..

2011

 511, 519.6
-
() ,

, 6 21 2011 .
-
. . . , . .
..

. . , . ..
( . ..)
..
: /
.. . : . . 2011. 190 .

. .
, RSA,
.
, ,
.

,
. , .
. .

.

c

, 2011
c

.., 2011

1.

10

1.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2. . . . . . . . 13
1.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.11. . . . . . . . 29
1.12. AKS . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.13. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.14. . . . . . . . . 34
1.15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.16. , e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.17. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.18. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.19. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.

52

2.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.2. (p 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.3. (p + 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.4. - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.5. - . . 65
2.6. . . . . . . 68
2.7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4

2.8. . . . . . . 75
3.

83

3.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.4. . . . 95
3.5. - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.

115

4.1. . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.5.

. . . . . . . . 127

4.6. . . . . . 130
4.7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.8. . . . . . . 137
4.9.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4.10. (Zhang Special QS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5.

145

5.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
5.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.5. 163
5.6.

. . . . . . . . . . . . 168

5.7. . . . . . . 169
5.8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

. .

176

.1. . . . . . . . . . . . 179
.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
.5. . . . . . . 186

192

The problem of distinguishing prime numbers from composite numbers and of

resolving the latter into their prime factors is known to be one of the most
important and useful in arithmetic. Further, the dignity of the science itself
seems to require that every possible means be explored for the solution of a
problem so elegant and so celebrated.
Karl Friedrich Gauss Disquisitiones Arithmeticae (1801)

, ,
. , ,
,
.
(1801)

1977 . (Ronald Linn Rivest),

(Adi Shamir) (Leonard Adleman)
(MIT)
Scientific American ,
,
RSA.

n ( 1024 2048 ),
p q . p q
, RSA
p q , . n
.
RSA
,
.
, 25 30 .
n , 100
,

8
.
129- ,
$100.
1977 . Sci.Amer.
A new kind
of cipher that would take millions of years to break

, ) [24].
, , .

, ,
.

.
80- . XX
- (the Elliptic Curves method)(X. [31]), (the
Quadratic Sieve QS) (C.Pomerance [46]) (the
Number Field Sieve NFS) (J. Pollard [44]).
, ,
(p 1) (. [43]). ,


() .
129-
RSA 1994 .,
, ,
., .
. ,
1600 , 220 ,
, 0,5 .
2
.

.
,
,
. (
2009 .) ,
[30], 768 .
512- 2000 ., .. 512 768- 10 .
1024
, 2020 .

,
.
,
.
..
, , 2002,
[79] .. - ,
, 2003, [64]. , ,
, .
, ,
,
.

, ,
, : ishm2010@yandex.ru

 1.

10

1.
,
1. , , .

. , ,
.

1.1.
Z , p 2 .
, a b b|a.
1.1. , a b
p, ,
a b ( mod p),
p|(a b).

:
1. : a a ( mod p).
2. : a b ( mod p) b a ( mod p).
3. : a b ( mod p) & b c ( mod p) a c ( mod p).

. ,
, .
, k , k .
n > 0 n ,
Z n = {0, 1, ... n 1}.
,
, , n

 1.

11

, .
n Zn .
, a b a + b = a + b
( ),
,
, [0, n1]
n (.. ,
mod n). , Z7 2 5 = 10 = 3 ( mod 7).
: 2 5 = 3 ( mod 7).
n ,
.

,
+ , :
1. : (a, b, c K) a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c,
2. : (0 K)(a K) a + 0 = 0 + a = a,
3. :

(a K)(b K) a + b = b + a =0,

4. : (a, b, c K) a (b c) = (a b) c,
5. : (a, b, c K) a (b + c) = a b + a c,
(b + c) a = b a + c a.
a (a).
, ,
. < G, + >
a + b = b + a,
. , Z n
.
n
n = pk , k 1 ,
Z n ( Z n )
, .. 1 a1=1a,
a a1 a a1 =1.

 1.

12

,
, ,
.
(1811 1832),
, GF (q).
. .
[73].
G .
1.2. a G (
ordG (a)) k , ak = 1.
.
,
, , .

(17361813).
1.1. ().
.
. a < G, >
k > 1. a, a2 , ... , ak1 , ak = 1
A, k
G. b A b G k ,
G. , G
k m, m ,
.
.

Z p p = 29.

, p
1 = 28. a
28, .. :
1, 2, 4, 7, 14 28.
a G
, ordG (a) .

 1.

13

. , ,
.
Z n ,
,
n.
() ,
. , 2199 (mod
1003), ,
Windows, .

, .

1.2.
, z = ab mod n.
:
1. b : b = (b0 b1 ... bk )2 ,
bi {0, 1}. , 199 = 110001112 ,
2.
b

b0 b1

...

bk

a0 a1

...

ak

(
a0 = a, ai+1 =

a2i mod n, bi+1 = 0,

a2i a mod n, bi+1 = 1

i 0.

.
. 2199 mod 1003:
b

8 64 84 35 444 93 247

: 2199 mod 1003 = 247.

 1.

14

1.3.
, , 2, .
,
, 3 9 ,
3 9 .
5, , 0 5.
,

.
,
, 276 - 194 . ..

B
3 B . , .. ,
, 3, 6.
() ,
.., .
.

(16011665)
, .
1.2. ( ) p,
, p
ap1 1 ( mod p)

(1.1)

(.1.1).
, p Zp
, p 1 .
Zp .
a Zp p 1, ap1 1 ( mod p).

 1.

