)0 = A0 + B 0 .
.
1)26) . :
1)26)

I
+
( ),
. , 6) 7), 12)
13), 17) 16) . . , , 1)26), ,
, . ,
. II
139
( ) 126),

. (
. IV.)
2. .
A B A + B, AB A0 .
1)26)
. : , ,
, , , ,
1)26). I; A A,
I, .

:
A B
A+B
A B
AB
A
A0
0
A, B
(A + B) , , , A0 B 0
, A, B
(AB)0 , , , A0 + B 0
B,
AB
A, B,
A B
- A B
AB 6=
AB =
A B
- A B
AB 0 6=
A=
A
Barbara, ,
A B B C, A C,
:
3) A B B C, A C.
, , , :
20) AA0 = ,
, ,
, , :
19) A + A0 = I.
140
. II
, , , +, 0 ,
, 1)26).
,
.
, 1)26), ,
:
27) A + B = B + A,
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C),
(A0 + B 0 )0 + (A0 + B)0 = A.
,
, , , . ,
AB A B A + B
A0 :
AB (A0 + B 0 )0 ,
A B , A + B = B.
,
, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30: a + b ,
, a b, ab
30
a b, a b b a a0 a . , 27). (18151864), , An investigation of the
laws of thought ( ) 1854 .
3. .

. : ,
. , , ,
. I, A
- I, ,
A,
p(A) =
A
.
I
. II
141
- A
n(A),
p(A) =
n(A)
.
n(I)
(1)
, , A , 13
1
n(A) = 13, n(I) = 52 p(A) =
= .
52
4

, , , . , p(A), p(B) p(AB),
p(A + B):
p(A + B) = p(A) + p(B) p(AB).
(2)
.
n(A + B) = n(A) + n(B) n(AB),
, A B, . . AB,
n(A) + n(B), , ,
n(AB) , n(A + B) . n(I), (2).
, A, B, C I. (2),
p(A + B + C) = p[(A + B) + C] = p(A + B) + p(C) p[(A + B)C].
(12) (A + B)C = AC + BC.
:
p[(A + B)C)] = p(AC + BC) = p(AC) + p(BC) p(ABC).
p[(A + B)C] p(A + B), (2), :
p(A + B + C) = p(A) + p(B) + p(C) p(AB) p(AC) p(BC) + p(ABC). (3)
. 1, 2,
3 . ,
( ) ?
A , 1
, B , 2
, C , 3
. p(A + B + C). ,
p(A) = p(B) = p(C) =
1
2
= ;
6
3
, - , 3
2 1 = 6 . ,
p(AB) = p(AC) = p(BC) =
1
,
6
p(ABC) =
1
,
6
.
(3)
p(A + B + C) = 3
1
1
1
1
1
3 + = 1 + = 0,6666 . . .
6
6
6
2
6
142
. II
. p(A + B + C +
D) , 4 .
5
= 0,6250.
8
n
p(A1 + A2 + . . . + An ) =
X
X
X
=
p(Ai )
p(Ai Aj ) +
p(Ai Aj Ak ) . . . p(A1 A2 . . . An ),
1
(4)
P P P
P
, , , ...,

1
n1
, , , , . . . , (n 1) A1 , A2 , . . .
. . . , An .
, (3) (2).
(4) , n 1, 2, 3, . . . , n
, ,
,
pn = 1
1
1
1
1
+ + ... ,
2!
3!
4!
n!
(5)
+ , ,
n . , n = 5
p5 = 1
1
1
1
1
19
+ + =
= 0,6333 . . .
2!
3!
4!
5!
30
VIII , , n ,
Sn =

1
1
1
1
+ ...
2!
3!
4!
n!
1
, , ,
e
0,36788. (5) , pn = 1 Sn ,
, n
1
pn 1 0,63212.
e
III
. ,
,
: , ,
. . , ,
, .

, .
, ( 220 ): , , . , ,
( ). , ,
. ,
.
(
) n- , , . n, , n = 3, 4, 5, 6,
.
(n = 7) , , . ,
:
, (. .
, , , ) (. . ,
144
. III
, ).
, , ,
.
, , . , .
:
, ?

5- . XVI
, 3 4
, .
, , : ,
, , ,
, , , , , . ,
(radix -
).
5- , , , .
. XVIII , , ,
. XIX (17651822) . .
(18021829)

n. ,
n:

1799 . ,
, , ,
.
, , .
:
?

145
, , . (18111832).
, ,
.
, , ,
. ( ; . . 160.)
, ,
: , ?
, ,
.
17 p-, p .
p = 3 p = 5. , , p
:
n
p = 22 + 1.
3, 5, 17, 257, 65 537 (. . 44). ,

. .
,
17-. .
,
, , ,
, ,
. .
, ,
,
.
. ,
,
. ,
, ,
, -
146
. III
. ,
,
.
, . , , , . - ,
, , , ( ); , ,
, : , ,
.
,
, .

1.
1. .
.
.
:
, , a, b, c, . . . ;
x, y, . . .
, ,
.
, ,
, - (., , . 145). ,
- x. :
( ) x a, b, c, . . . ; , ,
x , , , x
147
, , . ,

,
.
,
.
, a b (
), a + b,
a
a b, ra ( r ), ab.
b
a
A
D
3c
a
O
B
a
a
3
a
. 27. a + b a b
. 28.
a
3
a + b (. 27),
OA = a AB = b. OB = a + b.
a b OA = a AB = b,
b , , a. OB = a b. 3a, a + a + a;
, pa, p .
a
(. 28):
3
OA = a
O. OC = c
OD = 3c. A D
C , AD; OA
OB
OB
B. OBC OAD ; ,
=
=
a
OA
OC
1
a
a
=
OB = . ,
OD
3
3
q
q . pa, ra,
p
r = .
q
(. 29), OB = b OA = a b
O OB
OD = 1. D , AB;
148
. III
OA C. : OC = . b
ab . 30; AD , A
BC.
b
1
O
b
DB
a
b
C
a
DB
a b
. 29.
a
b
. 30. ab
,
, , ,
,
. , a, b, c, . . . , , , , a, b, c, . . . , . . . , a, b, c, . . . , ,
, , , ( ) , .
, , ,
. C
, a, b, c, . . .
,
O
B , A 1
a
.
a,
a
. 31. a
.
OA = a AB = 1 (. 31).
, , OB A
OB; C.
C OBC ( ,
: , , ).
149
, OCA = ABC, OAC CAB

, , AC = x,
x
a
= ,
x2 = a,
x = a.
x
2. .
. . ,
1 (. 32);
x.
, x
A
, 36 ,

x x
72 , , B
, A,
O x
1 x
OAB
x. , , x 1 x.
OAB , . 32.
1
x
, =
.
x
1x

x2 + x 1 = 0,
x =
51
. ( ,
2
x.)
, x .
x, , x.
,
.
5 , . 31,
1
2. , ,
.
OB
,
AB
, , ,
,
. 1,62.
. ,
, , -
150
. III
, ,
.
n-, 2n-, n-. (
), 4, 8, 16, . . . , 2n -. , , 12, 24,
48, . . .-, , 20, 40, . . . -.
D
E
. 33.
. 34.

sn n-,
(. . 1),
2n-
q
p
s2n = 2 4 s2n .
(. 34): sn = DE = 2DC, s2n =
1
DB AB = 2. ABD BD AD,
2
1
, , AB CD. AD = AB 2 DB 2 , , 2
AB = 2, BD = s2n , CD = sn
2
,
q
sn = s2n 4 s22n , s2n = s22n (4 s22n ).
x = s22n
, x 2.
, s4 ( ) 2, ,
q
p
p
s8 = 2 2,
s16 = 2 2 + 2,
r
q
p
s32 = 2 2 + 2 + 2 . .
151
( n > 2)
s
r
q
n
s2 = 2 2 + 2 + . . . + 2,
n 1 .
2n -, 1, 2n s2n . n
, ,
2p:
2n s2n 2p
n .
m n 1,
p:
s
r
q
m
2 2 + 2 + . . . + 2 p m .
2
|
{z
}
m
. , 2m , , ,
r
q
2 + 2 + . . . + 2 2 n .
|
{z
}
n
:
2n -, 5 2n - 3 2n - , , , ; ,
.
3. . , ,
,
, .

. : . ;
(. . 181).
(x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ) (x3 , y3 ), r1 , r2 r3 .
(x, y), r.
, ,
, , .
,
152
. III
. 35.

(x x1 )2 + (y y1 )2 (r r1 )2 = 0,
(x x2 )2 + (y y2 )2 (r r2 )2 = 0,
(x x3 )2 + (y y3 )2 (r r3 )2 = 0,
(1)
(2)
(3)

x2 + y 2 r2 2xx1 2yy1 2rr1 + x21 + y12 + r12 = 0
(1a)
. .
, , (. 35).
(1), (2), (3) x, y,
r, ,
, (1a).
, (2) (1), , x, y, r:
ax + by + cr = d,
(4)
a = 2(x2 x1 ) . . , (3) (1),

a0 x + b0 y + c0 r = d0 .
(5)
(4) (5) x y, ,
, r, (1),
153
, r,

(. . 143). , , ,
. r,
x y, r .
(x, y) r
.
. , x, y r
.
8
2 2 2 = 8 +
(1), (2) (3);
,
.
,
x, y r. , , ,
; , ,
. ; ,
,
, .
: ,
.
2. , ,

1. . , ,
. : 1) , 2) ,
3) , 4)
. (, , )
,
. ,
x, y (. . 92).
x, y.
, ,
154
. III
x = 1, y = 0. : ,
. (
:
, , .)
: , , ax + by + c = 0 ,
a, b, c, ,
. ,
, : ,
.
,
1. 1 ,
r
, . . , r s .
s
: , , , (, ,
0)
. , ,
(. 75).
. ,
. (: a -
a
F , = 1 F , 1
a
.)
, , , (. . ,
) x, y. , ,
2, , II,
2,
. 2,
( 1)
a + b 2,
(1)
a b , , .

a+b 2
(a + b 2)(c + d 2),
c+d 2
155
a, b, c, d .
(1). ,
a+b 2 cd 2
ac 2bd
bc ad
a+b 2
=

= 2
2 = p + q 2,
2 + 2
2
c+d 2
c+d 2
cd 2
c 2d
c 2d
p q . (
c 2d2 ,
c
c2 2d2
= 0 2 = , d
2.)
(a + b 2)(c + d 2) = (ac + 2bd) + (bc + ad) 2 = r + s 2,

r s . , ,
2, (1), a b .
. (1)
p
,
q
p + p2 ,

p=1+
2,
q
r
pqr
,
1 r2
(p p2 ) ,
q=2
2,
p qr
,
q + pr2
r = 3 +
2.
, (1) . , , (). , , , . F0 , F1 (1).

F1 .
, ,
, : F1 , k = 1 + 2,
, ,
1 + 2 = k.
, , ( 1) ,

p + q k,
(2)
p q F1 , . . a + b 2, a, b F0 ,
. . .
.
( k)3 ,
1 + ( k)3
,
1+ k

1
2 k+
2
,
( k)3 3
(1 +

1
k)
2+
k
1 + 3k
k) (2
(2).
,
. ,
. ,
156
. III
a. G,

am am + am1 am1 + . . . + a1 a + a0
,
bn an + bn1 an1 + . . . + b1 a + b0
a0 , . . . , am b0 , . . . , bn , a m n
.
. 1 a,
1+a
1 + a + a2 ,
, a3 .
1a
, F . , F .
, a1 , b1 a2 , b2
F , (b1 b2 )x + (a2 a1 )y + (a1 b2 a2 b1 ) = 0 (. . 515
);
F , , F . ,
ax + by + g = 0 a0 x + b0 y + g0 = 0 F , ,
,
gb0 bg0
ag0 ga0
x= 0
,
y= 0
.
0
ab ba
ab ba0
F , ,
F .
. x + 2 y 1 = 0, 2x y + 2 = 0 , (1).
, (1); (1, 2)
( 2, 1 2) ax + by + c = 0 , a, b, c (1). (2)
p
p
1 + 2 x + 2 y = 1, (1 + 2)x y = 1 1 + 2

( 2, 1),
(1 +
2, 1 + 2 ).

F .
F k, k
F . k ,

(3)
a + b k,
a, b F .
a + b k c + d k,

(a + b k)(c + d k) = (ac + kbd) + (ad bc) k
157
(a + b k)(c d k)
ac kbd
bc ad
a+b k
=
= 2
+ 2
k
2
2
2
c kd
c kd
c kd2
c+d k
p + q k, p q F . ( c2
kd2 , c d
c
: k = , ,
d
k F .) , a + b k F 0 . F 0 F
( b = 0). F 0
.

a
+
b
2, a,
0
b :
k = 2.
0 F
4
p
+
q
2,
F
,
p
=
a
+
b
2,
q
=
a
+
b0 2, a a, b, a0 , b0 . F 0
, ,
4
1
2 42
2 42
2
2
=

=
=
=
4
4
4
2+ 2
( 2 + 2)( 2 2)
2 2
2 2
2 2

(2 + 2)
2(2 + 2)
1
4
4
2 = (1 + 2) 1 +
2
2.
=
42
42
2
p
. F p + q p
2 + 2 , p, q a + b 2,
a, b .
2+ 2
p
.
23 2+ 2
1+
, , F , , k
,
k, ,

a + b k, a, b F .
, , , , . ,
:
,
(
). (x, h) r (x x)2 + (y h)2 = r2 ; , x, h, r
F , ,
x2 + y 2 + 2ax + 2by + g = 0,
a, b, g, F .
ax + by + c = 0,
F ,
F (. . 150). y ,
158
. III
x

Ax2 + By + C = 0
A, B, C F (, A = a2 + b2, B = 2(ac +
b2 a abb), C = c2 2bcb + b2 g).
B
B 2 4AC
,
2A
x=
p + q k, p, q, k F . y .
,
x2 + y 2 + 2ax + 2by + g = 0,
x2 + y 2 + 2a0 x + 2b0 y + g0 = 0,
, ,
(a a0 )x + (b b0 )y + (g g0 ) = 0,
.

k, p, q, k
,
p
+
q
F . , k F , , k = 4. , , .
.
1
2 2 ,
, 0 , (4 2, 2).
2
F 0 , .

2
,
, (0, 2 2).
2
. ( ),
F , ,
. , ,
, F 0 , a + b k, a, b, k F . F
F 0
: F F 0 ,
a + b k b = 0. (, k
, F ; F 0 F .)
, (. .
; ,
;
) ,
159
, , , , , .
, .
F0 , , ; , , ,
.
k
,
(
k0 F0 ,
,
k0 ),
F
,
a0 + b0 k0 ,
a
,
b
F
.
,
0
0
0
k1 ( k1 F1 , k1
), F2 a1 + b1 k1 , a1
b1 F1 . , Fn n .
,
Fn . n ;
, .
.

rq
p
6+
1 + 2 + 3 + 5.
F0
. k0 = 2,
F1 , 1 + 2. k1 = 1 + 2 k2 = 3.
3 F0 , ,
F2 , k2 = 3
qp .
p
k3 = 1 + 2 + 3 , , k4 =
1 + 2 + 3 + 5.
F5
,
6 : , 2 3, ,
, F3 , , F5 .
. , , 2m - (. . 145) (n = m
1). ,
.
5 + 11
p
1 + 2 + 3 + 5,
,
1+
p

2+ 3
8
2+
q
1+
p
p
2+ 5+ 3 7
!
.
160
. III
2. , .
F0 ( ), , , . ( . 123.) ,
F1 , F2
, , Fk
2k .
p
2
+
3
+

F2 , .
x
=
2.
(x 2)2 = 3 + 2, x2 + 2 2 2x = 3 + 2, x2 1 = 2(2x +
1) F1 .

(x2 1)2 = 2(2x + 1)2
.
F2
x = p + q w,
(4)
p, q, w F1 , , p = a + b s, q = c + d s,
w = e + f s, a, b, c, d, e, f , s . (4)
x2 2px + p2 = q 2 w,
F1 ,
s.
x2 + ux + v = s(rx + t),
r, s, t, u, v . ,

(x2 + ux + v)2 = s(rx + t)2
(5)
, .
. 1)
p
1
) x = 2 + 3,
) x = p
) x = 2 + 3,
.
5+
2)
q
p
p
) x = 2 + 2 + 2,
) x = 2 + 1 + 3,
q
p
) x = 1 + 5 + 3 + 2.
, x Fk k, , ,
x Fk1 .
, , , x
22 = 4 Fk2 , . .
. , : , x 2l
Fkl , 0 < l 6 k. l = k .
161
3.
1. . , .
.
, , ; x ,
. ,
x3 2 = 0.
(1)
x .
, . ,
, x Fk ,
, ,
.
, .
, x
F0 , 3 2 (. 1
. 80). , ,
Fk , k .
, k , . . x
Fk , Fk1 . , x
x = p + q w,
p, q w - Fk1 , w . , , (
),
, p + q w (1), y = p q w
. x Fk , x3 x3 2
Fk , ,
(2)
x3 2 = a + b w,
a b Fk1 . , a = p3 + 3pq 2 w
2, b = 3p2 q + q 3 w.
y = p q w,
,
y 3 2 = a b w.
, x (1),
a + b w = 0.
(20 )
(3)
162
. III
( !), a b . , b
a
, (3) w = , b
, w Fk1 . , b = 0,
(3) , a = 0. , a= b = 0,
(20 ) , y = p q w
3
(1),
y 2 = 0. y 6= x, . . x y 6= 0,
x y = 2q w q = 0,
x = p Fk1 , .
, x = p + q w (1), y = p q w , ,
. :
y=pq w
, , , p, q, w , (1) ,
(. . 119).
, ,
; (1)
Fk . ,
.
2. .
, .
, .
. , x1 , x2 , x3
z 3 + az 2 + bz + c = 0,
(4)

x1 + x2 + x3 = a.
(5)
(4), a, b, c
. , , ,
1
z 3 + az 2 + bz + c
(z x1 )(z x2 )(z x3 ), x1 , x2 , x3 (4)
(. . 122).
z 3 + az 2 + bz + c = z 3 (x1 + x2 + x3 )z 2 + (x1 x2 + x2 x3 + x1 x3 )z x1 x2 x3 ,

,
a = x1 + x2 + x3 ,
b = x1 x2 + x2 x3 + x1 x3 ,
c = x1 x2 x3 .
. .
163
: , x3 1 = 0 1 , , x2 + x + 1 = 0, . :

,
, F0 .
, , . , x, (4), . x Fk ,
F0 , F1 , . . . , Fk .
, , , (4) Fk1 . ( k ,
: x .) , x

x = p + q w,
p, q, w Fk1 , w Fk1 . , ,
,
y = p q w,
Fk , (4). ,
, q 6= 0; , x 6= y.
(5) , (4) u = a x y. x + y = 2p, ,
,
u = a 2p.
w , , u Fk1 . , k
, Fk
(4). ,
, , (4) Fk . .
,
,
,
, .

; ,
, .
164
. III
3. . ,
. ,
, 90 180 ,
. ,
, .
,
, - ,
. ,
, , , ,
60
.
; , j
: cos j = g. j
x = cos .
3
(. . 118)
cos j = 4 cos3
j
3
3 cos
j
3
, j (, cos j = g)

4z 3 3z g = 0.
(6)
j = 60 , g = cos 60 =
1
= , (6)
8z 3 6z = 1.
(7)
, ,
, .
v = 2z;
v 3 3v = 1.
(8)
r
v = , s
, r s (> 1),
r3 3s2 r = s3 .
, s3 r(r2 3s2 ) r, , r
s , r 1.
, r3 = s2 (s + 3r) s2 , , r s , s 1.
r
, , ,
s
, r s 1, . . v = 1. v = +1
v = 1 (8), ,
165
. , (8), , (7)
;
.
,
, ,
. , ,
, . ,
. , .
B
y
x
O
. 36. ,
x (. 36).
O r.
A B, AB = r.
, A
, B
. ,
, y.
. , y =
x
.
3
4. . x , . ,
(. II, 5). ,
z 7 1 = 0,
(9)
x, y
z = x + iy. z =
1,
z7 1
= z6 + z5 + z4 + z3 + z2 + z + 1 = 0
z1
(10)
166
. III
(. . 120). z 3 ,
z3 +
1
1
1
+ z 2 + 2 + z + + 1 = 0.
z2
z
z
(11)

1
1 2
1
1 3
3 z+
+ z+
2+ z+
+ 1 = 0.
z+
z

z+
(12)
1
= y,
z

y 3 + y 2 2y 1 = 0.
(13)
, z, ,
z = cos f + i sin f,
(14)
360
f =
,
7
; , 2 . 118 ,
1
= cos f i sin f,
z
y=z+
1
= 2 cos f.
z
y, cos f, .
, , y ,
, cos f, z; ,
.
, 2, ,
(13) .
. , (13)
r
, r s .
s

r3 + r2 s 2rs2 s3 = 0;
3
(15)
, r s, a s r. r s
, , 1. ,
y, , +1
1. (13) , +1, 1
. , y,
, .
5. . , .
167
. r pr2 , ,

p, 1,
. p
, p.
, ,
,
, p Fk ,
. ,
, , . . , , , p
, (. . 124).
, p, (18221905),
e. , . ( 1882 .)
p ,
.
, ,
, .

4. .
1. . ,
, .
,
. ,
, .
, , , . IV
168
. III
V

.
L
,
P
. 37. - .

() , , P P 0
. P 0 P , P
P 0 . ( )
L: P L
P 0 , P
L , L P P 0 ,
P
. ;
O
L.
C
O, , . 38.

(
), , ,
, .
, , , . ( ,
.)
C O (
, , ) r. P P
169
P 0 , OP O,
P , ,
OP OP 0 = r2 .
(1)
, P 0 P , P (
) P 0 . P P 0
C.
, : ,
OP < r OP 0 > r , ,
OP > r OP 0 < r.
C.
(1) O. ,
P O, P 0
. , .
,
,
:
. ,
.
2. . ,
. , ,
) , O, , O,
) , O, , O,
) , O, , O,
) , O, ,
O.
) , ,
,
,
.
170
. III
). O L (. 39). A , A0 , A. P L
P 0 , . OA OA0 = OP OP 0 = r2 ,
P
,
OA0
OP
.
=
OP 0
OA
OP 0 A0 OAP
, , OP 0 A0 .
A

K
, P 0
L
K OA0 ;
, . 39. - , L. , ) . )
, L K,
K L.
). K , O, M k (. 40).
, O , K A B,
, A0 B 0 ,
K O
B
A
B
A
M
Q
O
. 40.
. OA, OB, OA0 , OB 0 , OM a, b, a0 ,

b0 , m, t K, O.
, aa0 = bb0 = r2 ,
ab = t2 .
,
a0
b0
r2
= = 2 = c2 ,
b
a
t
171
c2 r t , , A
B. A0 , BM ; Q
OM . OQ = q, A0 Q = r.
r
a0
q
= = ,
m

q=
ma0
= mc2 ,
b
r=
ka0
= kc2 .
b
, A B Q
OM A0 Q
a0
b0
= . , . B 0 Q = r,
b
a
A B K , Q
r, . . K . )
.
3. R
. 4 : P 0 ,
P C,
P
P

O
.
, P S
C. OP P , . 41. , C R S.

r, C; O P 0 OP .
ORP ORP 0
ORP = P OR = OP 0 R,
,
OR
OP
=
,
OR
OP 0
. . OP OP 0 = r2 .
, P 0 P .
P C, , OP P
C . ,
.
172
. III
, , A O, C,
AO = OC. O
r = AO. , A,
P , Q, C, AP = P Q = QC = r.
C : , AOP , OP Q, OQC , OA OC
180 OC = OQ = AO. ,
AO
.
, AO r 3(
), 3,
, .
Q
O
PR
. 42.
. 43. ,

, P
C, P C.
OP R, OR OP ,
R C:
OR = n OP.
OP , C.
R0 , R.

r2 = OR0 OR = OR0 (n OP ) = (n OR0 ) OP.
P 0 OP 0 = n OR0 ,
.
4.
. , , . ,
, A B ,
173
. .
AB B ,
A, , AB.
C
AB, : AB = BC. AB
A C 0 ,
C C
. B
A
C
:
0
2
AC AC = AB ,
AC 0 2AB = AB 2 ,
2AC 0 = AB.
, C 0
.
. 44.
, , , , . P
,
S
R S. Q
RP = SP , ,
P
P , Q. ,
Q
, . 41, ,
Q0 ,
R
Q P , Q0 ,
. 45. ,
5. .

*1. , . , . , , , -
174
. III
S
D
Q
T
y
f
B
a
W
. 46. ,
.
, . (. 46) M ZN V W , P Q. RS T U
,
.
E G, GB = a BE = f .
, E G N Z
M Z, T U RS,
, BW , BQ, BV
A, D, E ADEZ.
f > a.
, a : x = x : y = y : f , , , f = 2a,
x3 = 2a3 . , x ,
, a. ,
175
.
2. . , , , , , ,
, . , (17501800): , ,
. , , ,
,
. , ,
.
, ,
.
,
AB. . 166. , . 167 . , AB O.
(. 47).
AO
R
A B. O OP OQ, OP = OQ = AB. R P P B
B
A
Q QA. ,
OR, P
Q
O
P Q
AB . 47.
AB.
.
,
,
, :
.
, , :
1. , .
176
. III
2. .
3. .
4. .
( ,
) . , .
3 4 , .
Q
P
B
A
B2
X
O
O
A
C
. 48.
,
B
B1
. 49. ,
3: C , A B.
A B , AO BO;
O, P . Q,
P C (. , . 167). , Q QO ( C): X X 0
C .
, X X 0 O P ( A B,
). ,
, , Q, X
X 0 , C (. . 165).
, , X, X 0 O,
AB C,
AB C .
( .)
177
, AB C.
, . 169,
C, ,
B, C B1 B2 .
, ,
, , 4.
A, B A0 , B 0 (. 50).
C ,
AB A0 B 0 .
O
Y . X, Y , :
A
. X
O
, , Y
Y
B
, ,
C
AB
0 0
A B ; , X, Y , X
B
AB, A0 B 0 .
A
- . 50.
, ,
.
,
,
. X
; ,
- , C
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178
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AC; X. , O K,
A OX K
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K, F , K
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2)
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(:
, (a 2)2 = (a 3)2 a2 .)
p
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, x2 = 2p2 (p2 q 2 ).) .
5) , p + q p q,
, p q - .
6) M AB a. AB
C D, CA = AB = BD. ECD EC = ED = 2a M
EC ED.
7) A BC.
8) x x : a = p : q, a, p q .
9) x = ab, a b .
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180
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182
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n
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T , ,
OP OQ = (OT P T ) (OT + P T ) = OT 2 P T 2 =
= (OT 2 + ST 2 ) (RT 2 + ST 2 ) = t2 s2 . (3)
t2 s2 ; t2 s2 = r2 . OP OQ =
184
. III
r2 , P Q O r. P ,
O, Q , . , , O, , ,
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.
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AB, AD CB,
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m
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A
S
. 59.
BD. O, P Q
, OP AC. AE CF BD.
AC BD = EF BD = (ED + EB) (ED EB) = ED2 EB 2 .
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AD2 AB 2 . ,
OP
AO
m
=
=
BD
AB
m+n
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OB
n
=
=
.
AC
AB
m+n
,
OP OQ =
mn
mn
BD AC =
(AD2 AB 2 ).
(m + n)2
(m + n)2
. P Q
185
O. P S, O; ,
Q .
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f (x, y) = 0,
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186
. III
P C
OL, O.
C 0 , C, OL P 0 , P , P 0 , P , OL. , x0
OL C P y0
OL C 0 P 0 . A
C P AP .
, A, A0 ; OA
C 0 , .
A0 P 0 . , r2 = OP OP 0 = OA OA0 ,
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=
0,
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OP
. . OAP OA0 P 0 . , x OA0 P 0 , y. , A

C P . AP
C P , x x0 . A0
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P 0 , y y0 .
A x = y, x0 = y0 .
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188
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189
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196
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.
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198
. IV
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199
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AB
BC,
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BC
C l A0 , B 0 , C 0
l0 . , l0
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. 1 .
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C
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1
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200

x=
. IV
CA DA
:
CB DB
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.
, , . . A, B, C, D A0 , B 0 , C 0 , D0

O
,
D
C
A
CA DA
C 0 A0 D0 A0
:
= 0 0 : 0 0.
CB DB
CB DB
B
h
. 75.
. ,

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(. 75):
1
1
h CA = OA OC sin COA,
2
2
1
1
OCB = h CB = OB OC sin COB,
2
2
1
1
ODA = h DA = OA OD sin DOA,
2
2
1
1
ODB = h DB = OB OD sin DOB.
2
2
OCA =
:
CA DA
CA DB
OA OC sin COA OB OD sin DOB
:
=
=
CB DB
CB DA
OB OC sin COB OA OD sin DOA
sin COA sin DOB
=
.
sin COB sin DOA
, A, B, C, D
, O OA, OB, OC, OD.
, A0 , B 0 , C 0 ,
D0 , A, B, C, D, ,
.
,
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(. 76).
201
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.
.
l , ,
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C

A, B, C,
B

D ( ) A

(ABCD) =
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:
,
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A
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B

C
. D
l, . 76. ,
,
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, , A, B
C, D . ,
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(ABCD) 0
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A
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D
O l
l (ABCD) 0
x O,
C
B
D
A
; ,
. 77. - A, B, C, D
x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ,
x x1 x4 x1
x x1 x4 x2
CA DA
:
= 3
:
= 3
.
CB DB
x3 x2 x4 x2
x3 x2 x4 x1
CA
DA
(ABCD) = 1,
=
, C D
CB
DB
(ABCD) =
AB .
, C D AB ,
C D
A, B. (ABCD) = 1, C
D ( A B) .
202
. IV
, (ABCD) ,
A, B, C, D. , (ABCD) = l, 1
(BACD) , (DACB) = 1 l, l
. A, B, C, D
4 3 2 1 = 24 ,
. , A, B, C, D; , (ABCD) =
(BADC). ,
24
,
1
l1
1
l
,
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l, 1 l,
l
l
1l
l1
, , , l , l = 1
.
O
x1
x2
x3
x4
. 78.
(. . ) 1,
2, 3, 4,
, .

. :
sin(1, 3) sin(1, 4)
(1234) =
:
,
sin(2, 3)
sin(2, 4)
, 1, 2 3, 4, , . ( (1, 3), , 1 3.) ,

( , , ).
,
,
203
( ).
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. 79.
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- .
A, B, C x1 , x2 , x3 . D ,
(ABCD) = l, l . ( , l = 1
204
. IV
,
.) ,
; , x
D,
x3 x1 x x2
=l
x3 x2 x x1
. x1 , x2 x3
x x1
= k,
3
x3 x2
x=
kx2 lx1
.
kl
, A, B, C
x1 = 0, x2 = d, x3 = 2d,
2d 0
2d
k =
=2 x=
.
2d d
2l
O
O
A
B
C
D
l
. 80.
l O0 O00
l0 l00 , P
P0
0
00
l l P
P
l l00 . P 0
P 00 0
00
l l , , A0 , B 0 , C 0 ,
D0 l0 ,
A00 , B 00 , C 00 , D00 l00 .
, ,
205
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.
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, . (:
- .)
2) , , l l0

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.
I
H
F
G
. 81.
2. .
, .
,
, , . . 81
AE, BE, BI, AF . AB, EG IF . , AB, C D,
. (ABCD) = 1; :

. -
206
. IV
,
x = (ABCD) = (IF HD)
(IF HD) = (BACD)
( E),
( G).
,
(BACD) =
1
;
(ABCD)
, x = , x2 = 1, x = 1. C, D A, B,
x
x
1, .
,
C A, B ( A,
B, C ). , E
, EA, EB, EC; ,
G EC, AD BD, EB EA,
, F I; , , IF , D.
. 82.
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. 82. AB R.
,
R? (:
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.)
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207
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p0 .
p l,
p0 .
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m0 p0 , ,
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210
. IV

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211
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(ABCP ), P l.
CA P A
:
,
CB P B
PA
, P ,
1. PB
:
CA
(ABC) =
.
CB
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, (ABC) = 1, C AB:
,
, .
212
. IV
. l1 , l2 , l3 , l4 , ? , ,
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?
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O P QR
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213
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. 86. ,
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C, D, . 86. l1 l2 ,
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OB
=
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OD
l1 l2 . ,
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2. . , ,
ABC A0 B 0 C 0 , . 72, . . ,
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P , Q, R .
, Q R
. A0 B 0 AB, A0 C 0 AC (. 87).
214
. IV
1 ,
,
A
s
A
r
B
x
y
. 87.
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, . . B 0 C 0 BC:
P , Q, R (
). ,
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v
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y
.
,
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,
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AA0 , BB 0 , CC 0 .
215
3. 1 . : , P , Q, R
(. 88). (
4
.
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2
6
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5
3
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. . 90, 23 k 56 12 k
Q
45. , 16 k 34.
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a
=
,
a+x
b+y+s
a+x
b
=
.
b+y
a+x+r
R
. 88.
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a+x+r
=
,
b
b+y+s
16 k 34,
.
r
2
3
2
x
4
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. 89.
1
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. 230 .
(III ).
216
. IV
4. . :
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, (. 91).
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3
6
2
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. 91.

P , , 14 36.
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x
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=
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218
. IV
XIX . .

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x, y r, j; , ,
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, x, y
P (x, y) ( . . 92),

ax + by + c = 0.
(1)
a, b, c .
, a = 0, b = 1, c = 0 y = 0, . . x;
a = 1, b = 1, c = 0 x = y,
x y.
:
x2 + y 2 = r2 r ,
(x a)2 + (y b)2 = r2 r (a, b),
y2
= 1 . .
b2
x2
+
a2
, , , . ., .
. x, y
, , ,

219
. , x y.

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; .
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x, y, z (
, x, y z). ,
p x, y
1 , P
p (X, Y , 1). O , , P
OP ,
(. . 98). ,
p , O p.
,
p.
P , OP
Q, O (. 93). x, y, z Q
P p. , (X, Y ,
1) P .
(tX, tY ,
t), t 6= 0, OP ( O)
. ( (0, 0, 0),
, O,
220
. IV
.)
, ,
, , , ,
, .
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p. , P
z
(tx, ty, tz)

(x, y, z)
Q
Y
x
X
P(X, Y, 1)
y
( x, y, z)
y
. 93.
, O p;
Q (x, y, 0);
, p
(x, y, 0).
p. ,
, O , ,
O. ,

ax + by + cz = 0.
(10 )
.
, , p , O, ,

:
221
, (x, y, z),
. (x1 , y1 , z1 ) (x2 , y2 , z2 )
, t 6= 0,
x2 = tx,
y2 = ty1 ,
z2 = tz1 .
, , , , . (
.) (x, y, z) ,
z , , z .
p (x, y, z),
ax + by + cz = 0,
(10 )
a, b, c , . , p
z = 0;
(2)
, , p.
(10 ), (a, b, c) (10 ). ,
t 6= 0 (ta, tb, tc) ,
(ta)x + (tb)y + (tc)z = 0
(3)
(x, y, z),
(10 ).
:
(u, v, w). , (x, y, z) (a, b, c),
ax + by + cz = 0,
, (a, b, c) (x, y, z). ,

2 3 + 1 4 + (5) 2 = 0
, (3, 4, 2) (2, 1, 5),
, (2, 1, 5) (3, 4, 2).

,
, ,
222
. IV
. -
, , . ,
, X, Y ,
aX + bY + c = 0
X, Y a, b, c. ( )
.
x, y, z P
p , y
x
X = , Y = . X, Y P
z
z
p, x- y-,
. 93. ,
aX + bY + c = 0
x
p. X = , Y = z,
z
z
,
ax + by + cz = 0,
. 214. , 2x 3y + z = 0
X, Y 2X 3Y + 1 = 0.
, (3, 2, 0) .
.
; ? , , , . 197,

x0 = a1 x + b1 y + c1 z
y 0 = a2 x + b2 y + c2 z ,
(4)
0
z = a3 x + b3 y + c3 z
x0 , y 0 , z 0 p0 x, y, z p.
,
(4). , (x, y, z)
. ,
.

.
223
7.

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118 . , , ,
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a, b, c, d, P , , (abcd) 1. ,
c, d a, b .
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c d, b a.
2) , . (: .)
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5) b. b
.
6) , P l1 , l2 , . . . , ln
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.
7) , ABC , BC, AB B 0 AC C 0 , ,
A D B 0 C C 0 B, BC.
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8) l P , Q, R, Q P R. , l
S.
9) l1 l2 ;
AB l1 .
10) P ,
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11)
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(. 10) C , l; D
BA1 . E AB DB1 , AE = 2 AB.
.
12) AB n , l,
AB. (: 11, n
224
. IV
l.)
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.)
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22) l1 l2 P ; m1 m2 Q;
P Q . P Q,
. (: P Q, ,
l1 m1 ,
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23) 20 (. 209). (: , l1 l2
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8.
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225
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226
. IV
: , . C
O,
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P E, P F1 P F2 .
P O, P O;
; Q1 Q2
K1 K2 . P F1 P Q1
227
, P S1 ,
P F1 = P Q1 .

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, :
P F1 + P F2 = P Q1 + P Q2 .
P Q1 + P Q2 = Q1 Q2 K1 K2 : P
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.
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228
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1 .
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.
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1
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229
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230
. IV
, 1 .
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231
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(: O OA, OB, OC a, b, c.
O0 O0 A, O0 B, O0 C a0 , b0 , c0 . O d d0 O0 , (abcd) =
(a0 b0 c0 d0 ). d d0 K.)
3. .
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232
. IV
.

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K; a, b, c, d ; T - . 100.
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1
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2
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1
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P , Q, R, S. Ho (ABCD)
a, b, c, d, o.
.
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D
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233
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234
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235
236
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4), (4, 5), (5, 6), (6, 1). (1, 2) (4, 5),
(2, 3) (5, 6), (3, 4) (6, 1). .
237
. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 . (1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), (4, 5), (5, 6), (6, 1). , (1, 2) (4, 5), (2, 3) (5, 6), (3, 4) (6, 1).
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K
, , k. C AF ;
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k = (F , A, Y , ) =
YF
YA
(. . 205).
E BA;
238
. IV
. 108. ,

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k = (X, A, B, ) =
,
BX
.
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239
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p ,
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l1 , m ,
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240
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, .
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XVIII ., .

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242
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,
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(1)
,

(OSQP ) (OSRQ) =
1
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:
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RO P O
:
=
:
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RS
QS
RS
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. . 109
. . -, .
. .
249
(1) P Q
( ), , : P Q =
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, (OSQP ) > 1 P 6= Q.
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252
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254
. IV

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, .

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y) = ax + by + c = 0 ( a, b, c ),
. .
.
, , , , -
255
. ,
x, y, z
L(x, y, z) = ax + by + cz + d = 0
L0 (x, y, z) = a0 x + b0 y + c0 z + d0 = 0
,
00
00
00
00
00
L (x, y, z) = a x + b y + c z + d = 0
, R3 , L = 0, L0 = 0, L00 = 0.
: x, y, x > 0,
, ,
y. x, y,

L(x, y) = ax + by + c > 0,
,
L = 0, x, y, z,
L(x, y, z) = ax + by + cz + d > 0,
, L = 0.
n- . x, y, z, t. , ,
, , R4 . ,
, n- Rn ,
n x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ,
. , .
,
n . ,
. .
, , ,
. , , x1 , x2 , . . . , xn
n- Rn ,
L(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = a1 x1 + a2 x2 + . . . + an xn + b = 0.
n n
L1 (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = 0
L2 (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = 0
....................
Ln (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = 0
256
. IV
n L1 = 0, L2 = 0, . . . , Ln = 0.
,
,
n n 6 3
. ,
,
.
,
, x, y, z t
- x, y, z, t. , , -
, , ,
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x, y, t. ,
.

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x, y, z t
x, y, z, t.
, 2 , , x1 , x2 , x3 ,
|x1 | 6 1, |x2 | 6 1, |x3 | 6 1. n-
Rn , 2
, , x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ,
|x1 | 6 1, |x2 | 6 1, . . . , |xn | 6 1.
,
.
n 2 ,
; . .
. ,
, n- .
257
*3. , , . n-
, ,
.
n- (n 1)- .
, ABC
. C AC
BC A B, (. 116), C
. . A
B C,
. , . , (. .
) C, . :
A B, CA, AB,
BC, ,
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B
C
B
C
. 116.

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258
. IV
, .
.
,
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, ; ,
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.
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R4 8 ,
. 16 , ;
32. R4 .
, , 5 , , 16 , , 24 , , 120 ,
, 600 . , Rn , n > 4,
3 : n + 1 , n + 1 Rn1 , n
(n 2)- ; 2n , 2n Rn1 , 2n 2 (n 2)- ;
2n , 2n Rn1 ,
n (n 2)- .
. R4 , 2,
259
7
VI
3
III
II
5
IV
6
V
4
II
IV
6
V
5
III
VI
2
1
2
1
3
3
1
5
6
4
4
2
2
3
4
5
8
7
5
7
8
8
7
6
6
. 117.
, , , .
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0, 1, 2, 3 , , , . T0 , T1 , T2 , T3 . ( .)
, Tn n + 1
i + 1 Tn (i = 0, 1, . . . , n)
Ti . , T3 4 , 6 4 .
, . T4 , 5 , 4 T3 ,
3 T2 . . T4
. 118: , 5 , 10 , 10
5 .
n . r!

, Cir =
i! (r i)!
i , -
260
. IV
T1
T3
T2
T4
. 118. 1, 2, 3, 4
r . n-
C1n+1 = n + 1
n+1
2
C3n+1
C4n+1
(n + 1)!
=
2! (n 1)!
(n + 1)!
=
3! (n 2)!
(n + 1)!
=
4! (n 3)!
( T0 ),
( T1 ),
( T2 ),
T3 ,
..................................
n+1
Cn+1
=1
Tn .
. T5
Ti , (i = 0, 1, . . . , 5).
XIX ,
. , ( analysis situs), , , , , .
. . (1790
1868), , - :
.
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.
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, , 1847 . Vorstudien zur Topologie. (1826
1866) , ,

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262
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1752 .;

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1.

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(1)
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263
264
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; . 121 ,
.

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,
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+ F = 1; , , . 121. : V E + F = 16 32 + 16 = 0
V E + F = 2.
-
265
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. ,
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C
A
B
D
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E
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F 1, V , V E + F
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.
( ) ,
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, .
266
. V
V E + F = 3 3 + 1 = 1. , V E + F . , V E + F
,
,
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r . ,
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2E
+
E = 2,
n
1
1
1
1
+ = + .
n
r
2
E
(4)
, ,
n > 3 r > 3,
. , n
r 3, 1
(4)

2
E. , ,
r, n = 3, n, r = 3.
, .
n = 3 (4)
1
1
1
= ;
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6
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r 3, 4 5 (6 ,
1

). n r , E
E
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.
r = 3 (4)
1
1
1
= ,
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, n = 3, 4 5 , E = 6, 12 30.
: , .
267
n, r E (2) (3),
V F .
2.
1. . , .
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.)
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268
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(18381922) Cours danalyse,

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274
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275
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276
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282
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283
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284
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. V
(1)
V , E F . 2 2p
. , V E + F = 2, (1),
p, .
(1), , S p
. , p
, V E + F , 2 2p .
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,
. (. 138
p = 2.)
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. ,
A , B , . . . ,
, A2 , B2 , . . .
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, .
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2p V E + F = 2 2p,
, ,
p . .
. 121 (1) S,
. , p 1,
2 2p = 2 2 = 0. (1),
V E + F = 16 32 + 16 = 0.
. -
, . 137, , V E + F = 2.
. 137. 2
285
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3. . . , , ,
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;
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286
. V
.
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Cross-cap (.).
287
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1
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.
( ABC). . .
288
. V
V E + F p
V E + F = 2 p.
,
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V E + F = 0.
. 142.

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A
A
A A

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A
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289
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290
. V
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(1)
; .
E , V ,
2E = 3V.
(2)
, , n , n ,
2E = 3V = 2F2 + 3F3 + 4F4 + . . .
(3)

V E + F = 2, 6V 6E + 6F = 12.
(2) , 6V = 4E, 6F 2E = 12.
(1) (3)
6(F2 + F3 + F4 + . . .) (2F2 + 3F3 + 4F4 + . . .) = 12,
(6 2)F2 + (6 3)F3 + (6 4)F4 + (6 5)F5 +

+ (6 6)F6 + (6 7)F7 + . . . = 12.
291
, , F2 , F3 , F4 F5
. ,
.
. M
, n . ,
.
1. M A 2, 3 4 A
(. 146). , A
M
M
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F
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M , A .
2. M A .
, A, B, C, D, E F .
, : , , , B D
, , C E, F ,
, C E F ,
A, B D (. 147).
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. A, A
C F , M 0 n 2 , . M 0
292
. V
, M .
, A
, (
C F ), A
.
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n 2 , M 0 ,
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), C .
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,
, .
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P , .
293
A B .
p A, ,
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4, 6 . .). p B, , p
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.
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,
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A
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p
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,
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. 148.
. , ,
A B
, P .
p q. pq, p q,
P , .
p0 , q 0 pq
P (. 149). , p , pq, p0 :
P (, ) ,
294
. V
pq q 0 . , pq p0 q 0 q 0 q:
, , , q , pq.
r s ,

P
P ,
,

p
p
q
q ( ) ,

. 149. - P ,
. ,
, , pq, q 0 .
, , ,
pq q 0 q, p q (, ) .
, . P ,
A: , , , , , P ,
A,
0. ,
B. P , , p
: p
P . , , p
, P .
, p P (
. 128).
. p0 C
( p0 ) 1 , 1
, , , . . .
295
(), p p0 , p
C.
A p0 ( P )
P , B p0 ( P )
P . A B, ,
P . .
*3. .
, f (z)
f (z) = z n + an1 z n1 + an2 z n2 + . . . + a1 z + a0 ,
(1)
n > 1 an1 , an2 , . . . , a1 , a0 ,

a, f (a) = 0. ,
. ( , . 122
: f (z) n
f (z) = (z a1 )(z a2 ) . . . (z an ),
a1 , a2 , . . . , an f (z).) ,
, , .
,
x + yi, x y , i i2 = 1. x + yi (x, y)
. , ,
x ,
z = x + yi = r(cos j + i sin j),

2
r = x + y 2 . , z n = rn (cos nj +
+ i sin nj) (. . 118). , z
r , z n n rn . , z
( |z|) z 0
z 0 = x0 + iy 0 , |z z 0 | z z 0 .
.
, (1) ,
z
f (z) 6= 0.
, z
x, y, f (z) ,
296
. V
zn
f (z)
O
C
. 150.
(. 150). O f (z) C
, , O
f (z) , z C.
C O t
f(t) O f (z)
O t. , f(0) = 0,
0
f (0) 6= 0. ,
t f(t) n, , , , f(t)
t ( f (z) z),
, f(t) 0 n
.
, t
f(t) = n.
, t
t>1
t > |a0 | + |a1 | + . . . + |an1 |,
297
|f (z) z n | = |an1 z n1 + an2 z n2 + . . . + a0 | 6

6 |an1 | |z|n1 + |an2 | |z|n2 + . . . + |a0 | =
i
h
|a0 |
|an2 |
+ . . . + n1 6
= tn1 |an1 | +
t
t

6 tn1 |an1 | + |an2 | + . . . + |a0 | < tn = |z n |.
, z n f (z), z n , , ,
z n f (z), , z t .
, f (t), , z n ,
, f (z)
z n .
, ; ,
f (z) z n , z n n,
f (z). .
VI

. .
, , ,
x2 + 2x 3,
, x.
, x,
x2 + 2x 3 = f (x).
, x = 2, 22 + 2 2 3 = 5, f (2) = 5.
f (x) , , x.
, n, p(n)
n. n, p(n)
,
.
; , . ,
, . . .
, -
. , ,
, . ,

.
, , ,
, sin x cos x.
300
. VI
(16461716),
, XVIII . , .
, ,

.
, .
1.
1. .
, , , () S.
(
), S () . . ,
S , X
S . ,
X S, , X S.
,
, . , S ,
, , X Y S,

X +Y =Y +X
,
.

2 + 3 = 3 + 2,
;
, , , .
, S X . , S ; X
. S , X
. , . , X
301
S
. X
5;
S : 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
;
x ,
S () a 6
6 x 6 b . , x
( )
. . , , S
x > 0
. X,
,
. (x, y),
,
, ( )
x y.
, X U .
U X. , U X, U =
F (X) ( F X). X S,
U , , T . , S X ,
U = F (X) X; T , ,
. , X1
X2 , F (X1 ) = F (X2 ) , X1 6= X2 . S T
X S U
T ,
U = F (X). , , F (X1 ) 6= F (X2 ),
X1 6= X2 , ,
S T (. . 204).

.
302
:
u = x2 ,
u=
1
,
x
u=
. VI
1
.
1 + x2
x , x
1
0 ( 0 ,
).
0
B(n) n n, n
. , a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . u = F (n), .
n- an ,
F (n). ,
I:
n(n + 1)
,
2
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
,
S2 (n) = 12 + 22 + . . . + n2 =
6
2
2
n (n + 1)
S3 (n) = 13 + 23 + . . . + n3 =
,
4
S1 (n) = 1 + 2 + . . . + n =
n.
U = F (X); X
, U ,
X.
, X
U , . . T
- .
, U , . . U
( ). ,
, ,
U (
X).
,
,
- .
,
. , ,
303
, . , ,
, , ,
; ;
.