15

, a < p
ap1 6 1 ( mod p), p .

p, a,
p.
1.19.
p
a:
1.3. (

).

a p :
1. ap1 1( mod p),
2. a(p1)/q 6 1( mod p) q|(p 1),
p, a GFp (..
GFp ).
. n = 1 022 333 835 329 657, n 1 = 2 2957 146 063 292 877.
3n1 1( mod n),
3(n1)/2 1 ( mod n),
3(n1)/2597 324224767363906 ( mod n),
3(n1)/146 063 697302646321792 ( mod n),
3(n1)/292 877 736785752408036 ( mod n).
n , 3
GFn .
, n 1
,
.

1.4.
(the trial division)
n

16
. bxc floor(x),
, x ( ).
, dxe ceil(x),
, x ( ).
n

2 n:
int Tr_div(int n)
{

for(int i = 2; i < b nc; i + +)

if (n%i == 0) return i;
return 0}
O(log 2 n),
O(n1/2 log 2 n).
L n, L = dlog2 ne.

:
T (n) = O(L2 eL/2 ).

(1.2)

,
,
.

1.5.

.
:
, ,
. . (A. Atkin) .
(D. Bernstein).
,
.

17
int limit = 1000;
int sqr_lim; bool is_prime[1001]; int x2, y2; int i, j; int n;
//
sqr_lim = (int) sqrt((long double) limit);
for (i = 0; i <= limit; i++) is_prime[i] = false;
is_prime[2] = true; is_prime[3] = true;
// -
// .
// x2 y2 - i j ().
x2 = 0;
for (i = 1; i <= sqr_lim; i++) {
x2 + = 2 * i - 1;
y2 = 0;
for (j = 1; j <= sqr_lim; j++) {
y2 += 2 * j - 1;
n = 4 * x2 + y2;
if ((n <= limit) && (n % 12 == 1 || n % 12 == 5))
is_prime[n] = ! is_prime[n];
// n = 3 * x2 + y2;
n -= x2; //
if ((n <= limit) && (n % 12 == 7))
is_prime[n] = ! is_prime[n];
// n = 3 * x2 - y2;
n -= 2 * y2; //
if ((i > j) && (n <= limit) && (n % 12 == 11))
is_prime[n] = ! is_prime[n];
}
}
// [5,
// ( )
for (i = 5; i <= sqr_lim; i++) {
if (is_prime[i]) {
n = i * i;
for (j = n; j <= limit; j += n) {
is_prime[j] = false;
}
}
}
// .

limit ].

18
printf("2, 3, 5");
for (i = 6; i <= limit; i++) {
// 3 5.
// .
if (is_prime[i]) && (i % 3 <> 0) && (i % 5 <> 0){
printf( % d , i); }
}

.
, , . , (
60) 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 34, 36, 38, 40, 42,
44, 46, 48, 50, 52, 54, 56 58, .
, ( 60) 3, 9, 15, 21, 27, 33, 39, 45, 51 57,
. , ( 60) 5, 25,
35 55, . (
60) .
, ( 60) 1, 13, 17, 29, 37, 41, 49 53,
4 1.
, 4x2 + y 2 = n
(squarefree).
, ( 60) 7, 19, 31 43,
6 1. ,
3x2 + y 2 = n
.
, ( 60) 11, 23, 47 59,
12 11. ,
3x2 y 2 = n
.
2, 3 5,
. ,
, 22, 32 52.

19


 n 
O
ln ln n
O(n1/2+o(1) ) .
,
.

1.6.
n 1 ,
n
, n .
:
1.4. (H.C. Pocklington). n 1

F R ,

F . ,
a < n :
1. an1 1 (mod n),
2. ...(a(n1)/q , n) 6= 1 q|F ,
n 1 F.
.

n.

.1 , k aR
GFp (n 1)/F = R .
, k
, .. k = F . F |(p 1), .. p = 1 + m F
m.
. F >

n, n.

20
, , p

n n, .
. n = 618 970 019 642 690 137 449 462 111. n 1

n 1 = 2 3 5 17 23 89 353 397 683 2113 2 931 542 417.
, n 1, 2 931 542 417,

b nc = 24 879 108 095 803.

a = 2 , .. 2(n1)/q 1 ( mod
n) q . a = 3:
m = 3(n1)/p 1 180 591 065 836 317 083 554 066 745 6= 1 ( mod n),
, ...(n, m) = 1. , n 1 + k

p < n, , 0 < k < 8486. k ,

n , , , .

F , n 1 (

a = 3), F > b nc, ,

n.

1.7.

.

- . , .

p(x) = x2 + x + 41,
40
.

21
,
[1970],

,
. (
.. [77]):
F (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z) =
(k + 2)(1 (wz + h + j q)2 (2n + p + q + z e)2 (a2 y 2 y 2 + 1 x2 )2
((e4 + 2e3 )(a + 1)2 o2 )2 (16(k + 1)3 (k + 2)(n + 1)2 + 1 f 2 )2
(((a + u4 u2 a)2 1)(n + 4dy)2 + 1 (x + cu)2 )2
(ai + k + 1 l i2 ((gk + 2g + k + 1)(h + j) + h z)2
(16r2 y 4 (a2 1) + 1 u2 )2 (p m + l(a n 1)+
+b(2an + 2a n2 2n 2))2 (z pm + pla p2 l + t(2ap p2 1))2
(q x + y(a p 1) + s(2ap + 2a p2 2p 2))2
(a2 l2 l2 + 1 mr)2 (n + l + v y)2 )
, .
10- , ,
,
.

.
,
,
(.19)
p:
1. R p
R 4p + 2 n = pR + 1.
2. n ,
.
3. n - (. c.27)
a < p.

22
, n , R
.

. (..1.13)
().
, .

, ,
. , p(x),
x ( Wolfram Mathematica
, p(x) x).
, x,
:
1. {n, n + 2, n + 4, ..., n + 2m},
n x , n + 2m .
2.
(. .16)
{3, 5, ..., pk }, B . B = 10,
. pk < 1000, 5/6
.
3. ,
.
. x 10260 ,
B = 1000. 67
x + 782. B = 8000
50, B = 50 000 36. , B
, .. ,
, ,

23
.

1.8.
()
.
. A B
(greatest common divisor d) d.
... A B
:
...(A, B) = ...(B, A mod B),

(1.3)

A mod B
A B .
,
0.
:
int Euclid(int A, B )
{
while (A mod B !=0) {
int C=A mod B;
A=B; B=C ; }
return B ;
}
Ax+By = d, A, B ,
d ,
. ... d,
, . A, B ,
A B , 4 .

, x y .
x y 0 1. , xi+1 yi+1 ,

24
xi yi , i 0, :
yi = xi+1 yi+1 (A div B)i

xi = yi+1 ,

. 72x + 25y = 1.
A = 72, B = 25. A mod B
A B , A div B A B .
B A mod B .
. ,
A mod B 0.
x y 0 1, ,
.
A

A mod B A div B

72

25

22

-25

25

22

-7

22

-7

: ...(72, 25) = 1 B . (x, y) =

(8, 25), 72x + 25y = 1,
.

,

.

(A; B), , ,
. ,
, k :
1. B < A/2. k + 1 A,
B , , A/2.

25
2. B A/2. r = A mod B = A B
A/2, k + 2 A r < A/2.
, A
, 2 , ,
, 2 log2 A.
( ,
Ax+By = d), , O(L), L = dlog2 Ae
.

..

, {Fn },
.
:
F0 = 1, F1 = 1, Fn+2 = Fn + Fn+1 , n 2.
:
S = {1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610, 987, 1597, 2584, 4181}.

1.9.
1.3. n > 1 . a,
[0, n 1] n,
x , x2 a ( mod n).
x , a
. , [0, n 1]
.
, a
p, , , :

1, ( x) x2 a mod p,

 

a
=
(1.4)
1, ( x) x2 a mod p,

0, p | a.

26

, :
 
p1
a
= a 2 mod n.
p

(1.5)

,
,
17 .
:
p q
   
q
p
=
(1)(p1)(q1)/4 .
p
q
,
 
 
   
q
p
q
p
=
, p q 3 mod 4,
=
, .
p
q
p
q

,
.

:
  


    
q
q mod p
qr
q
r
=
,
=

,
p
p
p
p
p

 
p2 1
2
= (1) 8 mod n.
p

. (15/17):
         
15
3
5
2
2
=

= (1) (1)3 = 1
17
17
17
3
5
n ,

:
   r1  r2
 rk
a
a
a
a
...
,
=

n
p1
p1
pk
n = pr11 pr22
.

(1.6)

... prkk n

27

1.10.
, n
, :
1.5. ( ) n 3
, n
, x y ,
x 6 y ( mod n), x2 y 2 ( mod n).

(1.7)

. (1.7) , ...(n, x2 y 2 ) 6=
1, 6= n. , n = p q , p > q , x = (p + q)/2,
y = (p q)/2. , x y (1.7).

, x y

1,

n,

n 1 n 1 = 2s d, d.
a Z n n,
:
1. x = ad 1 (mod n),
k

2. (k, 0 < k < s) x2 1 (mod n).

(1.8)

, a n.
, n
, n.
, a Z n
.12 (1.8),
x0 = ad (mod n), x1 = x20 (mod n), ... , xs1 = x2s2 (mod n)
1. xs , x2s1 ( mod n). 1.
s

n, xs = ad2 = an1
. , n .

28

.
(n)
,
, n
, n - n.
, n > 1 (n) < n. p
(n) p 1, n,
n = n1 n2 , (n) = (n1 ) (n2 ).
, n > 2
,
(n)/4 < n/4. , k
a < n n, n
, 4k .
.

n > 2 n1 = 2s d, d.
a 2 r + 1, r ,
:
1. x0 = ad (mod n).
2.

x0 {1, n 1}. ,

a . a.
3. , n 1
{x1 , x2 , ..., xs1 }, x
xi+1 = x2i (mod n).
, a .
a r + 1.
, n.
n.

29
r r ,
n .
. n = 1729 (. . 50).
n 1 = 26 33 . a = 2:
x0 = 227 mod 1729 = 645 6= 1, 6= n 1,
x1 = x20 mod 1729 = 6452 mod 1729 = 1065.
x2 = x21 mod 1729 = 10652 mod 1729 = 1.

{xi }

3, 4, 5

1,

{x1 , x2 , ..., xs1 }, n 1. , 2

n, n = 1729 .



(. 33):
1.1. n , n1 = 2s d, d.
x, 0 < x < 2 ( log2 n)2 xd 1 (mod n),
k

x2

1 (mod n) 0 k < s. n

.
, , , ,
,
,
.
, .

O(log2 n) (. [50]).

1.11.
(.
1.2) (. 1.9):

30
1.6. n ,
a, n n,
 
a
a(n1)/2
( mod n),
(1.9)
n
n/2.


k 1. n k .
:
1. a < n,
d =...(a, n).
2. d > 1, , n .
(1.9). , n - . ,
a n.
k k ,
n .

1/2,
k
, 2k .
,
, (.. 1.19).
, ,
k , 4k .

O(k log2 n).

31

1.12. AKS

. ,
, ,
. , (.1.6),
, .
2004 . ,

([1])

AKS
. AKS :
1.7. (Agrawel,

Kayal,

Saxena

[2004].)