.

. , x, y, z, t ,
x, y, z
:
x = f (t),
y = g(t),
z = h(t).
1
x = 0,
y = 0,
z = gt2 ,
2
g .
x, y,

x = cos wt,
y = sin wt,
w ( ).
,

.
-
.

,
. , , , , ,
, p v
, c ( , ,
):
pv = c.
p, v:
c
c
p=
v = ;
v
,
, ,
304
. VI
. () , .
,
. , ,
x, u. f ( ) ; u =
f (x) f ( ) x. ,
u , , u
x. , , u
v , ,
u.
, f (v),
u.
, .
, , ,
u = f (x) f ( ), x
u, u, , , , ,
z. , u = f (x) = px2 ,
z2
x , : u = g(z) = , z
4p
.
,
(),
u = f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + . . . + an xn ,
a0 , a1 , . . . , an . ,
u=
1
,
x
u=
1
,
1 + x2
u=
2x + 1
,
x4 + 3x2 + 5
, sin x
cos x, sin x tg x =
,
cos x
x, h: x2 + h2 = 1.
P (x, h) x
, x,
OP , cos x sin x P :
cos x = x, sin x = h.
305
2. .
,
. 90,
. 100
, .
, , .
,
, ,
.
,
1.
s ,
, .
2p, 360
2p. , x
, y , x y
y
x
= ,
360
2p
py = 180x.
90p
p
, , 90 (y = 90) x =
= ,
180
. . , 1 (, x = 1) , ,
; 180
= 57, 2957 . . . .
y =
p
x y, x
180
.
p
x A
, ;
, ,
x
A
= ; , x = 2A.
:
2p
p
x , x. , x,
, , x .
, . ,
. , p ,
, , . .
, 1,
306
. VI
. , 1
360 90 4 .
3. . .
.
(x, u)
,
u = ax + b
;
u = ax2 + bx + c
;
u=
1
x
, . . , u =
f (x) , (x, u)
u = f (x). sin x, cos x, tg x
. 151 152. ,
x.
u
x
2
. 151. sin x cos x
, ,
. F (X),
U = F (X) X ,
X U :
X = G(U ).
G(U ) F (X).
,
U = F (X) X U , . . X1 6= X2 F (X1 ) 6= F (X2 ).
U X. , X
, U =
307
x
O
. 152. u = tg x
F (X) . ,
S T
, .
, U =
u
F (X)
.
, m = 2n, n
S , m T , ,

x
, O
m
n =
.
2

u = x3 .
x . 153. u = x3
, u ,
.

x = 3 u.

u = x2
308
. VI
. , ,
u = x2 = (x)2 , u
() x. u
( ) , x,
x= u
, ,
x u.

. , , , u
x. ,
, x,
. ,
, u = f (x) , . . , , , ( x).
, u = f (x) , x1 < x2
u1 = f (x1 ) < u2 = f (x2 ). ,
u x , u = f (x),
.
x = g(u)
(. 154); x u u
. 154.
. x
u. u
x, x
309
u.

u = tg x.
p
p
< x < (. 152): 2
2
u, x, +;
,
x = g(u)
u. arctg u. p
p
, arctg(1) = , tg = 1. arctg u 4
4
. 155.
x
. 155. x = arctg u
4. .

(). , ,
u = f (x) = 1 + x2

z = g(x) = 1 + x2 ,
u = h(z) =
:
u = f (x) = h(g[x])
( h g x). ,
1
1 x2
u = f (x) =

z = g(x) = 1 x2 ,
w = h(z) =
z,

u = f (x) = k(h[g(x)]).
u = k(w) =
1
,
w
310
u = f (x) = sin
. VI
1
x

z = g(x) =
1
,
x
u = h(z) = sin z.
1
f (x) = sin x = 0, x = 0
x
x
. . , sin z = 0 z = kp, k
. ,
1 z = (4k + 1) p ,
2
sin z =
1 z = (4k 1) p ,
2
k .
0 x = ,
kp
2
1
1 x =
,
sin =
(4k + 1)p
x
1 x =
.
(4k 1)p
k = 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . ,
, , x,
1
sin 1, 1, 0,
x
x = 0.
.
. 156.
. 156. u = sin
1
x
5. .
, .
4, .
311
, , , , , . , u = f (x)
x = x1 ,
x y
x1 . u =
f (x) ,
x1 . , f (x)
x
O
f (x1 )
x = x1 ( f (x1 )),
, x x1 ,
, f (x) x1 .
x1 ,
, . 157.
.
, , , , . , . 157, x
f (x) = 1 + x
f (x) = 1 + x
x > 0,
x 6 0,
x1 = 0, 1.
,
. x1 = 0 , f (x) +1.
, 1.
, f (x) 1, x
, .
f (x), x
f (x) = 0 x 6= 0,
f (0) = 1,
x1 = 0 .
, ,
f (0). ,
. 158,
u = f (x) =
1
x2
312
. VI
x = 0. x 0 ,
u ,
,
x x = 0
u. , x = 0, , , f (x)
x = 0. , , f (x)
, x .
1
, , u = sin x
x = 0 (. 156).
,
x = x1 .
1) , x = x1
, x = x1 . , u =
x
x
1 x 6= 0;
x = 0, 0

0
.
, u = 1
x = 0, ,
,
x
O
.
,
. 158. -
x = 0
, f (0) = 1 f (0) = 0.
.
2) ,
x x1 , . 157.
3) , ,
. 156.
4) , x x1
(. 158).

,
x = x1 .
u
. 1)
313
x
x 1 x2 1
, 2
,
x3
x + 1 (x2 1)(x2 + 1)
.
1
1
2) x sin x2 sin ; , x
x
x = 0, , u = 0 x = 0
.
1
*3) , arctg
()
x
x = 0.
*6. . . P x, y
P u (, u
P ),
u = f (x, y).
, ,
, x y
. , u
x y; u u =
= f (x, y, z) x, y, z.
. 159.
. 160.

,
u = f (x, y)
x, y, u .
x, y x, y
x, y u = f (x, y). , u = 1 x2 y 2
u2 + x2 + y 2 = 1,
314
. VI
u = ax + by + c , u = xy
, . .
u = f (x, y), x, y,
(). u = f (x, y) ,
, ,
, x,
y , u x, y.
f (x, y) = c, c . ,
, u = x + y . 163.

. u = x2 + y 2 ,
, (. 165). , , u = c.
u
y
y
.
161.
u = f (x, y)
. 162. , . 161

. ,
x , x . , , . .
; () x t u = f (x, t)
315
x. ,
u = f (x, t).
, , . , u = f (x, y) x = x1 ,
y = y1 , f (x, y) f (x1 , y1 ),
x, y
x1 , y1 y
.
, .
x
,
u = f (x, y),
u = x + y, , x y
u.
, - . 163. u = x + y
, , .
u
. 164.
x
.
y
165.
316
. VI
*7. .
l, x ,
l0 , x0 ,
, x0 = f (x).
x = g(x0 ).
,
-
x0 = f (x) =
ax + b
,
cx + d
a, b, c, d ( ).
dx0 + b
x =
.
cx0 a
, p x, y p0 x0 ,
y 0 ,
x0 = f (x);
x0 = f (x, y),
y 0 = g(x, y).
,
ax + by + c
,
gx + hy + k
dx + ey + f
y0 =
,
gx + hy + k
x0 =
a, b, . . . , k , x, y x0 , y 0 , , .
.
x y, x0 y 0 .
p0
p. , .
, , ,
x0 = f (x, y),
y 0 = g(x, y),
,
.
. *1) , (. 162
x
165) x0 = 2
2,
y0 =
x +y
y
.
,
x2 + y 2
317

- .
ax + b
2) , x0 =
x
cx + d
x (.
. 216).
2.
1. an .
, 1, .
.
.
, ,
.
II an
, n
. , 1
an = :
n
1,
1 1
1
,
, ...,
, ...
2 3
n
(1)
n 0:
1
0
n
n .
(2)
, . ,
. 100-
1
1
, 1000-
, . .
100
1000
0.
(1), ,
0 .
, .
?
, .
. (1)
, ,

0. I 0 2e,
318
. VI
e 0. e = 10,
1
, , an =
n
I. e = ,
10
I; ,
a11 ,
1
1
1
1
,
,
,
, ...,
11
12
13
14
I. e =

1000
I, , a1001 ,
a1001 , a1002 , a1003 , . . .
. , e: e , , ,
N ,
1
< e.
N
, an ,
n > N , I, a1 , a2 , . . ., aN 1 .
: -, I e.
N . e N e ;
, (1) 0 ,
.
: e - .
N , an (1), n > N ,
I 2e e.
(2).
,
:
a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . a. a I : ,
an , n , ,

N , an , n > N ,
319
I. , , N , I ; ,
I, N ,
, .
, an a,
:
lim an = a n ,
lim an = a,

an a n
( an a, an a). , . an , :
a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . a n, e N ( e),
|a an | < e
(3)

n > N.
, . , , ,
. ,
, , ,
,
.
A B. A : a
an , e = e1 ; B ,
N = N1 , an , aN1 ,
. A ,
e = e2 ; B
, , N = N2 ,
, . . B A , A,
, : an a.
, .
320
. VI

: 1, 2, 3, . . . , n, . . .
an . ,
an a.

. ,
: n, an ,
, ,
an a.
a : , an
n . ,
e N n, .
,
1 2 3 4
n
,
,
,
, ...,
, ...,
2 3 4 5
n+1
n
. , lim an = 1.
an =
n+1
1
1 e = ,
10
(3), N = 10; ,
0<1
n
n+1n
1
1
=
=
<
n+1
n+1
n+1
10
1
n > 10. , e =
,
1000
, N = 1000;
e, , : , 1
N , . , ,
e
-, 2e
a , -, , an , e a,
,
, , an a. a1 , a2 , a3 , . . .
,
lim an = a
, m m an m
a, n -
321
, , N ( m).1
e 10m .
, ,
. lim an = a a I,
, I an n,
N , I,
N 1 :
a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . , aN 1 ,
I. I , N , , 100 1000
,
I,
I.
,
, (, ) . , ,
1 000 000 000 000. , ,
lim an = a
: I
a, an .
, , an
. , , ,
, , , an
a. , a1 = 0, a2 = 0, . . . , an = 0, . . . , , , 0.
, an a
. , , .
n
. : 1) an = 2
n +1

1
1
, 0. : an =
0.
1
n+
n2
+1
2)1 an = 3
0.
n +1
1+ 2

2
n
0 .
1
n+
1
n
n2
. . . . .

: an =
322
. VI
3) 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . ,
1, 2, 1, 2, 1, 2, . . . ,
(. . an = (1)n ),
1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, . . .
1,
1
, 1,
2
1
, 1,
3
1
, 1,
4
1
, ...
5
an ,
K, , an ,
: lim an = an . , n2 2n . , ,
. ,
, .
. , an =
;
an =
n2 + 1
,
n+1
an =
n3 1
,
n+1
an =
n2 + 1
nn
.
n2 + 1
, ,
n 1
n = an . ,
0 ,
n
1
= 0. ,
an n =
.
2. . . 313 ,
a1 ,
a2 , a3 , . . . a. , :
1 2 3
n
,
,
, ...,
, ...
2 3 4
n+1
. ,
an+1 =
n+1
1
1
n
=1
>1
=
= an .
n+2
n+2
n+1
n+1
, an+1 > an , . , ,
a1
a2
323
a3
. 166.
1
an > an+1 , , 1, , , . . . , 2 3
.
: . ,
1
1 1
, 1, , , , . . .
2
0 (. . 11, . 89).
. ,
1, 2, 3, 4, . . . ,
an = n,
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, . . . ,
an n- pn . . , . .
B, , ,
a, B. :
, ,
. ( , .) , a
; ,
. ,
, ,
: ,
II
, (, 2)

, n- .
* , ,
, .
, ,
.
324
. VI
, a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . , .

a1 = A1 ,p1 p2 p3 . . .
a2 = A2 ,q1 q2 q3 . . .
a3 = A3 ,r1 r2 r3 . . .
.............
Ai , pi , qi , ri . . 0 9.
A1 , A2 , A3 , . . . a1 ,
a2 , a3 , . . . , ,
, A1 , A2 , A3 , . . .
. A , N0 - .
p1 , q1 , r1 , . . . , N0 - . x1 , N0 - ,
, , , N1 -
, N1 > N0 . ( , a0 , a1 , a2 , . . .
.) p2 , q2 , r2 , . . . .
, , ,
N2 > N1
x2 . 4-, 5-, . . . ,
x3 , x4 , x5 , . . . N3 , N4 , N5 , . . .
,
a = A1 ,x1 x2 x3 x4 . . .
a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . , e >
> 10m ; n > Nm m
an a , |an a|
10m . e,
, m, .
,
II , ,
. .
II :
a = A,a1 a2 a3 . . .
b = B,b1 b2 b3 . . .
, , , .
(
: 0,333333 . . . 0,989898 . . . .) xn
325
,
, n-
a b, x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . ( , ,
A + B + 2). , x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . , :
a + b = lim xn .
ab.
, a b
,
.
. ,

1,323232 . . . =
131
.
99
,
( ).
, ,
.
3. e. e
p
1748 . Introductio in Analysin Infinitorum. ,
. n

n! = 1 2 3 . . . n,
a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . ,
an = 1 +
1
1
1
1
1
+ + + + ... + .
1!
2!
3!
4!
n!
(4)
an , an+1
an 1
. , an :
(n + 1)!
an < B = 3.
,
1 1
1
1 1
1
1
1
= . . . < . . . = s1 ;
s!
2 3
s
2 2
2
2
(5)
326
. VI
,
an < 1 + 1 +
1
1
1
1
+ 2 + 3 + . . . + n1 =
2
2
2
2
n
1

n
1
1
2
=1+2 1
< 3,
=1+
1
2
1
2
. 85 n
. an
n ; e.
, e = lim an , e

e=1+
1
1
1
1
+ + + ... + + ...
1!
2!
3!
n!
(6)

:
an = 1 +
1
1
1
1
+ + + ... + ,
1!
2!
3!
n!
an e n .
(6) e . 1
, ( ) (6)
12!

X
= 2,71828182 . . .
(!) , . . P
e, . e

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1+
+
+ ... <
+ 2 + 3 + ... =
=
.
1
13!
14!
13!
13
13
13
13! 1
12
12!
13
, , ,
, e
:
e 2,7182818.
e . , :
p
, e = , p q , , q
, .
, 2 < e < 3, e , q
2. (6)
327
q! = 1 2 3 . . . q;
e q! = p 2 3 . . . (q 1) =
= [q! + q! + 3 4 . . . q + 4 5 . . . q + . . . + (q 1)q + q + 1] +
+
1
1
+
+ ...
q+1
(q + 1)(q + 2)
(7)
, , . .
1
, , , .
2
1
+ . . .
q+1
1
1
1
+ 2 + 3 + . . . ,

3
3
3
1
1
1
= . , (7) :

3 1 1
2
3
, q > 2, ,
,
, ,
1
, .
2
4. p. , , ,

.
2p.
, pn
, qn
n-,
pn < 2p < qn .
, n , pn qn 2p,
,
pn qn 2p.
. 167. . 145
q
p
m
p 2m = 2
2 2 + 2 + . . .,
m 1 .
2p.
. 1) p, p4 , p8 p16 .
*2) q2m .
328
. VI
*3) q4 , q8 q16 . p16

q16 , , p.
p? pn < 2p < qn
,
2p. -, p : , ?
. 127, p , ,
. e p, (17281777),
.
p . ,
, :
p - ? p,
, . : p 10
. (XVIII .) , p
. , ,
:
1
1
1
p
= 1 + + ...,
4
3
5
7
p
n
sn = 1
1
1
1
+ . . . + (1)n
.
3
5
2n + 1
VIII. ,
p:
p2
1
1
1
1
1
1
= 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ...
6
p
(16161703).
:
n
o
2 2 4 4 6 6
2n
2n
p
...
n .
1
2n 1
2n + 1
:
p
2 2 4 4 6 6 8 8
= ...
2
(, , ).
.
329
*5. . . ,

1
57
=3+
,
1
17
2+
1+
1
5
. . 67 ,
. . ,
, .
, (. . 123)
2
. , ,
x = 2 1,
x2 + 2x = 1,
x=
1
.
2+x
1
x x =
,
2+x
1
x=
,
1
2+
2+x
1
x=
2+
2+
1
2+x
. ., n
x=
2+
1
(n ).
2+
2 + ...
2+x
n ,
1
2=1+
.
1
2+
2+
1
2 + ...
2
, 2,
.

x2 = ax + 1,
x=a+
1
,
x
330
. VI
x=a+
a+
a+
1
a + ...
, a = 1,
1
x = (1 + 5) = 1 +
2
1+
1+
1
1 + ...
, , ,

.
e p. :
1
e=2+
1+
2+
1+
1+
4+
1+
1+
e=2+
1+
2+
3+
4+
4
5 + ...
p
4
1
6 + ...
1
=
1+
12
32
2+
52
2+
72
2+
92
2+
2 + ...
3.
1. . . 2, 1,
: an (. .
an = F (n) n) a n,
. : u = f (x) x
a x x1 .
x 1, 5,
331
,
.
x + x3
. f (x) =
x
x, ; x
. y =
f (x) x 0, ,
x, 0 , u = f (x) 1. ,
f (x) 1:
y
x + x3
x + x3 x
x3
f (x) 1 =
1=
= .
x

x, 0, ( f (x)
), x

f (x) 1 = x .
. 168. u =
x + x3
x
,
,
x x = 0. ,
1
1
1
, x = f (x) 1 =
; x =
f (x)
10
100
100
1
1=
, . . , e ,
10 000
, , f (x) 1
e,
x 0 d = e.
, |x| < e,
|f (x) 1| = |x2 | < e.
.
. 313 : an a n, , e, , N ( e),
|an a| < e
n,
n > N.
f (x) x x,
x1 ,
332
. VI
n ( N ) x1 ( d) ,
1820 .: f (x) a, x
x1 , e,
,
d ( e),
|f (x) a| < e
x 6= x1 ,
|x x1 | < d.
,
f (x) a x x1 .
f (x) =
x + x3
, x
f (x) 1 x,
x1 = 0.
d = e.
2. . e-d- ;
.
,
.
.
XVII XVIII ,
,
x,
x1 . u = f (x), -
. :
, f (x)
a, x x1 ?

. a1 , a2 , a3 , . . .
x,
, , x
333
x1 , , .
, ,
, .
, ,
, .
.
, ,
, ,

. ,
, ,
,
. ,

, , ,
, , . ; .
,
, ,
.
e, d ; x1
. , , ,
, ,
- , ,
.
, ,
e, d. ,
,
, ,
, ( ).
-
,
.
,
, .
334
. VI
e , d .
, f (x) a x x1 ,
, e. ,
(, x x1 ) .
. x x1 ,
x , x1 ,
x 6= x1 : x x1 ,
x1 . , , x = x1 ,
x, x1 , ,
x + x3
, . 325. f (x) =
x
x = x1
, ,

1
an n , an =
,
n
n = .
, f (x), x x1 ,
a , x 6= x1 f (x) = a. ,
x
x, 0,
f (x) =
x
x 0, , , f (x) = 1
x 6= 0, a 1
.
sin x
. x ,
x
sin x

x,
x
3.
x = 0,
0
.
0
sin x

x.
x
; (. 1, 2), x y
p
y = 0,01745y (
: x =
180
).
335
10
5
2
1
sin x
sin x
x
0,1745
0,0873
0,0349
0,0175
0,1736
0,0872
0,0349
0,0175
0,9948
0,9988
1,0000
1,0000
,
,
sin x
1
x
x 0.
(1)
336
. VI
, x, BOC (. . 169)
p
0<x< .
2
1
OBC =
2
sin x.
OBC =
1
x.
A
C
OBA =
1
2
tg x.

sin x < x < tg x.
. 169.
sin x, , ,
1<
cos x <
x
1
<
,
sin x
cos x
sin x
< 1.
x
(2)
, ,
1 cos x = (1 cos x)
1 + cos x
1 cos2 x
sin2 x
=
=
< sin2 x.
1 + cos x
1 + cos x
1 + cos x
sin x < x, ,
1 cos x < x2 ,
(3)
1 x2 < cos x.
(2)
sin x
1 x2 <
< 1.
(4)
p
, 0 < x < ; (4)

2
sin(x)
p
sin x
sin x
< x < 0,
=
=
(x)2 =
2
(x)
x2 .
(1) (4).
,
sin x
1 , x2 , x2
x
, e, |x| < d =
e.
. 1) (3)
1 cos x
0
x
x 0.
337
x 0 :
sin2 x
,
2)
x
3)
sin x
,
x(x 1)
tg x
,
x
4)
5)
sin ax
,
x
6)
sin ax
,
sin bx
7)
x sin x
,
1 cos x
8)
sin x
,
x
, x ,
9)
1
1
,
x
tg x
10)
1
1
.
sin x
tg x
4. x . x 1
, f (x) = ,
x
0. , 1
x ,
n
n. : f (x)
a x, ,
f (x) a x ,
, e,
K ( e),
|f (x) a| < e
|x| > K ( . 313).
f (x) =
K=
1
, a = 0,
x
, .
. 1) , ,
f (x) a x
:
f (x) a
1
0.
x
, x
:
x+1
1 x , 3)
x1
sin x
4)
0 x , 5)
x
sin x
6)
0 x ,
x + cos x
2)
x2 + x + 1
1 x ,
x2 x 1
x+1
0 x ,
x2 + 1
sin x
7)
x .
cos x
8) f (x) x . .
f (x)
an . n
, , x, , ,
.
338
. VI
f (x) ,
|x| > K x > K; ,
x
x < K.
, , ,
x +,
x .
4.
1, 5,
: f (x) x = x1 , x x1 f (x) , f (x1 ).
, ,
:
) a f (x) x
x1 ,
) a f (x1 ).
. 326 a
f (x1 ), :
f (x) x = x1 , , e, d
( e),
|f (x) f (x1 )| < e
x,
|x x1 | < d
( x 6= x1 , , ,
|f (x) f (x1 )| < e x = x1
).
f (x) = x3 , , x1 = 0.
f (x1 ) = 03 = 0.
1
e, , e =
.
1000
, , x ,
0, f (x),
0 ,
1
1
1
, . .
1000
1000
+
. , f (x) ,
1000

r x , 0 d =
1
1
1
= ; , |x| < , |f (x)| = |x3 | <
1000
10
10
339
1
1
. e =
1000
1000
4
5
3
e = 10 , 10 . .; d = e
,

|x| < 3 e |f (x)| =

u
= |x3 | < e.

e, d,
u1
,
,
2
, x1
x
, ,
x, . 170. ,
.
x = x1
u = f (x),
u
. e , x
f (x1 ) e f (x1 ) + e
2
. d,
x
, 2d x1 , 2e f (x1 ). . 170 - . 171.
x = x1
, x1 ,
. 171 , . ,
x1 ,
, 2e.
, u = f (x)
x = x1 , ,
: e,
, .
d, |x x1 | < d |f (x)
f (x1 )| < e. d,
e, : d
e. e,
d, -
340
. VI
. ,
u = f (x),

d = f(e),
e, , |x x1 | < d |f (x)
f (x1 )| < e. u = f (x) = x3 x1 = 0 d = f(e)
d = 3 e.
. 1) , sin x cos x .
1
2)
1 + x2 .
2
1+x
, e, d ,
, . ,
, ( )
( ) ,
.
5.
1. . (17811848), , , , . Paradoxien des Unendlichen

1850 . , , ,
, .

.
x, x x
a 6 x 6 b,
x. , f (x) x a b, f (a) < 0
f (b) > 0, a x, a < a < b
f (a) = 0.