, r :
1. n , r ,
2. n Z p GFp
(log2 (n))2 ,
3. a, 0 a r ,
(X + a)n X n + a Zn [X]/

Xr 1
.
X 1

(1.10)

n .
Z n [X]
, n,

r (X) =

Xr 1
= X r1 + X r2 + ... + X + 1.
X 1

, n, (X +a)n X n +a mod n
Z n [X],

32
, .
, ,
Z n [X] Z n [X]/r (X).
n:
1. , n ,
2. r = 2, 3, 5, ..., r
, r n, ni 1
i {0, 1, 2, ... , (log2 n)2 )}.
3. , 3 .
, n, n.
. , AKS
,
. 3
,
O(log18 n) (. . . [53]).
,
, n
.

1.13.
, . ,
, {2, 3, 5, ..., pm B }
, B , M
M=

m
Y

pi + 1

i=1

.
. ,
.

33
, . (x)
1 x.
1796 . (1752
1833) , (x)
x
B, B 1, 08.
ln x
XIX .. (18211894)
(x)

(x) 1 x:
A

x
x
< (x) < B
,
ln x
ln x

A = 0, 921, B = 1, 06, , (x) x/ ln x,

, 1.
1896 ., ,
- ,
(x) x/ ln x 1.
(x)
[1; 10k ] k :
x
(x)

102 103
25

104

106

108

1012

168 1 229 78 498 5 761 455 37 607 912 018

. 7 ,
(Clay Mathematics Institute, , ) 1 . . ,
- ,

(s) = 2s s1 sin

s
(1 s) (1 s),
2

X (n)
1
=
,
(s) n=1 ns

34
(n) .
1901 . ,
:
Z x

dt
+ O( x ln x) x
(x) =
2 ln t

1.14.

, 4- 5- ,
,
. .
GFp , p > 2, a,
p. x , a
x2 ( mod p).
p 1 p 1 = 2r s, s. ,
p 1, r 1. z
p. y = z s mod p.
2r s, y 2r ,
r

y 2 1 ( mod p). , y 2

1 ( mod p),

.. y 2r .
0 = as ( mod p), w0 = a(s+1)/2 ( mod p).

(1.11)

,
w02 a 0 ( mod p) x2 a( mod p) x2s as = 0 ( mod p).

(1.12)

xs 2r ,
0 2r1 .
(i , wi ),

wi2 a i ( mod p), i = 0, 1, 2, ... ,

(1.13)

35
i+1 i ,
, i 0.
i i = 1
wi2 a ( mod p),
x = wi .
(0 , w0 ), (1.13),
(1.12), ,
(i+1 , wi+1 ):
i+1 = i y 2

rm

wi+1 = wi y 2

rm1

(1.14)

2m i .
. a = 2
GFp p = 41:
1. , p 1 = 40 = 23 5, , s = 5, r = 3.
2. (0 , w0 ) (1.11):
0 = as ( mod p) = 25 ( mod 41) = 32,
w0 = a(s+1)/2 ( mod p) = 23 ( mod 41) = 8.
3. 0 :
20 mod p = 322 mod 41 = 40 1 ( mod 41), 40 1 mod p.
, ord(0 ) = 2m = 4, m = 2.
4. .
z = 3:
    

 
z
3
41 mod 3
2
(411)(31)/2
=
=
(1)
=
= 1,
p
41
3
3
, z = 3
(i+1 , wi+1 ).

36
5. y = z s ( mod p) = 35 ( mod 41) = 38.
6. , y :
d = 2rm = 232 = 2,

y d = 32 = 9.

7. 1 = 0 y d ( mod p) = 32 9( mod 41) = 1, w1 = w0 y d1 ( mod

p) = 8 3( mod 41) = 24. i 1,
. x = w1 = 24. :
x2 mod p = 242 mod 41 = 2 = a.

1.15.
,
.
,
..
1.8. m1 , m2 , ..., mn
, r1 , r2 , ..., rn , 0 r1 < mi
i, x, mi ri
1 i n. , x1 x2

x1 x2 ( mod m ), m = m1 m2 ... mn .

(Jiushao Qin) (1247 . ..) x,
:
x=

n
X
i=0

ri ei , ei =
mi

m
mi

1

!
mod mi , 1 i n.

(1.15)

, mi m/mi ,
ei 1 i n. ,

(
ei ei ei ( mod m ),
ei ej 0 ( mod m ) i 6= j,

37
.. ei m.

x
(Garner algorithm), x n-
{xi }. {xi }, {yi }
:

y1 = x1 = r1 ,
i+1 xi
mod mi+1 ,
yi+1 = m1rm
2 ... mi

xi+1 = xi + yi+1 m1 m2 ... mi .

(1.16)

,
(xi+1 , yi+1 )
(xi , yi ), x.
. x,
:

x 2 ( mod 3 )
x 5 ( mod 7 )

x 4 ( mod 11 ).
. m1 = 2, m2 = 7, m3 = 11, r1 = 2, r2 =
5, r3 = 4. yi xi , i = 1, 2, 3:
y1 = x1 = 2,
y2 = (r2 x1 ) (m1 )1 mod m2 = (5 2) (3)1 mod 7 = 1
x2 = x1 + (y2 m1 mod m2 ) = 2 + (1 3 mod 7) = 5,
y3 = (r3 x2 ) (m1 m2 )1 mod m3 = (4 5) 211 mod 11 = 1,
x3 = x2 + y3 m1 m2 = 5 + 1 3 7 = 26.
: x = 26.

38

1.16. , e

.
.

= 3, 14159265358979323846264338327950288419716939937510...
,
. .
.
, 1997 . (Simon Plouffe):



X
4
2
1
1
1

=
16k 2 8k + 1 8k + 4 8k + 5 8k + 6
k=0

e
e = 2, 718281828459045235360287471352662497757...

. e
. e. e
:

n

X
1
1
e = lim 1 +
e =
n
n
n!
n=1
e,

i = 1:
eix = cos x + i sin x, ,

ei = 1

2 = 1, 414213562373095048801688724210...
ln 2 = 0, 693147180559945309417232121458...