,
- x,
341
. , ,
, . 157 . 305.
*2. . . ,
.
,
,
(. 88). I, a 6 x 6 b, f (x), x1 =
a+b
.
2
f (x1 ) = 0,
. , , f (x1 ) 6= 0, f (x1 ) ,
.
I
y
,
f (x)
.
I1 .
,
a
I1 ;
x
I1 f (x) = 0,
x2 x3 x1
I2
I1 ,

. 172.
. ,
, ,
, f (x) = 0, I1 , I2 , I3 , . . .
I a, . ,
f (a) = 0, a ,
.
f (x)
. ,
. , f (a) = 0, . , f (a) 6= 0: ,
, f (a) = 2e > 0. f (x) ,
( , ) J 2d a ,
f (x) J f (a)
e. , f (a) = 2e, , f (x) > e
J, . . f (x) > 0 J. J ,
n , In
J, In .
: , ,
In , , f (x)
In , f (x)
342
. VI
- J. f (a) > 0, ( ) f (a) < 0; , , f (a) = 0.
3. .
, , (18151897),
, , -
.
: f (x) I, a 6
6 x 6 b, a b,
I ,
f (x) M ,
, f (x)
m. , ,
u = f (x)
.
, ,
u = f (x) 1
I. , f (x) =
x
0 < x 6 1, . , .
, , f (x), :
f (x) = x
x,
1
f (x) =
2
0 6 x 6 1. , , 0 1.
0 1: , x
0 1. f (x)
0, 1, x f (x) =
1
,
2
f (x) = x. , 0 1
.
* ,
. I I 0 I 00 I 0 , ,
f (x), I 00 a, f (a) f (x) I 0 ; I 00 .
, , I1 .
343
I1 , I;
I2 , . . I1 , I2 , I3 , . . . ,
IN , . . . , z.
, , f (z) = M ,
f (x), , . .
s, f (s) > M . ,
s, f (s) = M + 2e, e
( , ) . f (x) z K,
s, , K
f (x) f (z) = M e,
f (x) < M + e. n In K, In
, f (x) x, In ,
f (x) x .
s In f (s) > M + e,
K, In , f (x) < M + e.
, .
m
; ,
, f (x) g(x) = f (x).

x,
y, . . . (
) , ,
x, y ( ).
. , f (x)
() a 6 x 6 b, a < x 6 b
a < x < b?
.
. , , , , . ,
(. . 108) ; , . ,
, ,
.
344
. VI
*4. . .
x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . , , I, a 6 x 6 b. .
, ,
, y1 , y2 , y3 , . . . , , I.
, I a+b
I 0 I 00 :
x =
2
I0 : a 6 x 6
I 00 :
a+b
,
2
a+b
6 x 6 b.
2
xn ; I1 .
xn1 y1 .
I1 . I1
xn ,
I1 ; I2 . I2 xn , n > n1 ,
y2 . , I1 , I2 , I3 , . . . y1 ,
y2 , y3 , . . . , yn
In , n.
y , ,
y1 , y2 , y3 , . . . y, .
* ,
. X, S, - . S .
; , S
. X Y A, B, C A0 , B 0 , C 0 ,
, ,
d(X, Y ) = AA0 + BB 0 + CC 0 ,
AA0 A A0 , . .
,
X1 , X2 , X3 , . . . , X S.
345
, d(X, Xn ) 0 n . , S , X1 , X2 , X3 , . . . , X, S. , a 6 x 6 b . , . ,
,
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .
, . , , 0 < x < 1,
1 1 1
; , , , , . . .
2 3 4
0, ,
, .
, , , ,
, ;
. ,
,
, .
, X S, . , u =
F (X) ( u ) X,
, X1 , X2 , X3 , . . . X, F (X1 ), F (X2 ), F (X3 ), . . .
F (X). ( e, d.)
,
F (X), :
u = F (X) , S, S, F (X) ,
, F (X) .
,
; . VIII, .
6.
1. .
,
. ,
, : A B , , ( ) .
,
346
. VI
.
, P
P R, . P S,
x P R, ,
P S A . , , P S,
A ;
l1 . C l1 ,
( l2 ) A
(. 173). ,
A,
, A, ( , , , , ), l1
l2 . ,
, , - , lx
, , A . ,
x (0 6 x < 360 ), lx , A .
l2
S
B
P
R
lx
A
l1
. 173.
y = f (x)
B lx B lx .
, l0 , P R A
,
B, ; y
x = 0 . x 180 ;
l180 , P R A ,
l0 ( ,
); , y x = 180 , x = 0 , , . . .
y x, 0 6 x 6 180 (
347
, ,
), x = a, y
. la A
B . .
, -
, ,
:
.
x
x
. 174.
, : A ;
. ,
, lx , B . lx+90 , lx A
. A , . 174,
, ,
A1 + A2 = A3 + A4
A2 + A3 = A1 + A4 .

A1 A3 = A3 A1 ,
. .
A1 = A3 ,
,
A2 = A4 .
, ,
a, la -
348
. VI

A1 (a) = A2 (a),
. y = f (x),
f (x) = A1 (x) A2 (x),
A1 (x) A2 (x) , lx . x =
= 0 , , f (0) = A1 (0) A2 (0) > 0. x = 90
: f (90) = A1 (90) A2 (90) = A2 (0) A3 (0) = A2 (0) A1 (0) < 0.
f (x) ; , - a 0 90 f (a) = A1 (a) A2 (a) = 0. la la+90
.
. : ;
, . .
,
.
*2. . , , ,
, . ( . .)
, A
B. ,
. ,
: , ;
, B.

; ,
s = f (t), s A, t
, .
,
, ,
. ( , ,
, ,
.) :

349
, . . ,
,
?
,

. ,
.
A
. 175.
,
. ( , .)
:
; ,
,
,
, .
, a, .
a = 0 a = 180
() . x a . , . , , . .
, ,
, a 0 , 180 .
f (x) : f (x) = +1 1 ,
, a = 0 a = 180 .
f (x) : 0 6 x 6 180 ,
, f (0) = +1, f (180) = 1. ,
, , - x (0 <
x < 180 ) f (x) = 0.
, f (x) +1 1.
350
. VI
, ,

.
, ,
, .
, ,
. , , ,
, : x = 90 ; ,
, ,
.
.
. 1) , .1
2) ,
, , . .
. (: ,
. . 272.)
VI

1.
1. . an . bn cn , ,
, ,
bn 6 an 6 cn
1
(1)
, (. . 88);
-
,
. . . . .
351
n. , , bn cn a, , an a.
.
,
.
,
.
1. a > b, a + c > b + c (
).
2. a > b c , ac > bc (
).
3. a > b, b > a (
1). , 2 < 3, 3 < 2.
4. a b , a .
a
5. |a + b| 6 |a| + |b|.
2. q n . q 1, q n ; , q = 2:
q, q 2 , q 3 , . . .
(. . 316).

(. . 34)
(1 + h)n > 1 + nh > nh,
(2)
h . q = 1 + h,
h > 0;
q n = (1 + h)n > nh.
k ;
k
n > ,
h
q n > nh > k;
, q n . q = 1, 1,
, 1. q ,
q n , |q| > 1 .
. .
. 84 , 1 < q < 1, q n 0.
, . 0 <
q < 1. q, q 2 , q 3 , . . . ,
352
. VI
. (. . 317), : q n a.
q, : q n+1 aq.
q n+1 , q n ,
, n
n + 1. , aq = a, a(q 1) = 0.
(1 q) 6= 0, a = 0.
q = 0, . , ,
1 < q < 0, 0 < |q| < 1; , , |q n | = |q|n
0. q n 0 |q| < 1. .
.
, n
2 n
x
0,
1)
2
1 + x n
x
0,
2)
2
1 +3x n
x
3)
x > 2, |x| < 2.
2
4+x
3.
p.
an = n p,
. .
p,
p,
p,
p, . . .
1, p:
n p1
n .
(3)
n
( p , , n.
, p , n n.)
(3). , p > 1;
p > 1.
n p=1+h ,
n
hn , n. (2)
p = (1 + hn )n > nhn .
n
0 < hn 1. ,
, hn 0,
353
hn ,
.
, hn n p 1:
p
, .
n
0 
nkn ,
n
1
kn <
= .
n
,
1<
2
n
n = (1 + kn )2 = 1 + 2kn + kn2 < 1 + +
1
.
n

1 n ,
n n.
4. . an , an , x, an = fn (x).
,
x:
f (x) = lim fn (x).
f (x) ,
.
354
. VI
, , . , 1
2n
=
, fn (x) =
2n . |x| = 1 x
1, fn (x) =
1+x
1
1
, fn (x) . , |x| < 1
2
2
x2n 0 fn (x) 1; ,
, , fn (x) 0.
1
1
1
f (x) = lim
=
2
1 + x2n
|x| > 1 x2n
|x| < 1,
|x| = 1,
|x| > 1.
, f (x) .

x2
x2
x2
fn (x) = x2 +
2 +
2 2 + ... +
2 n.
1+x
(1 + x )
(1 + x )
x = 0 fn (x) , f (0) =
1
= lim fn (0) = 0. x 6= 0

1 + x2
1, , fn (x) n . , . .
,
x2
x2
=
, . . 1 + x2 . , fn (x)
1
1q
1
1 + x2
f (x) = 1 + x2 x 6= 0 f (x) = 0 x = 0.
f (x) x = 0.
*5. .
, , an+1 an , an
an1 :
, .
.

q
p
p
1 + 2,
1 + 1 + 2, . . . ;
1, 1 + 1,

. ,
a1 = 1,
an+1 = 1 + an .
. , n > 1 an > 1. , ,
a2n+1 a2n = (1 + an ) (1 + an1 ) = an an1 .
355
an > an1 , , an+1 > an ; a2 a1 = 2 1 > 0,

( ) , an+1 > an
n. , ; ,
an+1 =
1 + an+1
1
1 + an
<
=1+
< 2.
an+1
an+1
an+1
: an a, 1 < a 6 2. , a
x2 = 1 + x: , a2n+1 = 1 + an n a2 = 1 + a.
1+ 5
.
, , a =
2
, , , , ,
.
, ,
. , x3 3x +
1 = 0
1
x=
2
3x
, a1 , a1 = 0, an
an+1 =
1
;
3 a2n

a2 =
1
= 0,3333 . . . ,
3
a3 =
9
= 0,3461 . . . ,
26
a4 =
676
= 0,3472 . . .
1947
, ,
, a = 0,3473 . . .

, ; ,
.
. n :
1) , n + 1 n 0. :

n+1 n
( n + 1 + n).
n+1+
2) n2 + a n2 + b.
3) n2 + an + b n.
1
4)
.
n + 1
+ n
n
5) ,
n + 1 1.
6) n an + bn , a > b > 0?
356
. VI
n n
7)
a + bn + cn , a > b > c > 0?
8) n an bn + an cn + bn cn , a >b > c >0?
1
9) (. 473), e = lim 1 +
n

1 n
lim 1 + 2 .
. ,
2. ,

, ,
. 332.
, , , ,
VIII, :
.
,
( ) ,
.

,
f (x) =
1
.
1 + x2
x |x| 6 M , , , M .
f (x1 ) f (x) =
x2 x21
(x + x1 )
1
1
= (x x1 )
,
=
2
2
1+x
1 + x1
(1 + x2 )(1 + x21 )
(1 + x2 )(1 + x21 )
, |x| 6 M |x1 | 6 M .
|f (x1 ) f (x)| 6 |x x1 | |x + x1 | 6 |x x1 | 2M.
, ,
e, ,
e
.
|x1 x| < d =
2M
, . , x x1
d.
VII

. , .
,
.
,
.
, I
. , , P L,
Q , P R QR
. , , R0
, R, P R0 + R0 Q ,
P R + RQ. ( )
P RQ P Q
P Q L ,
.
,
. ,
. , . ,
,
?
,
?
XVII , , . .
,
, .
358
. VII
, ,
.

. ,
,
.

,
,
.

.
1.
1.
. a b; , a b. a b.
- a b (. 176).
h
, a, 1
A ah. 2
, , b

b
h, h
h, b, . . a
, . ,
. 176. 1
ab.
2
2. . . L P Q . R L , P R + RQ P Q
L? (
, , P
Q,
L: , L ,
). , -
359
P 0 P L, P 0 Q L R. , P R + RQ , P R0 + R0 Q, R0 L, R. , P R = P 0 R P R0 = P 0 R0 , , P R + RQ = P 0 R + RQ =
= P 0 Q P R0 + R0 Q = P 0 R0 + R0 Q. P 0 R0 + R0 Q , P 0 Q (
), . .
P R0 + R0 Q , P R +
RQ, .
P
Q
, P Q
L.
1
3
. 177 , 3 = L
2
R
R
= 2 2 = 1, 1 = 3.
, R , P R QR L. ,
P
, L ( ,
. 177.
, ),
P Q L .
, L, M , . . . , , , L, M
P , Q, , . 178, Q
L
P
S
Q
. 178.
P Q L, M .
Q0 Q M Q00 Q0 L. P Q00 , L R, RQ0 , M S; P R + RS + SQ
.
360
. VII
. L M
, P ,
L, M Q, L R, M S;
, -
.
L
S
P
Q
. 179.

P Q M , L.
P RSQ (. 179), P RSQ,
.
, , .
* . , , P M OQ.
?
3. . .
) A
R
R
c = P Q ; ,
b

a
h
a b .
c
A ,
P
Q
c h, 1
. 180. c, A = hc.
2
,
, R (. 180), h P Q, , a + b . , R -
361
, P Q h. , ,
, P Q L: P RQ .
) c a + b
; ,
.
). - ,
a = b. ,
a + b ;
, c
a + b . , )
, c ,
, a + b . , , a + b c,
, c a + b
.
4. . .
. , R
L, P R + RQ , P R RQ L.
P R + RQ 2a. , , p q
R
L
P Q; p

, p +
q
P
q = 2a.
P
Q, R L,
Q
L R. , L - . 181.
, R, L,
; p + q ,
2a: , , p + q ,
362
. VII
2a, ,
. , L
p + q > 2a, . , L R. ,
, P R RQ L;
:
,
.
. L
P Q L (. 182);
R L, |p q|, . .
R
P Q, Q
. ( , L
P
, P Q: p q
L, L
.) R
R
,
P
L:
P 0 P
L, Q.
. 182. |P R QR| = maximum
R0 L, :
p = R0 P = R0 P 0 , q = R0 Q.
, , R0 QP 0 , ,
|p q| = |R0 P 0 R0 Q| P 0 Q; ,
, , R0 , P 0 Q
, |p q| P 0 Q. R
L , P 0 Q.
, ,
RP R0 RP 0 R0 , ,
RP RQ L, .
, ,
.
|P R RQ| 2a,
, p q 2a.
P Q, R.
, p q 2a , , 2a
, -
363
. ,
, , L R. L
, , P Q
L: P , L ,
P ; Q
(. 183). P Q
L,
P
L ,
R
,
. L
, Q

() R, P 0 Q . 183.
L.
,
: ,
,
, .
, , P Q L,
L, .
,
. L p q,
, , . ,
p + q, .
, P Q L. :
p q, q p |p q|;
, . , , , R
L, R1 , R2 , R3 , . . .
R, p q ;
L P Q, . , R
|p q|.
p , q, ; , p q
. -
364
. VII
, ,
, |p q| = 0. , , |p q|
, p q. p > q,
p q; q > p, q p , ,
p q. p q,
L.
, P Q L,
, , , P 0 Q (.
. 182) L. R
|p q|
. , s P Q L (
). |p q|
, s, , , R, ,
, |p q| , ,
s.
*5. .
,
P C. ,
C ,
(. 184). , , .
: R C P R
,
P R C
R; , R1
P R C.
R2
P
: P ,
R, C. ,
R
, C . 184.
R

; R
, C
- R . (
, P ,
365
RP , , , RP ,
.) , R,
. , P R

R , , C .
,
:
C (. . ) C.
.
. , ,
, .
4,
. L
C, , P Q, C.
C, p + q
p q ( p q
P

C P Q).
, R
, , Q

R
, C .
C
. C
, ,
, - . 185.
: ,
P R + QR
, p + q p q , ,
(. 7).
p + q, , R
C, ; 2a p + q . P Q , p + q = 2a. R
C (
366
. VII
). , P R QR
R, R
C, P R QR
C. , R p + q
.
, : C P Q ; R, p + q
C, P R QR (. .
).
P C, Q C, , p + q ,
,
p + q
, .
P
(
Q
),
R
: C
C P
Q , C;
R
C, p q . 186. P R QR , P R QR
C.
, , C , , C
, : , . .
|p q|, p q
.
2. ,

1. .
, . ,
p + q, , , ,
x, y R, x1 , y1 , P
367
x2 , y2 Q,
f (x, y) = p + q,

p
p = (x x1 )2 + (y y1 )2 ,
q=
p
(x x2 )2 + (y y2 )2 .
, R
x, y C.
, , g(x, y) = 0;
, x2 + y 2 1 = 0, C .
f (x, y)
R2
R1
. 187.
:
f (x, y), x y
g(x, y) = 0. . f (x, y) = c;
, c (
).
,
, C,
f (x, y) = c. c f (x, y) = c ,
. (
: x2 + y 2 = c, x + y = c, x = c.) ,
R1 , f (x, y)
C, R2 ,
f (x, y) C. a, b. f (x, y) = a
f (x, y) = a , a, , a.
368
. VII
C f (x, y) 6 a, C
f (x, y) = a;
, R1 f (x, y) = a.
C R2 f (x, y) = b.
, : R C f (x, y) a, f (x, y) = a
R C.
2. . , . p + q, f (x, y) p + q, f (x, y) = c
P Q.
, C, , C .
p q, f (x, y) p q,
f (x, y) = c P Q;
, ,
, C.
. 188.
. 189.
. P Q
l, ; : l
P Q ?
, ,
j, , l,
P Q; R x, y,
, P Q R, j = f (x, y)
x, y. ,
j = f (x, y) = const , P
Q,
, . . 190
3 369
, , ,
, l:
P Q.
j, :
, j ,
. ,
, l P Q,
, , . ( l
P Q j, j = 0.)
Q
l
. 190. l P Q ?
, l
- C R C,
P Q, C,
. , , ,
P , Q R, R C.
3.
1. .
.
,
, . ,
,
370
. VII
, , ,
, , , , .

. ,
, ,

.

,
. . VIII
f 0 (x) f (x) . , ,
, f 0 (x) y = f (x)
(x, y). ,
y = f (x)
, . . .
, f 0 (x) = 0.
,
f 0 (x), , . 191.
A, B, C, D, E,
; f (x)
a, b, c, d, e. f (x) ( , ) D, A.
B , B f (x) , b, ,
D, f (x) , b.
, B
f (x), D .
C , A
. , E,
, , f 0 (x) = 0. , f 0 (x)
, f (x); , ,
( ),
f 0 (x) = 0, , f 0 (x) = 0,
. , f 0 (x)
, , , .
3 371
, f (x)
, .
y
D
B
E
x
C
A
. 191.
2. . . , f (x)
. z = f (x, y)
.
f (x, y) z
x, y, , , . f (x, y) , .
, , . ,
, , : , . .
(. 192), A B
C D ; , C
D. , C
D, ,
C D.
. ,
,
372
. VII
. E
;
. , E ,
, E , E, , E.
,
, , C D.
, E, .
A
B
E
D
C
. 192.
C
. 193.

, A B, , ,
; ,
AB, , E.
, E :
. E ; , E
AB, AB E ,
, E CD,
CD E . ,
, . ,
: , , ,
; .
f (x, y) , (. . 308).
x, y,
f (x, y) ; ,
, f (x, y) = c.
3 373
; ,
( ) . . 193
, ,
. 192.

E: , A B E, , f (x, y) < f (E),
AEB . 192 E.
, f (x, y) E
, C D.
3. .
.
.
B
C C 0 ; , ,
u = f (x, y), , f (x, y) = 0
C C 0 f (x, y) > 0
,
:
. 194 ,
C
. ,
C
, C C 0 , , . . 194.
C C 0 , ,
, u = f (x, y). ( ,
.) , p
, ,
p 1 . ,
c, ,
374
. VII

.
.
4. . P
( )
: . ,
C, (, , ).
1 , . C. P , , ,
C , P ,
. ,
. L
(. 195) L Q, P . ,
L , , P Q : ) C, P ; )
. L ,
P , L,
: ) (
C, P ), ) . ,
C
P .
. 195196.
. L0 C, (. 196).
375
4.
1. , .
(18431921), ,
,
. , :
. (,
, , .)
, : ,
.
.
, : P , Q, R (. 197)
, , . , ARQ
BRP C . .
C
P
Q
O
. 197. ABC
. OP B ORB
, OP BR .
, P BO = P RO,
. P BO C, CBQ ,
P RO P RB. P RB = C.
, QORA, ,
QRA = C . .
376
. VII
,
: , , AQR = CQP ,
AC RQ P Q,
.
.
B
P
U
. ABC ,
C
A
,

, ,
U V W . AC B
ABC, C
AB,
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378
. VII
, ,
.
, ,
, P , Q R A, B C. , , ,
ARQ = BRP = C + d. ,
ARQ BRP , , Q
B d, P A d.
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C = 180 2d; , 180 . d = 0.
,
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N . QL QM
QB QP QR, QL + QM <
< 2QB. QL + QM = p, p
. , M RB N RB ,
M RB = N RB, M N . ,
RM = RN ; QM = QR + RN . ,
P N = P L , , QL = QP + P N . :
QL + QM = QP + P N + QR + RN = QP + P R + RQ = p.
, 2QB > QL + QM . , p ,
QB.
. ,
.
379
, p. , P QC RQA B, P QB =
RQB = 90 B cos P QB = sin B. , , QM = QL = QB sin B, p =
2QB sin B. , p = 2P A sin A = 2RC sin C.
, RC = a sin B = b sin A . ., : p = 2a sin B sin C = 2b sin C sin A = 2c sin A sin B. ,
r , a = 2r sin A, b = 2r sin B,
c = 2r sin C,
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,
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380
. VII
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C.
383
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,
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B
A, B, A, K .
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A,
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C
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K
. 209.
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B K. ,
B, C A a, A,
C B b.
384
. VII
2. . ,
,
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120 , A, C K1 , AC 120 ,
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120 .
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2
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385
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D
. 210212.
386
. VII
B C, , ,
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388
. VII
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2
2
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,
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. 219220. ,
390
. VII
x + y a, ,
xy, , xy
x = y.
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+, x y; (1) .
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.
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O

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2. n . (1), , n , x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . , xn .
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391
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,
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( 7), P
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g = m. , : , , a1 6= a2 .

x1 = s,
x2 = s,
x3 = a3 , . . . , xn = an ,
s=
a1 + a2
.
2
, xi
, ,
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C .
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d=
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.
2

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P = (s + d)(s d) a3 . . . an = (s2 d2 ) a3 . . . an .
, d 6= 0
P < P 0,
, P
. , d = 0, a1 = a2 .
392
. VII
, a1 = ai , ai a;
, a . ,
1) g = m, xi , 2) g
, xi .
, g < m. .
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u
, m: , . .

(u xi ) = (m xi ) + (u m),
393

(u xi )2 = (m xi )2 + (u m)2 + 2(m xi )(u m).
, , , i = 1, 2, . . . , n.

2(u m)(nm x1 . . . xn ),
m . ,
:
(u x1 )2 + (u x2 )2 + . . . + (u xn )2 =
= (m x1 )2 + (m x2 )2 + . . . + (m xn )2 + n(u m)2 .
,
(u x1 )2 + (u x2 )2 + . . . + (u xn )2 >
> (m x1 )2 + (m x2 )2 + . . . + (m xn )2 ,
u = m.
.
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394
. VII
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396
. VII
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. VII
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400
. VII
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402
. VII
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. VII
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406
. VII
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. VII

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412
. VII
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,
. ,
; ,
,
.
424
. VII
. 240.
: , , . , ,
:
( ) .
,
:
,

, ,
90 .

, ,
. 258.
(. 219, 220).

, ,
. 240 . 258,
. , . 258,
, ,
,
12 .
. :
, . 240.
, , . , ,
:
, , , , , , . 240,
11
425
, . 258,
e, e .
VIII
, : . , , ,
. XVII . .

.
. -, : . -, : , , .
,
.
.
, .
, , ,
, . ,
, , -,
(16301677),
. ,
,
, , ,
.
, . , ,
428
. VIII
. , ,
Principia,
, ; , Principia
.
. - . ,
- ,
,
- . ,
.

,
, . ,
,
.
1.
1. .
,
, .
,
, . . , .
. ,
, p q,
pq , , pq. p q, ,
. p q
m
m0
, p = , q = 0 , m,
n
n
m0 , n0 , n .
1
1
1

= 0 , p = mn0 ,
N
nn
N
1
. , N
1
1

2 .
N
N
1
nm0 mn0
nm0 mn0 , nm0 mn0 2 =
=
N
n2 n0 2
0
m m
=
0 = pq. p q
n
n
q = nm0
429
, p q
pr qr , pr qr
p q.
,
b h;
, 1
bh. ,
2
, ; ,
.

,
, . , ,
?
, , ; III .
. ,
, ,
(., , ,
. 489). , . ,
,
. ,
. 1;
p.