39
log2 e = 1, 44269504088896340735992468100...
ln 10 = 2, 302585092994045684017991454684...

1.17.
,

(1877
1938) 1912 .
(
(19081968)). ,
., .
( ):

, , ,
,
, 5,
.
:
(.. ,
2) ?
( ): , n2
(n + 1)2 ?
:
n2 + 1?

,
, . .

.

40

1742 .
, :
5
.
:

.
,
( ).

:
> 2 , 3
, > 5.
1923 . ,

.
1937 . ,
(18912007) ,
,
.
, .
15

, 33 . 6
,
. ,
.
,
1989 3, 3 1043000 , ,
.

41
1997 . , , ,

.
1020 ,
. ,
.
, -,
. 1937 . 1938 . ,
(
, , ).
1975 . . (H. Montgomery) .. (R.C. Vaughan). , c C,
, N,
, C N 1c .
1939 . ,
300 000 .
. 1995 . (Ramare) ,
6 .
1966 . (Chen Jingrun) ,
,
(
). , 100 = 23 + 7 11.
2008 .
, 1, 2 1018 .

4-
.

(twins) , ,
2. ,

42
.
X .
(3, 5), (101, 103)
(65 516 468 355 2333 333 1).
. ,
2 (3, 5 7).
2005 .
, (Dan Goldston, Janos Pintz and
Cem Yildirim),
lim inf

pn+1 pn
= 0,
log pn

(1.17)

pn n . ,
x
n > x , pn+1 pn < log pn , ,
f (x) = min{pn+1 pn | pn > x} , log x.
Front
For ArXiv Are there infinitely many twin primes?
http://front.math.ucdavis.edu/0710.2728 http://www.math.sjsu.edu/ goldston/twinprimes.pdf

,
.

1.18.
,

xn + y n = z n

(1.18)

n 3.
1637 .
:

43
, ,
, ,
. ,
.

n = 4, ,
,
.
1770 . n = 3,
1825 . n = 5, n = 7. ,
n, 100,
.
,
R(2/p ) p.
.
37, 59 67.

; ,
.
XIX
.
. , :
.
z n .
1972 . ,
, :
,
( )
.
,
, ,
: . . . !

44
.
. . . . . . . .
.
1908 . 100 000
, .
.

.
1980- . .
, 1983 ., , an +bn =
cn n > 3 .
,
(Andrew John Wiles).
1993 . ,
.
.
,
21, 22 23 1993 .
,
.
. .
200- Inventiones Mathematicae, .
.
, 4 1993 .
.
, ,
, . 1994 .
.
, , 19 1994 . ,
. 1995 .
Annals of Mathematics

45
130 . Modular elliptic curves and
Fermats Last Theorem, 14 1994 .,
Ring-theoretic properties of certain
Hecke algebras, 7 1994 .
,
.
357- . 27 1995 .
, --,
, ,
.
,
27 1997 . .
,
75000 .

1.19. ,

,
.
an 1. , ,
:
xn 1 = (x 1)(xn1 + xn2 + ... + x + 1)
n, , x x 1,
:
xn + 1 = (x + 1)(xn1 xn2 + ... x + 1)

(1.19)

:
1.9. a, n , a, n 2,
an +1 n = 2k k.

46
. n = tu, u.
(1.2) x = at ,
an + 1 = xu + 1 = (x + 1)(xt1 xt2 + ... x + 1)
x + 1 = at + 1
an + 1. .

n

Fn = 22 + 1 ,
. ,
, ,
. 5 :
F0 = 3, F1 = 5, F2 = 17, F3 = 257, F4 = 65537.
Fn 1732 .
(17071783) ,
:
5

22 + 1 = 4 294 967 297 = 641 6 700 417

, ,
, 800 20
,
I ,
( 1741 . 1766 .,
, ). 1766 . 1783
. -, 13 ( 5),
, ,
,
, II ,
-,
.
.

47
n

1.10. ( (-)). Fn = 22 +
1, n 1, p Fn , p 1 (mod 2n+2 ).
. r Fn , h
,
n

22

2h

1 (mod r ). ..

1(mod r ), h = 2n+1 . ,

2r1 1(mod r ), h r 1. .. n 2,
r 1 ( mod 8). (.c.25), 2
r , , 2(r1)/2 1(modr),
.
. F5 = 232 + 1.
1 + 128k . , F5 = 4 294 967 297 = 641
6 700 417 = (1 + 5 128) (1 + 52347 128).

([28]): http://www.prothsearch.net/fermat.html
:
F0 = 3
F1 = 5
F2 = 17
F3 = 257
F4 = 65537
F5 = 641 6700417
F6 = 274177 67280421310721
F7 = 59649589127497217 5704689200685129054721
F8 = 1238926361552897 P 62
F9 = 2424833 7455602825647884208337395736200454918783366342657 P 99
F10 = 45592577 6487031809 4659775785220018543264560743076778192897
P 252
F11 = 319489 974849 167988556341760475137 3560841906445833920513
P 564
P k k , P 564,
k .

48
,
, F12 . ,
2010 . (Michael Vang) F12 ,

P6 = 17353230210429594579133099699123162989482444520899 215 +1.

, F12 1877 .,
1903 . ( ), 1974 . 1986 . . ,
, 1033
, .
,
! , (J.Young) ,
F 213319 3 2 213321 + 1.

Mp = 2p 1
p. :
1, 3, 7, 31, 127, 2047, 8191, 131071, 524287, 8388607, 536870911, 2147483647.
1.11. ( ). p 3 ,
q Mp = 2p 1, q 1 (mod 2p) q 1 (mod 8).
. , 2p 1 (mod q)
, 2q1 1 (modq). , 2 (..
t , 2t 1 (modq) ordq (2))
p q 1. 1,
p, p|(q 1), .. q = 1 + mp. .. p q ,
m = 2k , q = 1 + 2kp. , p (q 1)/2. .
2p 1 (mod q), 2(q1)/2 1 (mod q), (2/q) = 1
q 1 (mod 8).