. XVII
.
,
.
.
2. . .
, .
y = f (x), y = x2 y = 1 + cos x;
430
. VIII
,
a b ( a b),
x , y = f (x).
A .
y
y

, , , ,
x
O
a
b
A.
. 259.
A , , A
: x = a x = b
, ,
, .
S
.
,
. , :
S1 , S2 , S3 , . . .
(1)
, Sn 0, n , (1) A:
Sn A,
(2)
A, , , (1),
. (, Sn Sn1 , Sn1 ,
Sn
Sn1 .) A ,
, , , -
431
f (x) a b.
, :
Zb
A=
f (x) dx.
(3)
, dx ,
.
, ,
,
A. f (x) > 0 b > a
(
, 1).
y
bx
. 260.
a b n ,
ba

; :
n
x0 = a, x1 = a +
ba
,
n
x2 = a +
2(b a)
n(b a)
, . . . , xn = a +
= b.
n
n
ba
n
x x ( ):
x =
ba
= xj+1 xj ,
n
. ,
. y =
432
. VIII
f (x) .
Sn = f (x1 )x + f (x2 )x + . . . + f (xn )x,
, ,
Sn =
n
X
f (xj )x.
(4)
(5)
j=1
n
P
( j 1 n) -
j=1
, , j 1, 2,
3, . . . , n.
P

:
2 + 3 + 4 + . . . + 10 =
10
X
j,
j=2
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n =
n
X
j,
j=1
12 + 22 + 32 + . . . + n2 =
n
X
j2,
j=1
aq + aq 2 + . . . + aq n =
n
X
aq j ,
j=1
a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + . . . + (a + nd) =
n
X
(a + jd).
j=0
Sn , n ,
(5) ,
f (xj )x 0 x =
ba
. n A:
n
A = lim
n
X
n
j=1
Zb
f (xj )x =
f (x) dx.
(6)
P
R
Sn A
,
R P d. (
S,
S.)
, ,
433
,
. ,

,
, , x
dx,
f (x) dx.
,
, . ,
.

: , ,
, , .
, , , . .
A, f (x) dx.
, ,
,
, .
, ,
,
.
. 261.
3. . .
, f (x) [a, b] , . .
x.
Sn .
f (xj )x,
; -
434
. VIII
, f (xj )
.
(. 261), , f (x) ,
x, , x, , .
, Rb
ba
= x
f (x) dx, b , a,
n
. f (xj )x , f (xj ) , x
, . . ,
b a.
:
Zb
Za
f (x) dx = f (x) dx.
a
, ,
, xj , , x = xj+1 xj .
xj , x = xj+1 xj
.

Sn = f (x1 )x0 + f (x2 )x1 + . . . + f (xn )xn1 ,

Sn0 = f (x0 )x0 + f (x1 )x1 + . . . + f (xn1 )xn1
, Rb
f (x) dx, , a
x xj = xj+1 xj ,
( n) ,
n .

Zb
n
X
f (x) dx = lim
f (vj )xj .
(6a)
n
j=1
vi xj 6 vj 6 xj+1 , ,
, , xj = xj+1 xj , n
.
435
(6a) , ,
. ,
(. 489), , , ,

f (x).
v 1 x1
v 2 x2
xn
vn b
. 262.
4. . xr .
.
Sn : -
? , ,
f (x), .
, , f (x) = x2 , ;
XVII
, xn , -
.
,
. ,
, , ,
436
. VIII
.
) . y = f (x) Rb
, , f (x) = 2, , , 2 dx, a
, 2(b a), .
. (5) f (xj ) = 2
j, n ,
Sn =
n
X
f (xj )x =
j=1
n
X
2x = 2
j=1
n
X
x = 2(b a);
j=1
,
n
X
x = (x1 x0 ) + (x2 x1 ) + . . . + (xn xn1 ) = xn x0 = b a.
j=1
) f (x) = x.
Rb
x dx (. 263), a
,
(b a)
b2 a2
b+a
=
.
2
2
(6),

: (5) f (x) =
x, Sn
Sn =
n
X
j=1
xj x =
n
X
(a + jx)x =
j=1
= (na + x + 2x + 3x + . . . + nx)x =
= nax + (x)2 (1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + n).
1 + 2 + 3 +
. . . + n, . 31, (1),
Sn = nax +

x =
n(n + 1)
(x)2 .
2
ba
,
n

Sn = a(b a) +
1
1
(b a)2 + (b a)2 .
2
2n
437
n ;

Zb
1
1
lim Sn = x dx = a(b a) + (b a)2 = (b2 a2 ),
2

.
y
y
(b, b)
(a, a)
O
. 263.
. 264.
) f (x) = x2 .

y = x2 . , (6a).
, b
a 0; x = . xj = j x f (xj ) = j 2 (x)2 ,
n
Sn
n
X
Sn =
(jx)2 x = [12 (x)2 + 22 (x)2 + . . . + n2 (x)2 ] x =
j=1
= (12 + 22 + . . . + n2 ) (x)3 .
.
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
,
6
b
. 33, x ,
n

n(n + 1)(2n + 1) b3
b3
1
1
Sn =
3=
1+
2+
.
6
n
6
n
n
12 + 22 + . . . + n2 =
:
1
n

n
438
. VIII
b3
b3
,
12= ;
6
3
,
Zb
b3
x2 dx = .
3
0 a,
Za
a3
x2 dx = ;
3
,
Zb
b3 a3
.
x2 dx =
3
. , (5) . 33, ,
Zb
b4 a4
x3 dx =
.
4
1k + 2k + . . . + nk k-
1 n,
Zb
bk+1 ak+1
(7)
xk dx =
k+1
k.
* , ,
. (7) k,
u
k= ,
v
u , v
. k = 1, (7)
. , 0 < a < b.
(7), Sn , q
x0 = a, x1 , x2 , . . . , xn = b .
bn
b
= q,
a
n = q n , : x0 = a, x1 = aq, x2 = aq 2 , . . . , xn = aq n = b.
a
xj , ,
. f (xj ) = xkj = ak q jk xj = xj+1 xj = aq j+1
aq j ,
Sn = ak (aq a) + ak q k (aq 2 aq) + ak q 2k (aq 3 aq 2 ) + ak q (n1)k (aq n aq n1 ).
439
ak (aq a),
Sn = ak+1 (q 1){1 + q k+1 + q 2(k+1) + . . . + q (n1)(k+1) }.
t q k+1 , , 1 + t + t2 + . . . + tn1 , ,
tn 1
.
. 32,
t1
k+1
b
bk+1
tn = q n(k+1) =
= k+1 .
a
,
Sn = (q 1)
bk+1 ak+1
bk+1 ak+1
=
,
N
q k+1 1
N=
(8)
q k+1 1
.
q1
n . n ; q
b
, N . n n
=
a
q 1 (. . 346); N , .
, k , q 1, (. . 120): N = q k + q k1 + . . . + q + 1.
n , q 1, , q 2 , q 3 , . . . , q k
1, N k + 1. , Sn

bk+1 ak+1
, .
k+1
. , k 6= 1
N k + 1, , (7). , ,
u
, k . , k = , q v =
v
s,
N=
s(k+1)v 1
su+v 1
su+v 1 sv 1
= v
=
:
.
sv 1
s 1
s1
s1
n , q s 1,
u + v v,
u+v
N
= k + 1.
v
5 ,
.
. 1) xk
1
1
k = , , 2, 2, 3, 3.
2
2) :
1
+1
2
R
R
R2
R 3
x dx, )
x dx, ) x2 dx, )
x dx,
)
2
3) :
Rn
0
x dx.
440
+1
R
x3 dx,
R2
2
x3 cos x dx,
+1
R
x4 cos2 x sin5 x dx,
. VIII
+1
R
tg x dx.
(: ,
x = 0,
.)
*4) sin x cos x 0 b, h
x . 512.
5) f (x) = x f (x) = x2 0 b, (6a) vj =
xj + xj+1
.
2
*6) (7) x,
1k + 2k + . . . + nk
1
k+1
nk+1
n .

1
: = x ,
n

R1
xk dx.
0
*7) , n :
1
1
1
1
+
+ ... +
n+n
1+n
2+n
2( 2 1).
(: ,
.)
8) , P1 P2 P1 P2 y = ax2 , P1 P2 .
5. .
,
, . .

.

(6),
.
441

. c
c.

Zb
Zb
Zb
[cf (x) + kg(x)] dx = c f (x) dx + k g(x) dx.
(9)
a

(5),
Sn , , .
.

f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + . . . + an xn ,
a0 , a1 , . . . , an . f (x) a b,
, . (7),
Zb
b2 a2
bn+1 an+1
f (x) dx = a0 (b a) + a1
+ . . . + an
.
2
n+1
, , ,

Zb
Zc
Zc
f (x) dx + f (x) dx = f (x) dx.
(10)
a
, , , b a.
Zb
Za
f (x) dx = f (x) dx,
(11)
a
. 428, ,
(10) c = a.
,
; ,
Zb
Zb
Zb
f (x) dx = f (u) du = f (t) dt . .
a
, , , .
442
. VIII
,
. , O O0 ,
. 265, ,
x y
x0 x = 1 + x0 .
y = f (x)

1
y = f (1 + x0 ) , y =
=
x

1
=
. A
1 + x0
x
, ,
x = 1 x = b,
x0 = 0 x0 = b 1.
,
x
O
O
f (x)
Zb
. 265. y
Zb1
f (x) dx =
f (1 + x0 ) dx0
, u x0 ,
Zb
f (x) dx =
1
Zb1
f (1 + u) du;
(12)
,
Zb
1
dx =
x
Zb1
1
du;
1+u
(12)
1
k
f (x) = x
Zb
Zb1
x dx = (1 + u)k du.
k
(12)
,
Zb
Zb1
x dx = (1 + u)k du
k
(k > 0),
(12)
, (12)
Zb1
bk+1
(1 + u)k du =
.
k+1
bk+1
,
k+1
(12)
443
. 1) 1 + x + x2 + . . . +
xn 0 b.
2) n > 0, (1 + x)n 1
z
(1 + z)n+1
.
n+1
3) , xn sin x 0 1 ,
1
. (: xn .)
n+1
4) , ,
(1 + x)n
1 z
n
(1 + z)n+1
.
n(n + 1)
, , , . , , ,

.
y
, b > a
f (x) g(x)
a b f (x)
g(x).
Zb
Zb
f (x) dx 6
g(x) dx,
(13)

. 266.
. 266,
. , g(x) M , . .
, :
Zb
Zb
g(x) dx = M dx = M (b a);
a

Zb
f (x) dx 6 M (b a).
(14)
f (x) , f (x) = |f (x)|. f (x) < 0,

|f (x)| > f (x). , (13) g(x) = |f (x)|,
:
Zb
Zb
f (x) dx 6 |f (x)| dx.
(15)
a
444
. VIII
|f (x)| = |f (x)|,
Zb
Zb
f (x) dx 6 |f (x)| dx,
a
(15) ,

b
Zb
Z

f (x) dx 6 |f (x)| dx.
(16)

a
2.
1. .
,
XVII
. ,
, .
y = f (x).
, , ,
. . 191 . 365 B , C .
. ,

, .
y = f (x)
x;
, .
y = f (x)
P .
x, y, , a
x .
P L,
R, Q,
RQ
. P R
, L tg a, . .
PR
, RQ
, ;
,
445
( ). . 267
2
,
3
1.
y
R
P
Q
O
. 267.
P .
, .
:
.
2. . y = f (x) P (x, y)
. ,
.
. P1 , P , x1 , y1 ;
, P P1 , t1 ;
,
P , P1 P .
x t1 a1 . x1
x; P1 P
t1 ,
, t x. a x t,
x1 x
y1 y,
P1 P ,
t1 t
a1 a.
, 1 .
1
VI,
446
. VIII
t, t1
t1 =
f (x1 ) f (x)
y1 y
=
;
x1 x
x1 x
, , ,
f (x)
y
t1 =
=
.
x
t1 y
, x . , t = t1 = lim
y
f (x1 ) f (x)
=
x1 x
, x1 x, . . x = x1 x
= lim
x
0.
t , y
y

x = x1 x .
f (x)
y = f (x). , P y = f (x). P
x
O
x, f 0 (x) f (x).
. 268.
,
, f (x). ,
f (x) f 0 (x). f (x)
,
x f (x).
,
f (x) y = f (x) x,
f 0 (x) y = f (x) x.
,
f 0 (x) (differentia) f (x1 ) f (x), x x1 , x1 .
.
447
f (x1 ) f (x)
x1 x
(1)
x1 x:
f 0 (x) = lim
x1 x.

f 0 (x) = Df (x),
D differentia, ;
, y = f (x)
df (x)
dy
,
,
dx
dx
4, ,
f (x) 1
y
.
x
x
f (x)
O
. 269.
, x, : , , f 0 (x) > 0,
( y ). , , , f 0 (x) < 0,
( y ); ,
, f 0 (x) = 0,
x.
(. 269). ,
f 0 (x) = 0
x, ,
.
1
,
. . .
448
. VIII
3. . , ,
(1), . , :
y = f (x) , (1), .

, .
f (x) = c, c .
y = f (x) = c , ; , x

f 0 (x) = 0.
(1); ,
f (x1 ) f (x)
cc
0
y
=
=
=
= 0.
x
x1 x
x1 x
x1 x
, :
lim
f (x1 ) f (x)
=0
x1 x
x1 x.
y = f (x) = x,
.
, x
f 0 (x) = 1,
(1)
f (x1 ) f (x)
x x
= 1
= 1,
x1 x
x1 x

lim
f (x1 ) f (x)
=1
x1 x
x1 x.

y = f (x) = x2 ,
. ,
, .
x2 x2
f (x1 ) f (x)
y
=
= 1
.
x
x1 x
x1 x

0
, .
0
,
x1 x . ( ,
449
,
x1 6= x, . . 326.)
x21 x2
(x1 x)(x1 + x)
=
= x1 + x.
x1 x
x1 x
x1 x
. , x1 + x , x1 x
x1 = x; x + x = 2x , , f (x) = x2 ,
f 0 (x) = 2x.
,
f (x) = x3 f 0 (x) = 3x2 . ,
x3 x3
f (x1 ) f (x)
y
=
= 1
x
x1 x
x1 x

x31 x3 = (x1 x)(x21 + x1 x + x2 );
x = x1 x ,
y
= x21 + x1 x + x2 .
x
x1 x x2 + x2 + x2 ;

f 0 (x) = 3x2 .
,
f (x) = xn ,
n ,
f 0 (x) = nxn1 .
. . (:
n
n1
xn
+ xn2
x + xn3
x2 + . . . + x1 xn2 + xn1 ). )
1 x = (x1 x)(x1
1
1
,
,
y = f (x) =
1
.
x

y
y y
= 1
=
x
x1 x
1
1
x1
x
1
x x1
1
=
.
x1 x
x1 x
x1 x
450
. VIII

1
y
=
x
x1 x
, - x1 = x; , ,
f 0 (x) =
1
.
x2
, ,
x = 0.
. , f (x) =
2
1
1
f 0 (x) = 3 ; f (x) = n x
x2
x
n
f 0 (x) = n+1 ; f (x) = (1 + x)n f 0 (x) =
x
n(1 + x)n1 .
y = f (x) = x.

y
y y
= 1
=
x
x1 x
x1 x
.
x1 x
x1 x = ( x1 x)( x1 + x),
,
x1 = x,
y
1
.
=
x
x1 + x

1
2 x
f 0 (x) = .
1
. , f (x) = x
1
f 0 (x) = 3 ; :
2( x)
1
) f (x) = 3 x
;
f 0 (x) =
3
3 x2
x
0
2
)
f (x) = 1 x
f (x) =
;
1 x2
1
.
)
f (x) = n x
f 0 (x) =
n
n
xn1
4. .

. , .
451
y = f (x) = sin x,
x1 x = h, x1 = x + h f (x1 ) = sin x1 = sin(x + h). , sin(A + B),
f (x1 ) = sin(x + h) = sin x cos h + cos x sin h.
sin(x + h) sin x
f (x1 ) f (x)
=
= cos x
x1 x
h
sin h
h
+ sin x
cos h 1
.
h
(2)
x1 x, h 0, sin h 0, cos h
1.
, . 329330,
lim
h0
sin h
=1
h
lim
h0
cos h 1
= 0.
h
(2) , , cos x,
: f (x) = sin x
f 0 (x) = cos x , ,
d(sin x)
= cos x.
dx
. ,
d(cos x)
= sin x.
dx
f (x) = tg x,
tg x =
sin x
, ,
cos x
f (x + h) f (x)
=
h
sin(x + h)
sin x
cos(x + h)
cos x
1
=
h
sin(x + h) cos x cos(x + h) sin x

1
sin h
1
.
h
cos(x + h) cos x
h
cos(x + h) cos x
( sin(A B) =
= sin A cos B cos A sin B, A = x + h, B = x.) h 0,
sin h
1, cos(x + h) cos x,
h
:
f (x) = tg x f 0 (x) =
d(tg x)
1
=
.
dx
cos2 x
. ,
d(ctg x)
1
= 2 .
dx
sin x
1
,
cos2 x
452
. VIII
*5. .
. ,
y
x , , y
f (x) x .
; ,
,
, ,
, .
6. . .
.
.

f (t), .
. , ,
( , ). x,
, x = f (t), x t. b x x =
= a + bt, a ( t = 0).

x = f (t),
y = g(t),
. ,

x = a + bt,
y = c + dt,
b d , a c ( t = 0);
,
(x a)d (y c)b = 0
t .
x, y
, ( )
x = a + bt,
y = c + dt
1 2
gt ,
2
453
a, b, c, d ,
, g , 9,81, , .
, t
,
y=c+
1 (x a)2
d
(x a) g
,
b
2
b2
b 6= 0;
.
( ),
s(t) ( t), s,
P0
P t. ,
x2 + y 2 = 1, s = ct
c.
* . ,
: 1) x = sin t, y = cos t; 2) x = sin 2t, y = cos 3t; 3) x = sin 2t, y =
= 2 sin 3t; 4)
( t = 0) b > 0,
d > 0. . t
x, x.
, , , .
, x = f (t). , . .
, ,
t t1 f (t)
f (t1 )
v = =
x1 x f (t1 ) f (t)
=
=
.
t1 t
t1 t
(3)
, t , x , t1 t = 1
x1 x , 1 , v
( ). , , ,
f (t1 ) f (t)
t1 t
(4)
t t1 . ( , , ,
), (4)
t, ,
454
. VIII
t t1 .
t,
t1 t. , :
t = lim
t1 t
f (t1 ) f (t)
= f 0 (t).
t1 t
(5)
,
( ) ,
, (4).
. ; f 00 (t) f (t).
, x,
t,
x = f (t) =
1 2
gt ,
2
(6)
g . (6), , v t;

v = f 0 (t) = gt,
(7)
a, ,
a = f 00 (t) = g.
, 2 .
t = 2 t = 2,1:
1
1
g (2,1)2 g 22
4,905 0,41
2
2
=
= 20,11 ( ).
2,1 2
0,1
(7) t = 2, , 19,62 (
).
.
t = 2 t = 2,01, t = 2 t = 2,001?
f 0 (t) g 0 (t)
x = f (t) y = g(t) . s = f (t), s .
455
7. . f 00 (x) ;
, f 0 (x)
y = f (x), , . ,
f 0 (x) .
,
x. , f 00 (x) > 0 , f 0 (x)
x , , x
, , , . , (. 270).
, f 00 (x) < 0, , y = f (x)
(. 271).
y
y
f (x)
f (x)
. 270271.
y = f (x) = x2 ,
(f (x) = 2) . y = f (x) = x3 x > 0
x < 0 (. 153); ,
f 00 (x) = 6x, . ,
x = 0 f 0 (x) = 3x2 = 0 ( , !),
f 00 (x) = 0 x = 0. .
, , ( x)
.
s , a , a = h(s) s.
a = h(s) . h0 (s) ,
s. , k 00
456
. VIII
y = f (x), , :
k=
f 00 (x)
.
(1 + (f 0 (x))2 )3/2
8. . f (x),
f 0 (x), x, , , ,

.
f 00 (x),
;
, ,
, .
, ,
. x, ;
y = f (x),
x f (x).

f (x) = 2x3 9x2 + 12x + 1;

f 0 (x) = 6x2 18x + 12,
f 00 (x) = 12x 18.
f 0 (x) = 0 x1 = 1, x2 = 2,
f 00 (x1 ) = 6 < 0, f 00 (x2 ) =
6 > 0.
, f (x) f (x1 ) = 6
f (x2 ) = 5.
. 1) .
2) f (x) = (x2 1)(x2 4).
x+1
a2
3)
, x+
, px + , p
x
x
x
q . ?
4) sin x sin(x2 ).
3.
, , .
,

457
. ,
; .
.
.
.
) . a b , k(x)
k(x) = af (x) + bg(x),
, , :
k 0 (x) = af 0 (x) + bg 0 (x).
.
) .
p(x) = f (x) g(x)

p0 (x) = f (x) g 0 (x) + f 0 (x) g(x).
:
p(x + h) p(x) , f (x + h) g(x):
p(x + h) p(x) = f (x + h) g(x + h) f (x) g(x) =
= f (x + h) g(x + h) f (x + h) g(x) + f (x + h) g(x) f (x) g(x).
,
g(x + h) g(x)
f (x + h) f (x)
p(x + h) p(x)
= f (x + h)
+ g(x)
.
h
h
h
h ; f (x + h)
f (x), .
. , ,
p(x) = xn p0 (x) = nxn1 . (: ,
xn = x xn1 , .)
) )
f (x) = a0 + a1 x + . . . + an xn :

f 0 (x) = a1 + 2a2 x + 3a3 x2 + . . . + nan xn1 .
(. . 35). , (1 + x)n :
f (x) = (1 + x)n = 1 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + . . . + an xn ,
(1)
458
. VIII
ak
ak =
n(n 1) . . . (n k + 1)
.
k!
(2)
( . 444),
(1) n(1 + x)n1 .
n(1 + x)n1 = a1 + 2a2 x + 3a3 x2 + . . . + nan xn1 .

(3)
x = 0, n = a1 ,
(2) k = 1. (3)
n(n 1)(1 + x)n2 = 2a2 + 3 2a3 x + . . . + n(n 1)an xn2 .
x n(n 1) = 2a2 , (2) k = 2.
. (2) k = 3 k ( ).
) .
q(x) =
q 0 (x) =
f (x)
,
g(x)
g(x) f 0 (x) f (x) g 0 (x)

.
(g(x))2
. , , g(x) 6= 0.
.
tg x ctg x, sin x cos x. ,
1
sin x
cos x
1
cosec x =

2 .
sec x =
2
cos x
sin x
cos x
sin x
,
. ,
f (x) =
1x
1+x

f 0 (x) =
(1 + x) (1 x)
2
=
.
(1 + x)2
(1 + x)2
.
f (x) =
1
= xm ,
xm
m . :
f 0 (x) = mxm1 .
459
) .
y = f (x) x = g(y)
(, y = x2 x = y),
.
,
1
g 0 (y) = 0 .
f (x)
, y
x

; x
, . 302,
y, x.

y = f (x) = m x = x1/m ,
x = y m (.
, m =
1
, . 444).
2
x = y m my m1 ,
1
y
1
1
f 0 (x) =
m=
yy m ,
m1 =
my
, y = x1/m y m = x1 , :
f 0 (x) =
1 1/m1
x
.
m

(. . 302)
y = arctg x ( x = tg y).
y,
, y, ,
p
p
< y < .
2
2
d(tg y)
1
=
,
dy
cos2 y
sin2 y + cos2 y
1
=
= 1 + tg2 y = 1 + x2 ,
2
cos y
cos2 y
(. . 445),
,
d(arctg x)
1
=
.
dx
1 + x2
:
d(arcctg x)
1
=
,
dx
1 + x2
d(arcsin x)
1
=
,
dx
1 x2
d(arccos x)
1
=
.
dx
1 x2
460
. VIII
, :
) .
( ) (. . 303).

z
=
sin
x
z
=
sin
y
y
=
x;
z = x + x5 z = y + y 5 y = x;
1
z = sin(x2 ) z = sin y y = x2 ; z = sin
x
z = sin y y = .
x

z = g(y)
y = f (x)
,
z = k(x) = g[f (x)].

k 0 (x) = g 0 (y) f 0 (x).
(4)

k(x1 ) k(x)
z z y1 y
= 1
,
x1 x
y1 y x1 x
y1 = f (x1 ) z1 = g(y1 ) = k(x1 ); x1 x

k 0 (x), g 0 (y) f 0 (x), (4).
y1 y 6= 0. , y = y1 y; x1 , y1 y = 0. (4) , y , x. y
y , f 0 (x) = 0; , k(x) = g(y)
x
O
x ( y
x)
, , k 0 (x) = 0;
, (4)
. 272. y = sin x
.
461
. 273. y = sin(x2 )
1
k(x) = sin x,
k 0 (x) = (cos x) ;
2 x
1
k(x) = x + x5 ,
k 0 (x) = (1 + 5x2 ) ;
2 x
k(x) = sin(x2 ),
1
k(x) = sin ,
x
k(x) = 1 x2 ,
k 0 (x) = cos(x2 ) 2x;

1
1
k 0 (x) = cos
2;
x
x
1
x
k (x) =
2x =
.
2 1 x2
1 x2
0
. . 451 . 453, ,
f (x) = m xs

f 0 (x) =
s s/m1
x
.
m
, ,
x, :
r
f (x) = xr

f 0 (x) = rxr1 .
. 1)
. 444, .
sin nx
, (x3 3x2
2) : x sin x,
1 + x2
1
1+x
1+x 4
1
x + 1)3 , 1 + sin2 x, x2 sin 2 , arcsin(cos nx), tg
, arctg
, 1 x2 ,
2.
1x
1x
1+x
3) :
1x
,
1+x
arctg x,
sin2 x,
tg x.
462
. VIII
4)
p
p
u = c1 (x x1 )2 + y12 + c2 (x x2 )2 + y22
, VII (. 352 . 403). ,
x
(x1 , y1 ) (x2 , y2 ).
(.
, ,
, .)

5) , , , , :
x3 6x + 2,
1
,
1 + x2
x2
,
1 + x4
cos2 x.
6) x3 + 3ax + 1
a.
7) 2y 2 x2 = 2 x = 0,
y = 3?
8)
.
9)
y2
x2
+ 2 = 1.
2
a
b
10) .
463
4.

. . , ,
, . ,
, , . . , ,
. , : ,
. , ,
, ,
?
,
, -
. ,

. ,
,

. XVII . ,
.

f (x)
f (x1 ) f (x)
y
=
.
x
x1 x
, . . ( , , , f 0 (x)),

dy
,
dx
, , d.
,

464
. VIII
x 0, y 0. y

x
x
, .
.
,
y
0

= , x
0
.
, ,
, : x
. , x ,
, , dx; y
dy. dy
f 0 (x) = .
dx
. ,
,
.
, ,
, ,
, ,
. , ,
,
f (x) dx. ,
,
f (xj )xj .
.
, , ,
.
, R
dy
f (x) dx ,
:
dx
, . , ,
d . ,
- ,
.
-
465
. ,
,
;
.
, ) (. 453) x =
g(y), y = f (x), g 0 (y) f 0 (x) = 1.
:
dx dy
= 1, . . ,
dy dx
,
. ,
. 454 ) z = k(x),
z = g(y),
y = f (x),

dz dy
dz
=
.
dx
dy dx
, , x, y, z
, . ,
x y; , y = f (x) =
x2 y, x.
, , . .
,
.
. , , , ,
,
. x, x
.
,
.
,

.
466
. VIII
5.
1. . ,
, .
,
. ,
, ,
. ,
, y
y
,
, .
f (x)
.
a
x
u
O

, . 274.

. , , ,
.
, y = f (x) a
x, .
x ,
, (. . 428):
Zx
F (x) = f (u) du,
(1)
a

F (x) (. 274). F (x)
y = f (u) u = a u = x.
F (x)
.
:
(1) x f (u) u = x:
F 0 (x) = f (x).
467
, , f (x)
F (x), , F (x).
. F (x)
, ,
F (x) F 0 (x)
. ,
F (x) , F (x) .
F (x1 ) F (x)
y = f (u) u = x1 u =
x (. 275), ,
(x1 x)m (x1 x)M :
(x1 x)m 6 F (x1 ) F (x) 6 (x1 x)M ,
M m , , f (u) u = x u = x1 . ,
,
, .
y
M
m
F (x)
x1
. 275.

m6
F (x1 ) F (x)
6 M.
x1 x
, f (u) , x1 x M m f (u)
u = x, . . f (x).
468
. VIII
,
F 0 (x) = lim
x1 x
F (x1 ) F (x)
= f (x).
x1 x
(2)
, y = f (x)
x.
. , ,
,
: , G(x)
f (x),
G0 (x) = f (x).
,
.
,
, ,
,
. , ,
, ,

. G(x),
G0 (x) = f (x), , f (x).
:
F (x), f (x) x, f (x).
,
G(x) f (x),
, H(x) = G(x) + c (c
) , H 0 (x) = G0 (x). . G(x)
H(x) ,
. , U (x) = G(x) H(x) U 0 (x) = G0 (x) H 0 (x) = f (x) f (x) = 0, . . , ,
, , ,
.
a b , - G(x) f (x).
469
Zx
F (x) =
f (u) du
a
f (x). , F (x) =
= G(x) + c, c . ,
Ra
, F (a) = f (u) du = 0. :
a
0 = G(a) + c, c = G(a). a x
Zx
F (x) = f (u) du = G(x) G(a);
a
x b
Zb
f (u) du = G(b) G(a),
(3)
, . : Rb
f (x) dx, G(x), a
G0 (x) = f (x), G(b) G(a).

2. . xr , cos x,
sin x. arctg x. , , . ,
,
.

. , 3, ,
. G0 (x) = f (x), ,
, G(x) f (x).
(3)
f (x)
.
, , x2 , x3 ,
xn , , 1.
xn nxn1 ,
470
. VIII

G(x) =
xn+1
n+1

G0 (x) =

(n 6= 1)
n+1 n
x = xn .
n+1
xn+1

n+1
f (x) = xn , ,

Zb
bn+1 an+1
.
xn dx = G(b) G(a) =
n+1
.
, 3, s, , , xs sxs1 , s = r + 1
G(x) =
xr+1
r+1
f (x) = G0 (x) = xr ( , r 6= 1,
. . s 6= 0). ,
xr+1
,
r+1
xr , ( a b r 6= 1)
Zb
xr dx =
br+1 ar+1
.
r+1
(4)
(4) ,
xr ,
x = 0, r < 0.
, a b .
G(x) = cos x, G0 (x) = sin x,

Za
sin x dx = (cos a cos 0) = 1 cos a.
0
, G(x) = sin x, G0 (x) = cos x, ,

Za
cos x dx = sin a sin 0 = sin a.
0
471
arctg x:
d(arctg x)
1
=
.
dx
1 + x2
arctg x
1
,
1 + x2
(3)
Zb
1
arctg b arctg 0 =
2 dx.
1+x
arctg 0 = 0 ( ). ,
Zb
1
(5)
arctg b =
2 dx.
1+x
p
, b = 1, arctg b
4
1,
45 , y
p
. ,
4

Z1
p
1
=
(6)
2 dx.
4
1+x
,
y =
1
2 x = 0 x =
1+x
1 .
.
276.
1
y =
1
1 + x2
p
3.
4
p.
, XVII .,
, p:
1
1
1
1
1
1
p
= + +
+ ...
(7)
4
11
+ . . . ,
, , p
n ,
4
n.
472
. VIII
,
1 qn
= 1 + q + q 2 + . . . + q n1 ,
1q
qn
1
= 1 + q + q 2 + . . . + q n1 +
.
1q
1q
q = x2 ,
1
= 1 x2 + x4 x6 + . . . + (1)n1 x2n2 + Rn ,
1 + x2
(8)
Rn
Rn = (1)n
x2n
.
1 + x2
(8) 0 1.
a) 3,
. (4) ,
Zb
xm dx =
bm+1 am+1
,
m+1
, ,
R1
xm dx =
Z1
1
, ,
m+1
dx
1
1
1
1
= 1 + + . . . + (1)n1
+ Tn ,
1 + x2
3
5
7
2n 1
(9)
R1 x2n
Tn = (1)n
dx. (5), 1 + x2
0
p
p
(9) .

4
(1)n1
1
1
Sn = 1 + . . . +
3
5
2n 1
Sn = Tn . , Tn
4
n.
x2n
6 x2n .
1 + x2
(13) 1,
Zb
Zb
f (x) dx 6
g(x) dx f (x) 6 g(x)

a
a < b,
6 () 473
Z1
|Tn | =
x2n
dx 6
1 + x2
Z1
x2n dx.
, (4),
|Tn | <
1
.
2n + 1

1
p

.
Sn <
4
2n + 1
1
;
2n + 1
, , Sn

2n + 1
p
n. , .
4
6. ()

,
,
.
an
1/m
m
a, a
= a, , , ar n
r = . ax x m
, ax x,
, . ,
y a ,
y = ax .
,
, . , .
1. . e.
, , , F (x) =
ln x (
1
2), y = u = 1 u = x,
u
, , :
Zx
1
F (x) = ln x =
du
(1)
u
(. . 5, . 47). x . , u
, , .
474
. VIII
F (x). , xn xn+1
;
,
n+1
n = 1. n + 1
, (4) . 464 . ,
,
1
1

x
u
( ) .
(1) ln x,
,
. ,
,
,
, (1);

,
.
ln x
5. ,
F 0 (x) =
1
.
x
(2)
(2) , F (x) ,
, , , ln x
x.

ln a + ln b = ln(ab).
(3)

. (3)
, ,
, : ln a, ln b ln(ab).
, : F (x) = ln x

k(x) = ln(ax) = ln w = F (w),
w = f (x) = ax, a .
k(x) ) 3: k 0 (x) = f 0 (w) f 0 (x). (2) f 0 (x) = a,
k 0 (x) =
a
a
1
=
= .
w
ax
x
, k(x) , F (x);
, , . 462,
ln(ax) = k(x) = F (x) + c,
6 () 475
c , x. c x = 1
. (1) ,
F (1) = ln 1 = 0
( , , x = 1
).
k(1) = ln(a 1) = ln a = ln 1 + c = c,
. . c = ln a, x
ln(ax) = ln a + ln x.
(3a)
x = b, , , (3).
, a = x ,
ln(x2 ) = 2 ln x,
ln(x3 ) = 3 ln x,
.........
ln(xn ) = n ln x.
(4)
(4) , x ln x . , ,
ln(2n ) = n ln 2,
, , n,
,
ln x. , :

1
1
0 = ln 1 = ln x
= ln x + ln ,
x

ln
1
= ln x.
x
(5)
,
ln xr = r ln x
(6)
m
r = . , xr =
n
u, :
n ln u = ln un = ln x n n = ln xm = m ln x,

ln x n =
m
ln x.
n
ln x x, 0 x = 1
476
. VIII
x
y
1
O
O
. 277. y = ln x
. 278. x = E(y)
x, x, ,
ln x = 1. , e. ( , . 320,
.) , e
ln e = 1.
(7)
e, , .
, , e .
2. () .
, , F (x) =
ln x
x = 1;

x ,

1
; x, ,
x
ln , ln x
x
x 0.
y = ln x
x = E(y),
(. 278) y = ln x (. 277); y +. y E(y) ;
y , , E(y) . E
6 () 477
:
E(a) E(b) = E(a + b)
(8)
a b. (3), . , (3) ln x + ln z = ln(xz)
E(a) = x, E(b) = z (. . a = ln x, b = ln z),

ln(xz) = ln x + ln z = a + b,

E(a + b) = xz = E(a) E(b),
.
, , ln e = 1,
E(1) = e;
(8), e2 = E(1) E(1) =
= E(2), . . ,
E(n) = en

1
1
n. E
= e n ,
n
p
q

=E
1
q

... E
1
q

1
q p
= (e ) ;
p
= r, ,
q
E(r) = er
r.
e
ey = E(y),
y, E
y ey
y. (8),
E, , , () ,
ea eb = ea+b ,
(9)

a b.
e , ,
478
. VIII
. e
.
a = ln a
a
ln a
( a = a = e ). ax
:
z = ax = eax = ex ln a .
,
(10)
10x = ex ln 10 .
, ax ,
a; , z
x a: , z
a z
a. a = 10,
( ) :
ln 10 2,303.
3. ex , ax , xs .
y = ln x,
( 3) ,
E 0 (y) =
. .
1
1
dx
=
= 1 = x = E(y),
dy
dy
x
dx
E 0 (y) = E(y).
(11)
. ,
. , (11)
:
d x
e = ex .
(11a)
dx
,
f (x) = eax
, 3,
f 0 (x) = aeax = af (x).
, a = ln a, ,
f (x) = ax
6 () 479
f 0 (x) = ax ln a.

f (x) = xs
s x,
xs = es ln x .
, f (x) = esz , z = ln x,
f 0 (x) = sesz

1
1
= sxs ,
x
x
f 0 (x) = sxs1 ,
s.
4. e ex ln x
. ,
,
. ln x 1
,
x
1
ln x1 ln x
= lim
x
x1 x
x1 x.
x1 = x + h , h ,
1 1 1
1
h = , , , . . . , , . . . ; ,
2 3 4
n
,

1
1
h
i
ln x +
ln x
x+
1 n
1
n
n
=
n
ln
=
ln
1
+
.
1
x
nx
x
n
1

z ,
x

i
h
z n
z = lim ln 1 +
n
n .
, ,

z n
ez = lim 1 +
n .
n
(12)
,
. , z = 1

1 n
e = lim 1 +
n ,
(13)
n
480
. VIII
z = 1
1
1
= lim 1
e
n
n
n .
(13a)
.

n(n 1) x2
n(n 1)(n 2) x3
x n
x
xn
1+
=1+n +
2 +
3 + ... + n,
n
1+
x
n
n
2!
3!
x2
1
x3
1
2
x
+
1
+
1
1
+ ...
1!
2!
n
3!
n
n

n
x
1
2
n2
n1
... +
1
1
... 1
1
.
n!
n
n
n
n
=1+

( ), n
1
0.

n
, ex :
ex = 1 +
x2
x3
x
+
+
+ ...
1!
2!
3!
(14)
, , x = 1 , e:
e=1+
1
1
1
+ + + ...,
1!
2!
3!
e ,
. 320. x = 1
1
1
1
1
1
= + + ...,
e
2!
3!
4!
5!

, , , n-
, (n + 1)- .
,
.
eh e0
eh 1
= lim
= 1,
lim
h0
h0
,
ey y = 0, 1.
z
h , z , n
n
.
z
en 1
n
1,
z
n( n ez 1) z
6 () 481
n . z = ln x, ez = x,
ln x = lim n( n x 1) n .
(15)
n x 1 n (. . 346), (15)
,
, .

.
:
1) x(ln x 1); 2) ln(ln x); 3) ln(x + 1 + x2 );
2
x
4) ln(x + 1 x2 ); 5) ex ; 6) ee ( ez , z = ex );
x
7) xx (: xx = ex ln x ); 8) ln tg x; 9) ln sin x, ln cos x; 10)
.
ln x
: 11) xex ; 12) x2 ex ; 13) xeax .

*14) y = xeax
a.
2
15) , ex
2
ex x
.
1
*16) , n- e x2

1
e x2
1
2n 2.
x3n
*17) .
. ,
p(x) = f1 (x) f2 (x) . . . fn (x),

d(ln f1 (x))
d(ln f2 (x))
d(ln fn (x))
d(ln p(x))
=
+
+ ... +
,
dx
dx
dx
dx
, ,
f 0 (x)
f 0 (x)
p0 (x)
f 0 (x)
= 1
+ 2
+ ... + n .
p(x)
f1 (x)
f2 (x)
fn (x)

2
) x(x + 1)(x + 2) . . . (x + n); ) xeax .
5. . . (15). , , , , , . ,
. 466 p, ,
(1).
482
. VIII
: ln x y =
ln(1 + x), y = ln z z = 1 + x. :
dy dz
1
1
dy
=
= 1=
.
dx
dz dx
z
1+x
, y = ln(1 + x)
1
, , , 1+x
1

0 x ln(1 +
1+u
x) ln 1 = ln(1 + x); , ,
Zx
1
du.
ln(1 + x) =
1+u
(16)
( , , . . 468.)
(16) (1 + u)1
, . 466,
1
un
= 1 u + u2 u3 + . . . + (1)n1 un1 + (1)n
;
1+u
1+u
,
,
Rn = (1)n
un
.
1+u
(16), . us 0 x
xs+1
; ,
s+1
ln(1 + x) = x
x3
x4
xn
x2
+
+ . . . + (1)n1
+ Tn ,
2
3
4
n
Tn
Zx n
u
n
Tn = (1)
du.
1+u
, Tn n, , x 1
+1, . ., ,
1 < x 6 1
(, x = +1 , x = 1 ). ,
u , a,
6 () 483
1, , 1, 1 < a < u.
0 < 1 a < 1 + u. , u
0 x,
n
|u|n
u
,
6

1+u
1a
,

Zx

1
n
|Tn | 6
u du,
1a
0
|Tn | 6
|x|n+1
1
1
1
6
.
1a n+1
1a n+1
1 a , , ,
, , |Tn |, n
; ,

2
3
n

1
ln(1 + x) x x + x . . . + (1)n x 6 1
(17)

2
3
n 1a n+1
, 1 < x 6 1
ln(1 + x) = x
x2
x3
x4
+
+ ...
2
3
4
(18)
, , x = 1,
ln 2 = 1
1
1
1
+ + ...
2
3
4
(19)
p
, .
4
(18)
, 1 + x
0 2, ,
: ,
- .
, . x (18) x:
ln(1 x) = x
x2
x3
x4
...
2
3
4
(20)
, , (20) (18) ln a ln b = ln a + ln
ln
1
a
= ln ,
b
b
1+x
x3
x5
=2 x+
+
+ ... .
1x
3
5
(21)
, , ,
z,
484
. VIII
1+x
= z z x, 1x
1 +1. , ln 3,
1
x =
2
1

1
1
1
2
+
ln 3 = ln
=
2
+
+
.
.
.
.
3
5
1
12
32
52
1
2
2
1
=
,
6 ,
11 211
11264
1+
ln 3 = 1,0986
.
7.
1. . ,

, ,
.

u = f (x) u0 = f 0 (x) ( u0 f 0 (x), u x f (x) )
, u, u0 ,
, x, , ,
u0 = u + sin(xu)
485
u0 + 3u = x2 .

u00 = f 00 (x) , , ,
u00 + 2u0 3u = 0.

u = f (x), .
, g(x):
u0 = g(x).
,
u0 = x2
u =
x3
3
+ c, c .
2. . . . .
u = ex
u0 = u,
(1)
. , u = cex , c
, (1). ,
u = cekx ,
(2)
c k - ,
u0 = ku.
(3)
, u = f (x), (3),
(2). , x = h(u) u = f (x) ; ,
,
h0 =
1
1
=
.
u0
ku
,
ln u
ln u
1
,
ku

; , x = h(u) =
+ b, b k
k
.
ln u = kx bk
486
. VIII
u = ekx ebk .
ebk c,
u = cekx ,
.
(3) , , u -

u = f (t)
,
u , .
t, . .
u0 = f 0 (t) = lim
f (t1 ) f (t)
,
t1 t
ku, k , , u , , u .
u (3);
,
u = cekt .
c , u0 ,
, . . t = 0. u0
t = 0 (2):
u0 = ce0 = c;

u = u0 ekt .
(4)
, , u, (4),
u
t.
- .

. u = f (t) t; ,
,
, u
t, u, .
, u (3)
k, ; , :
487

u0

O
u = u0 ekt .
, - . 279. u = u0 ekt , k < 0

; , u1 ,
t1 , u2 t2 ,
u2
u ekt2
= 0 kt1 = ek(t2 t1 ) ,
u1
u0 e
t2 t1 . ,
, ,
: s =
t2 t1
1
u2
= = eks ,
u1

ks = ln
1
,
2
s=
ln 2
.
k
(5)
, s, k:
k=
ln 2
.
s
s

. s

u
999

, r, 2 =
u1
1000
. 1550 , ,
1
2
= 0,0000447.
1550
ln
k=
,
u = u0 e0,0000447t .
488
. VIII
,
, . u0 ()
3% () .
u1 = u0 (1 + 0,03);

u2 = u1 (1 + 0,03) = u0 (1 + 0,03)2 ;
, t
ut = u0 (1 + 0,03)t .
(6)
, ,
, , , n- ,
t

i
h

0,03 n t
0,03 nt
= u0 1 +
.
u0 1 +
n
, n , , , , n , , , ,
e0,03 6,
t
u0 e0,03t ,
(7)
. s, , , 3 u e0,03s
100
. 0
= 2, s =
ln 2 = 23,10.
u0
3
, 23 .
, (7), , u0 u , k = 0,03,

u0 = ku,
k = 0,03.
(7) (4).
489
3. . . . ,
2
(8)
u = ekx ,
k ,
u0 = 2kxu.
(8) ,
, , .
u = cos t v = sin t .

u0 = sin t = v,
v 0 = cos t = u,
. ,
u00 = v 0 = u,
v 00 = u0 = v;
, u v t
z 00 + z = 0.
(9)
,
. . , z. ,
, , , k 2 ,
z 00 + k 2 z = 0
(10)
( z = cos kt z = sin kt), , u = sin kt u = cos kt (. 280)
, , .
, (10) , .
, rz 0 ,

z 00 + rz 0 + k 2 z = 0;
(11)
490
. VIII
,
r
2
rt
rt
r
2
2
,
cos wt e
sin wt; w = k 2
e
2
. 281. ( .) ,
, ,
, r.
z
z
. 280.
4. . ,
, .
, m; ,
t, x(t), y(t), z(t); , x00 (t), y 00 (t), z 00 (t).
, mx00 , my 00 , mz 00
, .
, . ,
: ,
,
,
491
. 281.
.
. ,
.
, ,
x, y, z ,

y
z
x
k 3 , k 3 , k 3 ,
r
r = x + y + z , k , .
.
, ,
(. . ); ,
492
. VIII

kx
,
(x2 + y 2 + z 2 )3/2
ky
my 00 = 2
,
(x + y 2 + z 2 )3/2
kz
mz 00 = 2
(x + y 2 + z 2 )3/2
mx00 =
x(t), y(t), z(t).

, ,

, ,
-, ,

. .
. , , , x,
, , , .
( ) x,
. , x; ,
k 2 x, k 2 ,
.
, , ,
, x0 , r.
k 2 x rx0 , ,
, mx00 = k 2 x
rx0 ,
mx00 + rx0 + k 2 x = 0.
, (11) .
,
. ,
, , .
-
493
, ,
.
VIII
1.
1. .
y = f (x)
.
,
.
, ,
, ,
,
. , , , . 282,
.
y = x + |x|, |x|
x; ,
y = x + x = 2x
y=xx=0
x > 0,
x < 0.
y = |x|,
y = x + |x| + (x 1) + |x 1|. , . . ; , x
.
. 1) (. . ) f (x), .
O
. 282. y = x + |x|
. 283. y = |x|
. 284. y = x + |x| +
+ (x 1) + |x 1|
494
. VIII
2)
o
o
n

n

1
1
1
1
1
1
x
+ x +
x
+ x ?
f (x) = (x + |x|) +
2
0 (x)?

1
y = f (x) = x sin ,
x
sin
1
(. . 304)
x
x; , , f (x) = 0 x = 0.
, x
. 285, .
x = 0,
, .

1
1
1
f 0 (x) = sin cos
x
( ); x
.
x = 0, h 0
1
h sin
f (0 + h) f (0)
1
h
=
= sin .
h
h
h
h 0 1 +1
, ,
x = 0.
,
.
, ,
.
, ,
, ; ,
,
. .
( ), . . ,
.
,
, ?
,
495
. VIII
.
y

,
, .

(
)
:
x
O
y = f (x) , . .
f (x + h) f (x)

h
. 285. y = x sin
f 0 (x) h
x
,
, f 0 (x). , ,

.
. 1) , ,
1
f (x) = x2 sin f (0) = 0,
x
x = 0.
1
1
2) , arctg x = 0, x arctg
x
x
, , 1
x2 arctg
x = 0. (
x
x = 0 .)
2. . f (x).
, a posteriori ,
.
, .
, ,
, . -
496
. VIII

Sn =
n
X
j=1
f (vj )(xj xj1 ) =
n
X
f (vj )xj ,
(1)
j=1
x0 = a, x1 , . . . , xn = b , xj = xj xj1 x, j-
, vj x
, . . xj1 6 vj 6 xj ( ,
, vj = xj vj = xj1 .)
, ,
n ,
.
: Sn ,
f (x), A,
Rb
vj . , A = f (x) dx.
a
, ,
. , .