,

49

. (Lucas) 1878 . 1930 .
(Lehmer).
,
Mp p, :
. p 3 Mp
, Lp 1, Lk
:
L1 = 4, Lk+1 = L2k 2

Mp

Mp ,
p . Lp 1(modMp )
. , Mp
, p
.
1876 . ,
2127 1 = 170141183460469231731687303715884105727
.
1951 ., .. 75 .
2004 . 44 , 4
2006 . 45- 232 582 657 1.
47 .
Mp = 243112609 1,
2008 . GIMPS.
12978189 , GIMPS
2009 . 100000 ,
Electronic Frontier Foundation ,
10 .

50
.

M (k, n) = k 2n 1,
n , k .

, ap1 1 (mod p )
p a, p.
, n ,
n a an1 1( mod n).
(Carmichael Numbers).

.
1.12. (, 1899) n
, n ,
p n p 1 n 1.
, ,
, , ,
, , ,
(p1) | (n1) , , .
, ,
- . 1910 .
561. :
561, 1105, 1729, 2465, 2821, 6601, 8911, 10585, 15841, 29341, 41041, 46657, 52633,
62745, 63973, 75361, 101101, 115921, 126217, 162401, 172081, 188461, 252601,
278545, 294409, 314821, 334153, 340561, 399001, 410041, 449065, 488881, 512461.

(Cunningham Numbers) bn an .

51
( a

1).

(Allan Cunningham), (18481928),

1925 . ( . H. Woodall).
, , ,
(John Brillhart, D.H. Lehmer, J.L. Selfridge, Bryant Tuckerman, and S.S. Wagstaff, Jr.) 1988 . ()
AMS 2002 . Factorizations of bn 1, b =
2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12 Up to High Powers, Third Edition. :
http://www.ams.org/publications/online-books/conm22-index

 2.

52

2.

. ,
, (
).
:
.
,
.

,


.

.

, .

2.1.
n = p q ,
p q , .
,
,
A B , :
n = A2 B 2 .
:
1. n:

m = d ne.

(2.20)

 2.

53

2. x = 1, 2, ...
q(x) = (m + x)2 n,

(2.21)

, q(x)
.
3. q(x) , , B : q(x) =
B 2 . A = m + x, A2 n = B 2 n =
A2 B 2 = (A + B) (A B), p q ,
p = A + B, q = A B.

. n = 19 691. m =

b nc = 140. n
:

190

13,78

473

21,75

758

27,53

1045 32,33

1334 36,52

1625 40,31

1918 43,79

2213 47,04

2510 50,10

10 2809

53

: (140 + 10)2 n = 532 , n =

1502 532 = 203 97. , 19 691 = 203 97,
10 , 1 ,
1 , ..
.

 2.

54

, q 1, p n,
, . , A = (p +
q)/2,
Iter(n) =

n
p+q
bn1/2 c bn1/2 c,
2
2

.. 0(n). , ,
, Iter(n) n1/2 ,
p < 4n1/2 .
, ,
.
,
n 2 B ,
n B ,
.

2.2. (p 1)

1974 . [43].
n , 1 < p < n .
, a, 1 a < p,
ap1 1( mod p).
, p 1
M p1, .. M = (p1)k ,
aM = (ap1 )k 1k 1( mod p). aM 1 = pr
r . , p n,
p ...(n, aM 1)
...(n, aM 1), aM 1 < n.
t

p 1 = pri 1 pr22 ... prt .

(2.22)

(p 1) M

 2.

55

, M pri i ,
(2.22). , ...(n, aM 1) .
:
(p-1)
1. B1 .
2. P , ,
B1 :
P = {pr11 , pr22 , ... prkk }, piri < B1 .
3.
M = M (B1 ) =

pri i

pi i P

4. a, 2, aM mod n.
5. ...(n, aM 1), ,
n.
. n = 10 001. B = 10, ,
M (B1 ) = 23 32 5 7 = 2520. , 22520 mod 10 001 = 3579. ,
...(n, aM 1) = ...(10 001, 3578) = 73.
, B1 M (B1 )
( B1 !).
M (B1 ) l ,
, Mi
i, M (B) M1 M2 ... Ml . ,
aM (B) {ai }, a1 = aM1 (mod
n), ai :
Mi+1

ai+1 = ai

mod n, i < l.

, ,
n.

 2.

56

(p-1)

, B1 ,
.
,
q p 1, B1 .
B2  B1 , , B2 = B 2 . b
aM (B) mod n, .
q0 < q1 < ... < qs
[B; B2 ].
, (..1).
{qi }
,
, , .
.
p 1 qi ,
n, ci = bqi mod n, ...(n, i 1).
, q ,
qi [B1 ; B2 ].
.
i i = qi+1 qi .
, di ,
D = {2, 4, ..., 2t}. b mod n
D .
:
1. c0 = bq0 mod n, d =...(n, 0 1).
2. d = 1, c1

= bq1 mod n

d =...(n, 1 1) ..
3. ci+1
bqi+1 mod n = bqi +i mod n = bqi bi mod n = ci bi mod n.

(2.23)

 2.

57

bi mod n ,

ci+1

n.
.
(p 1)
,
B1 B2 .
[2; B].
(B1 ),
B1 / ln B1 . pr , B , r
, . 13,
log2 p log2 B1
n.
O(B1 log B1 log2 N ).
( 20-25 ).
(p 1) 960119 1, 66
, . (T. Nohara) 2006 .