. ,
, ;
,
.
,
. , ,
, ,
. - ,

. ,
,
,
.
3. . .
. ,
,
. , -
497
.
. ,
x , .
, x f (x),
f (x) .
a b, ,
, f :
(b a)f . x,
( , ).
a b, , x0 = a, x1 , x2 , . . . , xn = b; ,
,
, f (xn ), ,
, :
n
X
Sn =
f (xn )xn .
n=1
, , ,
n , ,
Zb
f (x) dx.
a
, , ,
.
, m,
x = 0 . f (x), . 486,
x,
f (x) = k 2 x,
k 2 . , m b,
Zb
b2
(k 2 x) dx = k 2 ,
2
,
b2
b, +k 2 .
2

. ,
498
. VIII
dy
y = f (x), f 0 (x) =
dx
. , ,
.
AB n ,
() Ln
; n ,
;
AB :
L = lim Ln .
( VI n-.) ,

, . , , . , ,
,
.
,
AB y = f (x)
f 0 (x)
L L .
x1
x2
x A B
a b, . 286.
a b, ,
a = x0 , x1 , x2 , . . . , xn = b
xj = xj xj1 (xj , yj = f (xj )), .

r

yj 2
(xj xj1 )2 + (yj yj1 )2 = x2j + yj2 = xj 1 +
.
xj

r
n

X
yj 2
1+
xj .
Ln =
j=1
xj
n , -
499
yj
dy

= f 0 (x),
xj
dx
L
Zb p
L=
1 + [f 0 (x)]2 dx.
(2)
, . -,
B x,
L = L(x) x, ,
,
dL p
L0 (x) =
= 1 + [f 0 (x)]2 ,
dx
. -, (2)
,

. , ,
f (x), , , f 0 (x),
(2) . , ,
, ,
. ,
.
y = f (x) = 1 x2
;
p
dy
x
1
f 0 (x) =
=
,
1 + [f 0 (x)]2 =
2
dx
1x
1 x2
,
Zb
dx
= arcsin b arcsin a.
1 x2
y = x2 f 0 (x) = 2x, x = 0
x = b
Zb
1 + 4x2 dx.
a
y = ln sin x f 0 (x) = ctg x,
Zb
1 + ctg2 x dx.
a
500
. VIII

. ,
, ,
, .
2.
1. x. an , .
, , bn ,
, , , ,
an . : , bn
, an , bn
a
, an , n ( bn
, )
n. , bn = n2
, an = n,
, , , cn = n,

n
an
n
1
cn
1
= 2 = 0,
=
= 0.
bn
an
, n nr ( s > r > 0),

nr
1
= sr 0.
ns
n
a
n c,
bn
, , an bn

. , , an = n2 bn = 2n2 + n
,
1
an
n2
1
.
= 2
=
1
bn
2n + n
2
2+
n
, an
ns ,
.
ns , an , . . ,
a
ns , n
. ,
,
an a > 1 (, en ) , ns ,
501
s; , ln n
, ns ,
s. ,

ns
(1)
n 0
a
ln n
0
ns
(2)
n . , s
; .
(1),
, (1) s;
, .
, ,
n
n
as
1
n. b = a s ; a
1
, b b = b 2 1.
1
b 2 = 1 + q,
q . , (6) . 34,
n
b 2 = (1 + q)n > 1 + nq > nq,

,
a s = b n > n2 q 2 ,
n
n
as
<
n
1
= 2.
n2 q 2
nq
n ,
.
,
xs
0
ax
(3)
, x ,
x1 , x2 , . . . ,
1, 2, 3, . . . .
, n 1 6 x 6 n
ns
ns
xs
< n1 = a n 0.
ax
a
a
(3). x = ln n es = a, ns = (es )x ,
(2)
x
x,
a
502
. VIII
, (3) s = 1.
. 1) , x ln ln x
, ln x.
x
1
1
2)

. ,
ln x
ln x
(ln x)2
x 1
,
, . . x 1.
ln x
2. ln(n!). , ,
y
n! n. n!, . .
Pn = ln 2 + ln 3 + . . . + ln n.
1 2
n 1 n n
. 287. ln(n!)
, Pn
n ln n,
. .
ln(n!)
1
n ln n
n .
, ,
. . 287 Pn ,

n+1
Z
ln x dx = (n + 1) ln(n + 1) (n + 1) + 1
0
1 n + 1 [. . 532,
)]. Pn
,

1 n,
Zn
ln x dx = n ln n n + 1.
1

n ln n n + 1 < Pn < (n + 1) ln(n + 1) n;
503
n ln n,

1
1
P
1 ln(n + 1)
1
1
+
< n < 1+
=
ln n
n ln n
n ln n
ln n
ln n
1

1 ln n + ln 1 +

= 1+
ln n
1
.
ln n
, ,
Pn
, , n ln n
.
. , , 1
1
, 1
1 + .
n
3.
1. .
, , s
s = b1 + b 2 + b 3 + . . . ,
(1)
, , s
n
s1 , s2 , s3 , . . . ,
sn = b1 + b2 + b3 + . . . + bn .
(2)
, (1)
lim sn = s n ,
(3)
sn (2). (3) ,
, (1) s; , (3)
, , .
,
1
1
1
1 + + ...

p
4
,
1
1
1
1
+ + ...
2
3
4
ln 2; , ,
1 1 + 1 1 + ...
, 1, 0;

1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + ...
504
. VIII
, .
,
x,
bi = ci xi ,
ci x. ;

sn = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + . . . + cn xn ;
c0 (2).
f (x)
f (x) = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + . . .
, , f (x) .
, :
1
= 1 x + x2 x3 + . . .
1+x
x3
x5
arctg x = x
+
...
3
5
x3
x2
+
...
ln(1 + x) = x
2
3
1
1+x
x3
x5
ln
=x+
+
+ ...
2
1x
3
5
x2
x3
x4
ex = 1 + x +
+
+
...
2!
3!
4!
( 1 < x < +1),
(4)
( 1 6 x 6 +1),
(5)
( 1 < x 6 +1),
(6)
( 1 < x < +1).
(7)
( x).
(8)

x3
x5
+
...
3!
5!
2
4
x
x
cos x = 1
+
...
2!
4!
sin x = x
( x),
(9)
( x).
(10)

(. . 464)
Zx
Zx
) sin u du = 1 cos x,
) cos u du = sin x.
0
:
cos x 6 1.
505
0 x, x , (13) . 437:
sin x 6 x;
,
1 cos x 6
x2
,
2
cos x > 1
x2
.
2
,
sin x > x
x3
x3
=x .
23
3!
,
:
sin x 6 x,
cos x 6 1,
sin x > x
x3
x2
,
2!
x2
cos x 6 1
+
2!
x2
cos x > 1
+
2!
cos x > 1
3!
x3
x5
sin x 6 x
+ ,
3!
5!
x5
x7
x3
+
,
sin x > x
3!
5!
7!
x4
,
4!
x4
x6
,
4!
6!
. .. . .. . .........
..... . .. . . .. . .. .
, n xn

0.
n!
, x
1
xm
m,
< , c =
. n > m
m
m!
n = m + r,
xn
x
x
x
=c
...
<c
n!
m+1 m+2
m+r
r
1
;
2
r
1
0.
, n , , r , c
2
0<
x5
x7
x3
+ ...,
sin x = x
3!
5!
x4
cos x = 1 x +
2!
4!
7!
x6
+ ...
6!
, , ( , |x| 6 1), ,
,
.
506
. VIII
.
p
. sin 1 ? 1
;
180
,

p
p 3
p
1
+ ...
sin
=
180
180
180
,

1
p 5

, 0,00000000002.
120 180
, sin 1 0,0174524064, 10 .
,
(1 + x)a = 1 + ax + C2a x2 + C3a x3 + . . . ,
(11)
a
Cs
Csa =
a(a 1)(a 2) . . . (a s + 1)
.
s!
a = n , Cna = 1, (11) Csa s > n ,

. ,
, ,
a , , , . a ,
(11) , ,
, 1 < x < +1. |x| > 1, (11) ,
.
1
, (11) a = ,
2
1
1
13 3
135 4
2
1+x=1+ x
(12)
2x +
3x
4 x + ...
2
2! 2
3! 2
4! 2
XVIII .,
.
, ,
XIX .
. ,
1
1 x2
.
1x
(4)(11)
(16851731), f (x)
f (x) = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + c3 x3 + . . .
(13)
, cj
f (x) ,
.
507
; ,
.

.
, (13) .
, f (x) , f 0 (x) , ,
f 0 (x), f 00 (x), . . . , f (n) (x), . . .
, , ,
.
cn , f (x)
x = 0. , (13)
x = 0,
c0 = f (0),
, x, .
(13),
f 0 (x) = c1 + 2c2 x + 3c3 x2 + . . . + ncn xn1 + . . . ;
(130 )
x = 0, (130 ),
c1 = f 0 (0).
(130 ),
f 00 (x) = 2c2 + 2 3c3 x + . . . + (n 1)ncn xn2 + . . . ;
(1300 )
00
(13 ) x = 0, ,
2! c2 = f 00 (0).
, (1300 ) x = 0,
3! c3 = f 000 (0)
, ,
cn :
1
cn = f (n) (0),
n!
f (n) (0) n- f (x) x = 0.

f (x) = f (0) + xf 0 (0) +
x2 00
x3 000
f (0) +
f (0) + . . . .
2!
3!
(14)
, (4)
(11) .
508
. VIII
2. cos x + i sin x = eix . , , ,

, , .
, , ;
XVIII . , .
, II:
(cos nf + i sin nf) = (cos f + i sin f)n .
x

n

x n
x
.
cos x + i sin x = cos + i sin
n
n
x
x , cos cos 0 = 1
n
f =
n; ,
sin
x
n
x
n
x
0
n
1
x
(. . 329), , sin . n
n

:

ix n
cos x + i sin x = lim 1 +
n .
n
(. 473)

z n
n ,
ez = lim 1 +
n

cos x + i sin x = eix .
(15)
, .
, ez :
ez = 1 +
z
z2
z3
+
+
+ ...,
1!
2!
3!
z ix, x . , i i, 1,
i, +1 . ., , ,
,

x2
z4
z6
x3
z5
z7
eix = 1
+
+ ... + i x
+
+ ... ;
2!
4!
6!
3!
5!
7!
509
cos x sin x,
.

(15). ,
ez ,
z ; z = ix
. ,

z n
ez = lim 1 +
n
n
z.

,
XIX .
. , ,
.
, . . x,
|x| > 1?
, , (4), . 498, |x| < 1. 1
x = 1, ,
= ;
1+1
2
:
1 1 + 1 1 + . . .
, 1 0. ,
,
- . , 1
x = 1. ,
1+x
x = a > 0 a < x < a, , ,

1
1
x = 1.
;
1+x
1 + x2

1
= 1 x2 + x4 x6 + . . . ,
1 + x2
, x2 x (4).
|x| < 1; x = 1
1 1 + 1 1 + . . . , |x| > 1 ,
.
,
510
. VIII
, x, , 1
x = i,
. ,
1 + x2
.
, x, |x| > |i| = 1, ,
x
x = i. , , ,
.
3. -. ,
sin x . ,
, .
1+
1
1
1
1
+ + + ... + + ...,
2
3
4
n
(16)
, ln 2, , .
, , , ,

s1 , s2 , s3 , . . . ,
sn = 1 +
1
1
1
+ + ... + .
2
3
n
(17)
, (16)
0, , . , , ; , sn , ,
, (16) . ,
,
1
s2 = 1 + ,
2

1
1
1
1
2
s4 = s2 +
+
> s2 +
+
=1+ ,
3
4
4
4
2

1
1
1
1
1
3
s8 = s4 +
+ ... +
> s4 +
+ ... +
= s4 + > 1 + ,
5
,
s2m > 1 +
m
.
2
(18)
, , s2m 100,
m > 200.
, , ,
,
1
1
1
1
+ s + s + ... + s + ...
2s
3
4
n
1+
511
(19)
s, 1, , s, -:

1
1
1
1
z(s) = lim 1 + s + s + s + . . . + s
n .
(20)
2
, , s > 1.
-
, , . p - ; s > 1
0<

1
1
1
ps
=1+
1
< 1,
ps
1
1
1
+ 2s + 3s + . . .
ps
p
p
,
p = 2, 3, 5, 7, . . . ( ).
#
!
!
!
"
1
1
1
1
1
...
n ;
. . . = lim
1
1
1
1
1
1
2s
3s
5s
ps1
psn

1+
1
1
+ s + . . . = z(s),
2s
3
, , 1,
. ,
!
!
!
1
1
1
z(s) =
...
(21)
1
1
1
1
2s
3s
5s
, , p1 , p2 , p3 , . . . , pr , (21)

s = 1. , -
s = 1
1
1
z(1) = 1 + + + . . .
2
, . ,
, , . ,
512
. VIII
, (. . 40).
, ,
.
, , (21), ,
.
,
,
sin x. ,
.
f (x) = a0 + a1 x + . . . + an xn
n n x1 , . . . , xn , ,
, f (x)
f (x) = an (x x1 ) . . . (x xn )
(. . 122). x1 x2 . . . xn ,

x
x
x
f (x) = C 1
1
... 1
,
x1
x2
xn
C , a0 , , x = 0.
:
, f (x)? (
,
, , ex 6= 0
x.) ,
. ,
sin x, sin px.
x = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , sin pn = 0 n;
.

x2
x2
x2
x2
sin px = px 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 . . .
(22)
1
1
x . x =
2

p
p
1
1
1
sin = 1 =
1 2 2
1 2 2
1 2 2 ...
2
2 1
2 2
2 3
(2n 1)(2n + 1)
1
=
,
22 n2
2n 2n

p
2 2 4 4 6 6 8 8
= ...,
2
513
. 322.
(. . 532533).
*4.

,
,
.
, , , ,
, .
,
(. . 404),
.
,
,
, .
( .) ,
I,
, A(n) , n, n

:
ln n
A(n)
n
.
ln n
n
, A(n) :

ln n
n .
,
, :
n A(n) Rn
W (x) dx, W (x) ,
2
. (
2, x < 2 , , A(x) = 0.) , x x
, , x
x. (, , x = x.)
, , x x + x
W (x)x, ,
514
W (x) ,
. VIII
Rn
W (x) dx

, .
,
.
(. 496),
ln(n!) n ln n:
ln(n!) n ln n.
ln(n!), , .
, p, , n,
p! = 1 2 3 . . . n. [a]p k , a pk . ,
,
[ab]p = [a]p + [b]p a b.
[n!]p = [1]p + [2]p + [3]p + . . . + [n]p .

1, 2, 3, . . . , n , pk ,
n
pk , 2pk , 3pk , . . . ; Nk n k .
p
Mk , pk ,
p, Nk Nk+1 . ,
[n!]p = M1 + 2M2 + 3M3 + . . . =

= (N1 N2 ) + 2(N2 N3 ) + 3(N3 N4 ) + . . . = N1 + N2 + N3 + . . . =
=
n
n
n
n
+ 2 + 3 + ... =
.
p
p
p
p1
( , .)
, n n! n
p p1 p < n.
,
X n
ln p.
ln(n!)
p<n
p1

ln(n!), :
X ln p
ln x
(1)
p<x
p1
( n x).
(1). x
515
, 2 x = n r
2 = x1 , x2 , . . . , xr ,
xr+1 = x xj = xj+1 xj .
,
j- xj .
W (x), j-
W (xj )xj ; ,
(1)
r+1
X
W (xj )
j=1
ln xj
xj .
xj 1
, ,
Zx
ln x
ln x W (x)
d x.
(2)
x1
2
W (x).
x,
1
ln x
= W (x)
,
x
x1
W (x) =
x1
.
x ln x
(3)
, A(x)

Zx
W (x) dx.
2
, A(x)
Zx
x1
dx.
x ln x
(4)
, , f (x) =
x
:
ln x
f 0 (x) =
1
1
.
ln x
(ln x)2
x
1
1
ln x
(ln x)2
1
1
ln x
x ln x
, . , (4)
516
. VIII

Zx
f 0 (x) dx = f (x) f (2) =
2
x
,
ln x
ln 2
. x
ln 2
,
x
A(x)
.
ln x
.
,
, . . ,
, ,
, (1) (2), , , , (2)
(3).
W (x), . , W (x)
; ,
W (x).
.

.
, .

1. , , . 81, 10 3? (. . 53.)
2. ,
. (. . 28.)
3. (1 + 1)n , , C0n + C1n + C2n + . . . + Cnn = 2n .
*4. - z = abc . . .,
a + b + c + . . ., z,
w .
, , w? ( , w = 0.)
, ,
.
5.
a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, . . . , . a1 ,
a2 , a3 , . . . , ai+1 ai . k
, , (k
1)- . ,
2- , k-
k. , an , an = c0 + c1 n + c2 n2 + . . . + ck nk c
, k. *
518
k = 2, k = 3, k.
6. , n k (k + 1)- .
7. 10 296? (. . 43.)
8.
(a2 + b2 )(c2 + d2 ) = (ac bd)2 + (ad + bc)2 ,
, r = a1 a2 . . . an
,
a .
r = 160,
r = 1600,
r = 1300,
r = 625,
,
2 = 12 + 12 ,
5 = 12 + 22 ,
8 = 22 + 22
. .
,
.
9. ,
.
10. ( . 53)
7, 11, 12.
11. : r > s a
c
r = s = ac bd >
b
d
0.
12. : r s , r < s,
r<
r+s
<s
2
2
2
< 2rs < (r + s) .
1
1 2
+
r
s
13. , z ,
1
, z n + n z
n w = z +
1
. (. . 121.)
z
*14. E(f) = cos f + i sin f, [E(f)]m = E(mf). , (. 33; ), ,

f
1
cos cos n +
f
2
2
sin f + sin 2f + sin 3f + . . . + sin nf =
,
f
2 sin
2

1
sin
n
+
f
1
2
+ cos f + cos 2f + cos 3f + . . . + cos nf =
.
f
2
2 sin
2
519
15. 3 . 36, q = E(f)?

,
, .
.
. P Q ( P Q)
( ), P Q. ,
, l ,
;
x , O x, y.
( ) ,
, , . + ,
, ,
.
P Q , P Q
; .
16. : P1 (x1 , y1 ) P2 (x2 , y2 ) - ,
P0 (x0 , y0 ) P1 P2
x +x
y +y
2
2
x0 = 1
, y0 = 1
. 2
2
: P1 P2 , P0 P P
P1 P2 , 1 0 k,
P1 P2

x0 = (1 k)x1 + kx2 ,
y0 = (1 k)y1 + ky2 .
(:
.)
, P1 P2
x = l1 x1 + l2 x2 , y = l1 y1 + l2 y2 , l1 + l2 = 1. l1 = 1 l2 = 0
P1 P2 . l1
P2 , l2
P1 , . . , P1 P2 P1 P2 .
17. -
520
k.
. , ,
x y 90 .
( x ,
y )
. l1 l2 , l1 ,
l2 . , , 360 . , x
y 90 270 . . l1 l2
: l1 l2 , , ,
l1 l2 l2 l1 .
18. a x l. P1 , P2 l d
P1 P2 . ,
cos a =
x2 x1
,
d
sin a =
y2 y 1
,
d
(x2 x1 ) sin a = (y2 y1 ) cos a.

l x, l
y y1
.
m = tg a = 2
x2 x1
m , l, tg a =
= tg(a + 180 ), , ,
y 1 y2
y y1
= 2
.
x1 x2
x2 x1
19. : , , , ,
, x , .
( ). P -
, l, Q l, P . P
l, , l QP 90 90 .
l. O m, l, ,
m l 90 . b
x m. a = 90 + b, sin a = cos b, cos a =
521
sin b. R(x1 , y1 ) l m. d
OR m.
20. , d ,
O l.
x1 = d cos b, y1 = d sin b (. 18). (x x1 ) sin a = (y y1 ) cos a
(x d cos b) cos b = (y d sin b) sin b,

x cos b + y sin b d = 0.
l. ,
l,

, .
,

ax + by + c = 0.
, , ,
, x y
cos b sin b, 1. 1
;
a2 + b2
b
c
a
x+ 2
y+ 2
= 0;
a2 + b2
a + b2
a + b2
= cos b,
2
a + b2
b
c
= sin b, 2
= d.
2
2
a +b
a + b2
1
1
21. , : ) 2
2
,
2
a +b
a + b2
, ;
) ;
) , , O
, ,
d , .
22. , m, P0 (x0 , y0 ),
y y0 = m(x x0 ),
y = mx + (y0 mx0 ).
, , P1 (x1 , y1 )
P2 (x2 , y2 ),
(y2 y1 )(x x1 ) = (x2 x1 )(y y1 ).
522
: x x x; y.
23. , , , 20, ,

y
x
+ = 1,
a
b
a b ,
x y. ?
24. ,
, y, y:
y = mx + b.
( y,
x = a.)
25. , ax + by + c = 0 a0 x + b0 y + c0 = 0
l l0 ; m m0 .
, l l0 , ,
: ) m = m0 mm0 = 1, ) ab0 a0 b = 0 aa0 + bb0 = 0.
( , ) ,
, . . y.)
26. , ,
P0 (x0 , y0 ) l ax + by + c = 0,
ax + by = ax0 + by0 . , ,
bx ay = bx0 ay0 . ( ,
l ,
.)
27. x cos b + y sin b d = 0 ax + by + c = 0 l.
, h l Q(u,
v)
h = u cos b + v sin b d,

h=
au + bv + c
,
a2 + b2
h , ,
Q l (
l b,
a2 + b2 ). (:
m, Q m,
l m.)
523
28. , l(x, y) = 0 ax + by + c = 0 l; l0 (x, y) = 0.

l l0 , l + l0 = 1. ,
l l0 P0 (x0 , y0 ), ,
P0 ,
ll(x, y) + l0 l0 (x, y) = 0,
,
l l0 . (: P0 l,
l(x0 , y0 ) = ax0 + by0 + c = 0.) ,
l l0 ? (, l + l0 = 1
: , ,
P0 , .)
29. , , P0 l l0 P1 (x1 , y1 ),
P0 . (: l l0 ll(x1 ,
y1 ) + l0 l0 (x1 , y1 ) = 0, l + l0 = 1. , P0 (. . 97) , P0 ,
.)
30. , , l l0 ,
a02 + b02 l(x, y) = a2 + b2 l0 (x, y).
(: . 27.) ,
l l0 ?
31. ,
P1 P2 : ) P1 P2 ; P0 P1 P2 ;
, P0 P1 P2 ;
) , (. 93) P1 - P (x, y)
P2 P ;
.
32. ,
P1 , P2 , P3 , : )
, P1 P2 P2 P3
;
,
P1 ; ) x2 + y 2 2ax 2by = k
(. . 94). ,
524

x21 + y12 2ax1 2by1 = k,
x22 + y22 2ax2 2by2 = k,
x23 + y32 2ax3 2by3 = k,
,
.
a, b, k.
33. 2p, 2q
F (e, 0) F 0 (e, 0), e2 = p2 q 2 .
r r0 P (x, y) F F 0 .
r + r0 = 2p.
(. 93) ,
r02 r2 = (x + e)2 (x e)2 = 4ex.

r02 r2 = (r0 + r)(r0 r) = 2p(r0 r),
r0 r =
2ex
. p
r + r0 = 2p,
e
p
r = x + p,
r0 =
e
x + p.
p
( ) r2 = (x e)2 + y 2 ,
e
r2 x +
p
2
p , ,

2
e
(x e)2 + y 2 = x + p .
p
, , p2 q 2 e2 .
x2
y2
2 + 2 = 1.
p
q
,
P , r r0 2p. e2 = p2 + q 2 .
34. , () (). x = a,
F (a, 0), ,

y 2 = 4ax.
525

35.

3 3, 3 4, 3 5. , 3 a
, a (.
. 155 ).
36. 3 2n - 5 2n -.
.
37.
120 30 . ( 30 :
1
4z 3 3z = cos 30 =
3. 2
u = z 3, , ,
. 158.)
38. 9-.
39. , P (x, y) P 0 (x0 , y 0 ) r
xr
yr
x0 = 2
y0 = 2
2,
2.
x +y
x +y
x y.
*40. 39, ,
.
, , )) . 163, , . 61.
41. x = const y = const, ,
?
.
42. .
, . 146.