. ,
O(log2 B2 ) + O(log q(B1 ) ) + 2((B2 ) (B1 ))
n ... n.
, O((B2 )).
(p 1)
p n q t
, p1. , q t
qiti | p 1. , (p 1)
n,
q t p 1 p | n.

 2.

58

q t B1 ,
. , ,
q t B2 , (p 1) q r
B1 . , p 1
rk k 2, B1 B2 .
rk :
rk1 B,

B1 < rk < B2 ,

1/k

B1

1/k

< p < min{B 1/(k1) , B2 }.

(2.24)

B2 = cB1 k = 2 (2.24) :
p
p
B1 < r < min{B1 , cB1 }.
B2 ,
B2 B12 ,
p
p

B1 < r < c1 B1 , c1 = c.

(2.25)

, (2.25),
(B1 , B2 ),
. ,
r ,
(2.25), .
q t
p 1, (p 1)
n,
n . RSA
n , p 1 - ,
B2 ,
(p 1) .

a.

p 1

a < n, ak 1 (modp)

 2.
k

<

59

p 1. a

<

n,

a2 1 (modp). a
. , (p 1)

a. Pollard on the Play Station 3,

http://www.hyperelliptic.org/tanja/SHARCS/slides09/03-bos.pdf,
, (p 1)

Sony Play Station 3, 8 .

p = 29 n, , p 1 = 28 = 22 7.
a 28 k , ak 1 ( mod p).
:
a

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

k 28 28 14 14 14 7 28 14 28 28

14 28 28

28 a < 29 12 k = 28,
6 k = 14 k = 7, 2 k = 4,
k = 2 k = 1. k :
M [k] = (12 28 + 6 14 + 6 7 + 2 4 + 2 1)/28 16, 85
, a < n,
.


(a Fast Fourier Transform)
.
.
[36]. ,
qi [B1 ; B2 ]

 2.

60

...(n, i 1), ci = bqi .

ci Gj h =
Q
(ci 1) mod n ci Gj , ...(n, h). ...(n, i
1) > 1, ...(n, h). ,
,
.
www.loria.fr/zimmerma/records/Pminus1.html
,
(p 1) .
.
En n
, .
n M [k]
k a < p, p n.
En
M [k]. ,
(p1)
.
2 , (p 1)-
.
.

2.3. (p + 1)
.

(Lucas)

un , :
u0 = 0, u1 = u, un+1 = P un Q un1 ,

(2.26)

P , Q .
(p + 1) (Williams) (p 1)
p + 1. p

 2.

61

n, p + 1
p+1=

k
Y

qiai .

i=1

max{qiai |1

k}. -

r B -,
pai i r ,
B . , B
, p + 1 B -.
, p , B .
:
1. B ,
.
2. 2 < 3 < 5 < ... < pm ,
B ai , pai i < B .
3. R =

Qm

ai
i=1 qi .

p B -,

R p.
4.

, uR .
5. ...(n, uR ) = d. 1 < d < n, .
, Q p

 2
P 4Q
= 1,
p

n.

2.4. -
1975 . n
, . -
:

 2.

62

1. x0
{xn }, n = 0, , 1, 2, ..., xn+1
xn+1 = (x2n 1) (mod n).
2. i .. d n
|xi xj |, j < i.
3. d =...(n, |xi xj |), 1,
. d n. n/d
, ,
n n/d.
F (x) = (x2 1) mod n xn+1
, , x2 + 1 2-
F (x) = ax2 + bx + c.

xj . ,
(xj xi ) 0 ( mod p), (f (xj ) f (xi )) 0 ( mod p),
, (xi , xj ) ,
(xi+k , xj+k ).
, (xi , xj ),
(xi , xj ), j = 2k , k
1, 2, 3, ..., i
[2k + 1; 2k+1 ]. , k = 3 j = 23 = 8, i [9; 16].

 2.

63

int -Pollard (int n)

{ int x = random (1, n-2);
int y = 1; int i = 0; int stage = 2;
while(...(n, abs(x y)) = 1)
{
if (i = = stage ){
y = x;
stage = stage*2; }
x=x x + 1(modn);
i=i + 1;
}
return ...(n, abs(x y)); }

n, x y ,
.
-
(Floyd). , y
y = F 2 (y) = F (F (y)), i
xi = F i (x0 ), yi = x2i = F 2i (x0 ), ...
n y x.
-
.
.
2.1. ( ) > 0.

l + 1 , q , l = 2q ,
,
p > 1 e .
, p = 0, 5
0, 69.

 2.

{un }

64

|xi xj |, .
{zn }, zn = un mod q , q

n. {zn } n.
{zn } , q , ,
, , l + 1
, 1/2 0, 69, l

2q 1.4q 1, 18 q .
zi = zj , xi xj 0 mod q xi xj = kq
k Z. xi 6= xj , ,

q n ...(n, xi xj ). q
n1/4 , , 0,5, n
1, 18 n1/4 .
, - ,
q n O(q 1/2 )
O(n1/4 ) .
, n.
, ,
, n, .
, , {yn }
(.. t xt = x0 ,
), x0
F (x) .
.
1. n ,
.
( )
n.
n?
2. 1 .
.

 2.

65

2.5. -

(Discrete Logarithm Problem DLP)

Fq g
t k , g k = t.
,
. L DLP
, L,
DLP
, , -
- .

. 5 . [54]
. -
DLP, , -
. Fp , p ,
Fp = {1, 2 ... p 1}. , g Fp
, t Fp
g : t = g k . g (-) ,
t - Fp .
k , g k = t,
(ai , bi ) p 1
xi p xi = tai g bi .
a0 = b0 = 0, x0 = 1.
:

0 < xi < p/3,

(ai + 1, bi ) mod (p 1),

(ai+1 , bi+1 ) =
(2ai , 2bi ) mod (p 1),
p/3 < xi < 2p/3,

(ai , bi + 1) mod (p 1)
2p/3 < xi < p,

(2.27)

 2.