43. l
,

.
1
: l = 1, 2, .
2
44. -
. 195 ? (: l = 1 l = 1;
l, l =
1
: 1l
.)
45. , (ABCD) C D.
526
46. , , . 197.
47. : P P 0
AB P P 0 ,
A, B, P , P 0 .
48. P1 , P2 , P3 . , P3
P1 P2 ? (. . 205.)
*49. ,
. , , , , , k. k > 1 , k = 1 , k <
1 . l ,
. ( ,
,
, ,
, .)
50. : , , (. . 228).
*51. ,
, . 73
(. . 192).
*52. , ? ? (: ; .
. 233.)
*53. . z1 z2 -
, w1 w2 ,
z1 z2 .
z1 w1 z2 w1
:
,
z1 w2 z2 w2
8 . 118, ; . ,
z1 z2 .
*54.
.
, .
527
55. .
.
56. (. 256)
,
, V E + F = 3 3 + 1 = 1.
,
, V E + F =
6 6 + 2 = 2? (: , , . . ()
. ,
.)
57.
. -
, ,
? ( .)
: ,
. ?
58.
, , . . ?
(, - .)
59. ,
.
*60. ,
, , , ,
. , ,
.
, . 272 (
P P ), ?
61. ,
, . ,
, ,
,
, ?
*62. ,
: n, n
,
.
*63. (. 143)
528
,
(. . 267).
64. , . 118,
a, b, c, d, e, .
, ,
. , , ,
a, b, c, a0 , b0 , c0 , a, b, c
a0 , b0 , c0 .
,
. (, , ,
.)
65. , 6 ,
. ( , .) , .
*66. p, q, r E.
E
p0 , q 0 , r0 . p p0 , q q 0 , r r0 ,
E?
67. , , 90 , = 360 .
, , ,
= 360 .
, C = 360 . (: C , , . 259. B1 , B2 , B3 , . . . , Bn .
B1 = C, Bn . , i
Bi , , i = i1 .)
*68. C , ,
. , = 360 . (: p0 , p1 , p2 , . . . , pn , p0
C, C , . C p0 p1 ,
p1 p2 , . . . , pi1 pi pi pi+1 , . . . , pn p0 . C0 = C,
Cn . , i = i+1 , .)
, . 55?
529
69. , (. . 282)
( ), , ,
-. ( .)
70. , . 142, . ,
.
*71. (. . 139) . , .
,
( ),
. x, y
A, (x, y)
.
, (. . (x, y) (y, x)
), S,
. , , A, x 6= y. S (x, y),
x < y x = y.
(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 1).
*72. ,
: ,
? (: ).
73. ,
, ?
(: ).
*74. ,
? (: ).
75. ( )
. A B .
; ,
. , .
, .
, . , ,
B, A ,
.
76. , ,
, . 125, , B
.
530
, ,
77.
OB : AB
p .143.
78. , a0 = 2, an+1 = 2 + an ,
, B = 2 , , .
, 2 (. . 316
347).
*79. , ,
. 339 , ,
, ,
.
80. u = f (x) , , ,
. , u = ex (. 278),
u = log x (. 277) .
, u = f (x) ,

f (x1 ) + f (x2 )
x1 + x2
>f
,
2
x1 = x2 .
*81. ,

l1 f (x1 ) + l2 f (x2 ) > f (l1 x1 + l2 x2 ),

l1 , l2 , l1 + l2 = 1,
l1 > 0, l2 > 0. ,
, ,
.
82. 80, , u =
1
= 1 + x2 u =
( x > 0) , . .
x
x1 x2
r

1 + x21 + 1 + x22
x + x2 2
> 1+ 1
,
2
2

1 1
1
2
+
>
.
2
x1
x2
x1 + x2
83. u = x , u = xn x >
0; u = sin x
p
p 6 x 6 2p; u = tg x 0 6 x < u = 1 x2 |x| 6 1.
2

84. P Q . 178,
n
(. . 353).
531
85. P Q ,
(. . 353).
86.
,
,
(. . 367). ,
.
87.
a0 , b0 , an+1 = an bn , bn+1 =
1
(an + bn ). ,
2
. ( n
- a0 , b0 ,
.)
88. . 219
.
*89. , , A1 , A2 ,
A3 , A4 . 216 . 218.
*90. , ,
.
(. . 364).
91.
(a1 b1 + . . . + an bn )2 6 (a21 + . . . + a2n )(b21 + . . . + b2n ),
ai bi ; , ai bi .
(: , 8.)
*92. n x1 , . . . , xn , sk ,
sk =
x1 x2 . . . xk + . . .
,
Cnk
, n k. ,
k
k+1 s
sk
k+1 6
xi .
93. n = 3 :
r
ab + bc + ca
a+b+c
3
abc 6
6
.
3
532
?
*94. ,
A, B AB
. (: .)
*95. AB A0 B 0 . , A B A0 B 0 ,
. (: , .)
*96. AB, A0 B 0
. .
*97. , O. A B
, ,
, . (:
.)
*98. : AB, , . .
AB OA OB. (: - ,
, .)
*99. .
*100. , . 240
,
. (:
, .
. 251. . 258,
12 ,
120 .)
. , . 256 257,
, . , , .
.
. 258,
; ,
.
*101.
. (:
. .)
*102. . (:
, .)
533
*103. .
*104.
.
105.
1 + x,
r
2
1+x ,
x+1
,
x1
, ,
x x1 (. . 442444).
1
106. , y = e x2
y = 0 x = 0 , , x = 0.
107. , 106
x = 0 (. . 500).
108. (f 00 (x) = 0)
2
y = ex y = xex .
109. , f 00 (x) n x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ,
n
f 0 (x) X 1
=
.
f (x)
i=1
x xi
*110. , , n

1
p
1
1
n 2
.
2 + 2
2 + ... + 2
2
1 +n
2 +n
n +n
*111. ,

b
b
2b
nb
sin + sin + . . . + sin
cos b 1.
n
112. . 276
, , , p.
113. (7) . 465, p
, 0,01.
114. , epi = 1 (. . 502).
115. , 1 : x. L(x) A(x)
. ,
L(x)
0 x
A(x)
L(x)
1
0 x , k > . ,
2
A(x)k
534
*. ( ,
. . . 493 .)
116. :
1
1
u = sh x = (ex ex ), v = ch x = (ex + ex ),
2
ex ex
w = th x = x
,
e + ex
,
. , . u2 v 2 = 1 , u = cos x v = sin x u2 + v 2 = 1.

:
d(sh x)
= ch x,
dx
d(ch x)
= sh x,
dx
d(th x)
1
= 2 ,
dx
ch x
sh(x + x0 ) = sh x ch x0 + ch x sh x0 ,
ch(x + x0 ) = ch x ch x0 + sh x sh x0 .
:
x = Arsh u = ln(u + u2 + 1),
x = Arch v = ln(v + v 2 1) (v > 1),

x = Arth w =
1
1+w
ln
2
1w
(|w| < 1).

d(Arsh u)
d(Arch v)
1
1
,
=
,
= 2
2
dx
dx
1+u
v 1
d(Arth w)
1
=
(|w| < 1).
dx
1 w2
117. .
*118.
sh x + sh 2x + . . . + sh nx
1
+ ch x + ch 2x + . . . + ch nx
2
, 14 .
535

, . 462,
f (x) a b G(x), f (x).
G(b) G(a).
(
)
Z
G(x) = f (x) dx,
. (
: . . 462.)
,
, .
, ,
,
,
.
.
A)
H(u) = G(x),

x = y(u)
u = f(x)
.

H 0 (u) = G0 (x) y0 (u).
G0 (x) = f (x),
Z
G(x) = f (x) dx
G0 (x) y0 (u) = f (x) y0 (u),
H 0 (u)
Z
H(u) = f [y(u)] y0 (u) du.
, , H(u) = G(x),
Z
Z
f (x) dx = f [y(u)] y0 (u) du.
(I)
536
(. . 457),

Z
Z
dx
f (x) dx = f (x) du;
du
, , dx dx
dx
du , dx du ,

du
du
(I) .
Z
1
du. (I) ,
u ln u
1
1
x = ln u = y(u). y0 (u) = , f (x) = ,
u
x
a) J =
Z
J=
dx
= ln x,
x
du
= ln ln u.
u ln u
1
d
= (ln ln u).
u ln u
du
Z
Z
cos u
) J = ctg u du =
du. x = sin u = y(u),
sin u
y (u) = cos u,
0
Z
J=
f (x) = x,
dx
ln x,
x
Z
ctg u du = ln sin u.
.
) ,
Z 0
y (u)
J=
du;
y(u)
x = y(u), f (x) = x, :
Z
dx
J=
= ln x = ln y(u).
x
Z
du
) J = sin x cos x dx. sin x = u, cos x = .
dx
Z
Z
du
u2
1
J = u dx = u du =
= sin2 x.
dx
Z
) J =
537
1
dx
ln u
du. ln u = x, = .
u
u
du
Z
J=
dx
x du =
du
Z
x dx =
x2
1
= (ln u)2 .
2
2
(I),
. Z
dx
dx
. x = u. x = u2
) J =
= 2u.
du
x
Z
1
2u du = 2u = 2 x.
J=
u
) x = au, a ,
Z
Z
Z
1
1
x
dx 1
1 du
dx
=
du
=
= arctg .
a2 + x2
du a2 1 + u2
a 1 + u2
a
a
Z
dx
) J =
1 x2 dx. x = cos u,
= sin u.
du
Z
Z
1 cos 2u
u
sin 2u
J = sin2 u du =
du = +
.
2
sin 2u = 2 sin u cos u = 2 cos u 1 cos2 u,

J =
1
1
arccos x + x 1 x2 .
2
2
:
Z
Z
dx
u du
.
124.
.
119.
u2 u + 1
x2 + 2ax + b
Z
Z
2
125.
t2 1 + t3 dt.
120.
ueu du.
Z
Z
du
t+1
121.
dt.
.
126.
u(ln u)n
1 t2
Z
Z
8x
t4
122.
dx.
127.
dt.
3 + 4x
1t
Z
Z
dx
123.
.
128.
cosn t sin t dt.
2
x +x+1
129. ,
Z
dx
1
x
Arth ,
2
2 =
a x
( ), ).)
dx
x
= Arsh .
a
a2 x2
538
) (. 451)
(p(x) q(x))0 = p(x) q 0 (x) + p0 (x) q(x)
:
Z
Z
p(x) q(x) = p(x) q 0 (x) dx + p0 (x) q(x) dx,

p(x) q (x) dx = p(x) q(x)
p0 (x) q(x) dx.
(II)
.
, ,
, p(x) q 0 (x), q(x)
q 0 (x) . (II) p(x) q 0 (x)
0
pZ
(x) q(x), .
ln x dx. p(x) = ln x, q 0 (x) = 1, q(x) = x.
) J =
(II)
Z
Z
x
dx = x ln x x.
ln x dx = x ln x
x
Z
) J = x ln x dx. p(x) = ln x, q 0 (x) = x.
Z 2
x2
x
x2
x2
J=
ln x
dx =
ln x .
2
2x
Z
) J =
x sin x dx. p(x) = x, q(x) = cos x

Z
x sin x dx = x cos x + sin x.
:
Z
Z
x
130.
xe dx.
131.
x2 cos x dx.
(: (II) .)
Z
Z
a
132.
x ln x dx (a 6= 1).
133.
x2 ex dx.
(: Z 130.)
sinm x dx, p . sinm x sinm1 x sin x
539
Z2
Z2
sinm x dx = (m 1)
sinm2 x cos3 x dx =
Z2
Z2
= (m 1)
sinm x dx + (m 1)
Z2
sinm2 x dx,
m1
sin x dx =
m
m
Z2
sinm2 x dx
(II), pq, x =

p
0x=
. ,
2
Z2
Im =
sinm x dx ( -
n):
2n 1 2n 3
1 p
... ,
2n
2n 2
2 2
2n 2
2
2n
... .
I2n+1 =
2n + 1 2n 1
3
I2n =
p
0 < sin x < 1 0 < x < , sin2n1 x > sin2n x > sin2n+1 x,
2
,
I2n1 > I2n > I2n+1
(. . 437),
I2n1
I
> 2n > 1.
I2n+1
I2n+1
1 3 3 5 5 7 . . . (2n 1)(2n 1)(2n + 1)(2n + 1) p

2n + 1
>
> 1.
2 2 4 4 6 . . . (2n)(2n)
2n
n ; , , 1,
p
:
2
2 2 4 4 6 6 . . . 2n 2n . . .
=
=
2
1 3 3 5 5 7 . . . (2n 1)(2n 1)(2n + 1) . . .
24n (n!)4
= lim
n .
[(2n)!]2 (2n + 1)

*
, , .
,

.
, ,
, , , , , , . . ,

.
, ,
(, , ),
, ,

.
. .

.

(. ) *
, , . . . , . 5. . . . .
541
.
1. VIVIII
(
, , ).
2. , , , , IV, ,
. IV
, ,
, .
3. ,
- , .
,
, .

, .
, ,
. , ,
. 711 . .
, . .
,
. , ,
.

, , , . .
, , , , . . ; ,
. .
. . ; , , ,
, ,
542
,
,
, . :
( ab , a , b )
. . . . . .
,
. .
.
, , ,
. .
?*
1934 . . ,
.
Ecole
Polytechnique
,
.
,
194041 .
,
Ecole
Polytechnique , (
, ,
)
...

, Ecole
Polytechnique.
,
.

. , , , , . ,
, , .
.
, , , ...
1940 . ,
*
: Reid C. Courant in G
ottingen and New York. The
Story of an Improbable Mathematician. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1976.
. . . . . . .
544
, , ,
1941 ( ) . ,
,
. , 194041 .,
41 .
194041
, , What is Mathematics?.
5
.
,
, , , ( )
.
1939 . , ,
.
,
,
.
.
[. ] 1975 .
, ,
, ,
What is Mathematics?. ,
- 1939 ., .
, , ; ,
.
, .
, .
, - ,
-
,
. ,
.
, ,
, .
, .
, ,
... ,
... , -
545
. ,
.
, ,
- .
, ,
. , - .
, ,
. , , , .
($1500), ,
. ( $2500
.) , , ,
...
,
, .
,
, , , (Ph. D),
, .
, ,
, ...
, . ,
.
...

, InterScience,
. 1941 .
Macgrow-Hill,
What is Mathematics?. ,
,
. ,

Springer.
...
.
,
. ,
, .

546
. ,
. , , ,
, .
1941 . ,
. ,
( ,
) ...
, ,
41 . .
, . , .
, , ,
.
1941 . .
,
, -
, . , Macgrow-Hill
What is Mathematics?, . ,
1941 .,
.
.
. 41 .
Waverly-Press
. Oxford-Press
...
1941 . ,
. 30-
.
, , .
, .
, . , ,
, ,
. , .
...
.
. .
547
.
?, : , ,
. , ,
, . , , .
-
: ; ,
, ,
. : ,
, -, -.
- , :
, 10 20
, ,
100 .
, , .
...
, . ,
41 ., : . ?
, : ,
. .
,
( , - ), ,
,
, ,
, etc... , , : . ,
, .
, ...
.
Washington Square,
. : , ,
.
- , .
, , -, ; -,
; -, .
, . , ,
, .
, -
548
, : , ,
,

.
, 17 41 .
, .
,
, ,

.
17 41 . ,
, , , ,

,
. ,
, :
, ; , .
, ()
. ,
. . .
,
. , . ,
.
, , .
. , , ,
, ,
.
41 . ,
. 28 41 .
.
, ( - ) . ,
,
. , , , , . , ,
, ,
,
. ,
549
, ,
,
,... .
, ,
. , . , ...
, .
.
, 17 , ,
, ,
. ,

,
...
? , (, , ) .
100 000
. ...
, ,
. ,
,
.

?
. .
, .
: 67 12 . ( .)
, ,
.
( ,
), :
, , ( );
. ( ).

, 1997 . , (
10 ).
- , .
.

.

[1] . .
.: , 2001.
[2] . . .: , 1968.
[3] . . .: , 1990.
[4] . XIX . .: , 1966.
[5] ., ., . , , . .:
, 1981.
551
[6] . . . .: ,
2001.
[7] . . ? .: , 1993.
[8] . . . .: , 1984.
[9] . XIX . .: ,
1989.
[10] . . . 1, 2.
.: , 1987.
[11] . . . .: , 1957.
[12] . . . .: ,
1987.
[13] . p. .: , 1971.
[14] . . .: , 1990.
[15] . . ( )
// , . 3, ., 1964.
[16] . . .: , 1979.
[17] . . .: ,
1975.
[18] . . : ,
. .: , 1976.
[19] . . , . .:
, 1997
[20] . . .: , 1990.
[21] ., . .
. .: , 1966.
[22] . .: , 2000.
[23] . . . .: , 1976.
[24] . . ,
358 . .: , 2000.
[25] . . . .: , 1972.
[26] . . . .: , 1984.
[27] . . .: , 1977.
[28] . . 15. . . . , . . . . . .: , 19521966.
, ,

[29] . ., .
: 3- . .: . . 1. , 1999; . 2.
, 2000; . 3. , 1999.
[30] . . . .: , 1969.
[31] . . . .: , 1969.
[32] . .
. .: , 1979.
[33] . . . .: , 1973.
552
[34] ., . . . .: , 1971.
[35] . . . .: . , 1980.
[36] . . . .: . , 1978.
[37] . . .: , 1984.
[38] . . . .: , 1959.
[39] . ., . ., . .
. .: , 1977.
[40] . . . .: , 1979.
[41] . . . .: , 1982.
[42] . . . .: , 1988.
[43] . . . .: , 1987.

[44] ., .
. .: , 1987.
[45] . . . .: , 1980.
[46] . . . .: ,
2001.
[47] . ., . . .
. .: , 1983.
[48] . . . .: , 1949.
[49] . ., . . . .: ,
1967.
[50] . . . .: , 2001.
[51] . p- , p- -.
.: , 1982.
[52] . . . .: , 1975.
[53] . . .: , 1959.
[54] . . : . .:
, 1987.
[55] . . . .: , 1963.
[56] . . . .: , 2000.
[56] . ., . . . .: , 1997.
[57] . . . .: , 1965.
[58] . . .: , 1991.
[59] . 250 . .: , 1968.
[60] . . . .: , 1966.
[61] . . .: , 1959.
[62] . . .: ,
1979.
[63] . . .: , 1953.
[64] . . . -
553
. . .
. 11. .: , 1986.
[65] . . . .: , 1980.
[66] . . . 1, 2. .: , 194851.
[67] . . . .: , 1979.
[68] . . . 1, 2. .: , 1984.
[69] . . .
, . .: , 1980.
[70] . ., . . . .: , 1987.
[71] . ., . . . .: ,
1982.
[72] . ., . ., . . .
. .: , 1995.
[73] . ., . . . .: ,
2000.
[74] . . .: , 1974.
[75] . ., . . . .:
, 1990.
[76] . . . .: ,
, 1998.
[77] ., - . . .: , 1981.
[78] . . . ..: , 1936.
[79] . . . . .: , 1966.
[80] . ., . . . .: ,
1978.
[81] . . .: ,
1983.
[82] ., . . .: , 1967.
[83] . . ..: , 1936.
[84] . . .: , 1960.
[85] . . .: , 1960.
[86] . ., . . . .: ,
1983.
[87] ., . .
. .: , 1972.
[88] . ., . . . .: , 1997.
[89] . . . .: ,
1997.
[90] . . . .: , 1995.
[91] . . . .: , 2000.
[92] . . .: ,
1982.
554
[93] . ., . . . .: , 1991.
[94] . . .: , 1952.
[95] . . . .: , 1969.

[96] . . , .
1989
[97] . . . 1, 2. .: , 1975.
[98] . ., . ., . . .
.: , 1973.
[99] . ., . ., . . .
.: , 2001.
[100] . . . .: , 1970.
[101] . . .: 2- . .: . . 1.
2001; . 2. 1998.
[102] . . . .: , 1968.
[103] . . . . .: , 1979.
[104] . . . . .: , 1975.
[105] . . .
.: , 1966.
[106] . . . . .: , 1965.
[107] . . : . .: , 1987.
[108] . . : . .: , 1988.
[109] . . . .: , 1988.
[110] . . .: ,
1968.
[111] . . . .: ,
1986.

, .
[112] . . . .: , 1990.
[113] ., . . .: , 1988
[114] ., . . .: ,
1980
[115] . . .: , 1987.
555

[116] . ., . . . .: , 1982.
[117] . ., . ., . .
. .: , 1982.
[118] . . .: , 1985.
82
240
240
, 127, 295
140
134
143
127
130
67
425
, 463
99
, n- 253
151
122
, 26
, 47
37
, . . 51
308
165
102
54, 500
137
26
79
(
) 207
34, 104
46
88
328
510
501
40
504
339
, 344
408, 411
216, 236
407
341
123
141
(, ) 267
(,
) 105
498
452
63

201
508
184
357
412
38
461
211
208
207
556
,
143
148
175

149
147
174
178

179
148
167
, 243
99
244
256
194
244
n- 253
194
251
218
, 146
,
358
358
,
362
, 102
534
313
238
181
55

404
305
194
30
380
() 168
33
198
557

138
217
98
196
88, 96
99
80
, 126
,
149
86
268
- 509
488
75
394

137
26
79
462
482
463
449
491
496
; ,
, . 113
138
86
74
e, 478
, 326

474
325
e, 325, 471
68
, . 125
121
270, 292
558
(-) (-) 302

488

207
(
) 148
77
401
185
200
185
168
, . 169
, () . 169
183
279
35
34
426, 493
82
241
()
196
88
, 98
97

95
113
427
407
, . 353
()
104
274
() 110
290
442
,
361
( )
99
117
,
148
167
238
()
282
287
246
202
487
196
256
137
26
79
202

507
116
, 122
, 121
, .. 118
, 122
191
224
233
234
, 225
, 230
, 102
196
() 302
114

88
- 116
218
219
() 99
125
113

128
, 496
, 100
454
- 286
p 469
314
131
471
140
137
137
357, 454
175
35
140
425
, 463
194
, 179
() 286
372
117
n- 258
262
262
, 284
, 285
134
111
104, 134
, . 138
343
135
47
121
322
309
373
124
559
392
442
186
25

173
244
(-) (-)
302
277
(-) (-)
301

314
310
74
389

161
84
108
n- 253
79
488
300
81
168
79
305
137

323

47
219
269
285
, 100
414
102
99
115
127, 295
463
560
47
() 168

359
168
168
189
359
189
94
94
80
215
225
114
332
206
215, 236
41
()
466
(-) 300
(-) 301
(-) 302
(-) 507
(-) 302
137
106
193
p, 327
65
413

83
426
285
135
155
29
()
474
, 483
, 499
81
205
, 154
, 154
498
295
183
94, 107, 317
322
323
, ,
322
146
174
244
240
262
n- 258
, 149
,
149
89, 317

93
91
319
353

330
, 349
167
193
268
, . 315
48

88
271
37
38
194
193
205
510
137
442
452
( ) 168
271
262
45
, 52, 512
101
202
196
135
229
, 177
495
304
484
,
47
273
144
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2(n + 1)a + n(n + 1)d

n = 3 (a + b)3 = (a + b)(a + b)2 =

+ 4a3 b + 6a2 b2 + 4ab2 +

13 + 33 + . . . + (2n + 1)3 = (n + 1)2 (2n2 + 4n + 1).

(1 + p)n > 1 + np.

5 3 . : 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 9, 18, 36, 72, 144.

F (4) = 22 + 1 = 216 + 1 = 65 537

, 2 6 0 (mod 6) 3 6 0 (mod 6), 2 3 = 6 0 (mod 6).

m3 = 3a, . . . , mp1 = (p 1)a.

ap1 1 = a2p 1 = (ap 1)(ap + 1) 0

, (p x)2 = p2 2px + x2 x2 (mod p). ,

7 ( 11 22 (mod 7)), 7 11.

a2 = (u4 2u2 v 2 + v 4 )r2 ,

(7, 24, 25),

a = bq1 + r1 (0 < r1 < b)

611 = 2 229 + 153,

, (8) (8), , , 1 q n+1 ,

(. 16). x A(p, 0) A0 (p, 0) y B(0, q) B 0 (0, q). ( P (x, y) , , (x, y),

x A(p, 0) A0 (p, 0) (. 17).

. 18. . , P (x, y), 1

(a + bi) (c + di) = (a c) + (b d)i,

4) 5 + 12i . (: 5 + 12i = x + yi,

, b2 4ac > 0, b2 4ac (6) ;

= (4ac b2 ) = 4ac b2 i, (6)

z1 + z2 = (x1 + x2 ) + (y1 + y2 )i.

1 i = 2 (cos(45 ) + i sin(45 )),

1 + 3 i = 2 (cos 120 + i sin 120 ).

zz 0 = rr0 {cos(f + f0 ) + i sin(f + f0 )}.

sin 3f = 3 cos2 f sin f sin3 f.

(n + 1)m! > (m + 1)! 1 m.

. . . + n|an |(|z| + 1)n1 = M , (7)

, OCA = ABC, OAC CAB

(a + b 2)(c + d 2) = (ac + 2bd) + (bc + ad) 2 = r + s 2,

, (1) . , , (). , , , . F0 , F1 (1).

(a + b k)(c + d k) = (ac + kbd) + (ad bc) k

. OA, OB, OA0 , OB 0 , OM a, b, a0 ,

. . OAP OA0 P 0 . , x OA0 P 0 , y. , A

, 1, 2 3, 4, , . ( (1, 3), , 1 3.) ,

(tx, ty, tz)

(6 2)F2 + (6 3)F3 + (6 4)F4 + (6 5)F5 +

n > 1 an1 , an2 , . . . , a1 , a0 ,

z = x + yi = r(cos j + i sin j),

t > |a0 | + |a1 | + . . . + |an1 |,

|f (z) z n | = |an1 z n1 + an2 z n2 + . . . + a0 | 6

. 151. sin x cos x

*3) q4 , q8 q16 . p16

, 0 < x < ; (4)

|x| < 3 e |f (x)| =

1. . (17811848), , , , . Paradoxien des Unendlichen

- J. f (a) > 0, ( ) f (a) < 0; , , f (a) = 0.

0 < p < 1, n p < 1,

n = (1 + kn )2 = 1 + 2kn + kn2 < 1 + +

|x| > 1 x2n

an > an1 , , an+1 > an ; a2 a1 = 2 1 > 0,

BP , , , BD < AB. BD = b + a; b + a < AB.

. tauto (), qrouos (); .

x = (x1 x0 ) + (x2 x1 ) + . . . + (xn xn1 ) = xn x0 = b a.

x4 cos2 x sin5 x dx,

f (x) , f (x) = |f (x)|. f (x) < 0,

sin(x + h) cos x cos(x + h) sin x

f 00 (x) = 12x 18.