66

, ,

xi+1

txi mod p,
=
x2i mod p,

gxi mod p

0 < xi < p/3,

p/3 < xi < 2p/3,

(2.28)

2p/3 < xi < p,

,
i, j , xi = xj . , tai g bi = taj g bj , ,
(aj ai )k bi bj (mod(p 1))

(2.29)

...(aj ai , p 1) = 1, k (2.29)
,

x(aj ai ) + y(p 1) = bi bj

(2.30)

x, y k = x mod (p 1).
...(aj ai , p 1) = d > 1, , (2.30) , ,
(p 1)/d, ..
x = x0 + m(p 1)/d

(2.31)

m [0, d 1] . d - ,
(2.31) g X t mod t.
, ,
, i-
(ai , bi , xi ) (a2i , b2i , x2i ), i,
xi = x2i . i
(aj , bj , xj ) j i, (ai , bi , xi )
(a2i , b2i , x2i ).
. Fp p = 43. g = 2
(..19), ..214 mod 43 = 1.
g = 3
3X mod 43 = 15.

(2.32)

 2.

67

, p = 43, g = 3, t = 15. (0 , b0 , x0 ) = (0, 0, 1),

(ai , bi , xi ) (a2i , b2i , x2i ) (2.27) (2.28):
i

ai bi xi a2i b2i x2i

0 10

11

0 21

22

0 11 15

36

0 36 30

11

1 22 31

22

5- xi x2i . (2.30):
x(317)+y(431) 17 ( mod 42),

, 24x+42y 36 ( mod 42).

...(aj ai , p 1) =...(24, 42) = 6 6= 1.

6:
4x + 7y 6 ( mod 42).
(. 1.8)
4x + 7y = 1, A B
( , A B ):
A B A mod B A div B y

-1 2

1 -1

, 7 (1) + 4 2 = 1, , 7 (6) + 4 12 = 6. ,
x0 = x = 12. , d > 1, X (2.32)
(p 1)/d = 7, .. X = x0 + 7k ,
k Z. (2.32) 12, 19, 25, ...,
325 mod 43 = 15. .

 2.

2.6.

68

. .
. q0
, . =
q0 +

1
1 ,

1 > 1. 1 , . . . , s1
1 = q1 +

1
2 ,

2 > 1,

...
s1 = qs1 +

1
s ,

s > 1.

:
1

= q0 +

(2.33)

q1 +

q2 + . . . +

1
qs1 +

1
s

= [q0 , q1 , q2 , ... qs1 ]

(2.33).
, s ,
.
,
.
1. =
.
A

B A mod B qi = bA/Bc

72 25

22

25 22

22

72
25

 2.

1
72
= 2+
25
1 + 7 +1

69

= [2, 1, 7, 3]
1
3

0 = q0 , 1 = [q0 , q1 ], . . . , s = [q0 , q1 , ..., qs ], . . .

= limn n .
2.

14

. q0 = [ 14] = 3.

1
= 3+( 143) = q0 + .
1

1
14 + 3
14 2
1 =
=
= 1+
, q1 = 1.
5
5
14 3

14 + 2
14 2
5
=
= 2+
, q2 = 2.
2 =
2
2
14 2

2
14 + 2
14 3
3 =
=
= 1+
, q3 = 1.
5
5
14 2

5
4 =
= 14+3 = 6+( 143), q4 = 6.
14 3
:
0 = 3, 1 = 3+1/1 = 4, 2 = 3+

1
1
3.667, 3 = 3+
3.75,
1
1 + 1/2
1 + 2+1/2

20
3.741 ....
27
,

14 , , |s+1 s |

4 = 3

 2.

70

Ax2 + Bx + C = 0, A, B, C Z, D = B 2 4AC > 0.
(2.34)

B D
.
=
2A

(2.34)

(2.35)

P = B , Q = 2A
,

P+ D
=
Q

(2.36)

m = [ D].
:
0 =

P +m
Q

(2.37)

r = [P + D/Q] (2.35). , ,
:
1 =

Q
1
Q

=
=
q0
P + D r Q)
D (r Q P )

(2.38)

,
. :

Q ( D + (r Q P ))
1 =
D (r Q P )2

(2.39)

Q|(D P 2 ), Q,
:

D + (r Q P ) P 0 + D
1 =
=
Q0
Q0

(2.40)

 2.

71

P 0 = rQ P , Q0 = (D (r Q P )2 )/Q = (D (P 0 )2 )/Q.

{Pn }, {Qn } {qn }:

"
#
P0 + D
,
P0 = B, Q0 = 2B, r0 =
Q0
#
Pj+1 + D
.
=
Qj+1
"

2
Pj+1 = rj Qj Pj , Qj+1 = (D Pj+1
)/Qj , rj+1

(2.41)
:
0 = r0 ,
j+1 =

1 = r0 +

1 + r0 r1
1
=
,
r1
r1

rj+1 pj + pj1
pj+1
=
qj+1
rj+1 qj + qj1

, =

(2.42)

n, D = n, P0 = 0,

Q0 = 1. ,

P0 = [ D], Q0 = D . rj+1 (2.42)

D m = [ D] Qj > 0, D m + 1
Qj < 0.
. , {Pj } {Pj }

[ D], (Pj , Qj ),
k , (P0 , Q0 ) = (Pk , Qk ). k
.

2.7.

x2 ny 2 = 1

(2.43)

-
(J. Pell 1611-1685),
,
(Williams Brouncker 16201684),

 2.

72

.
,
(Brahmagupta 598668).
1
:
2.2. n > 0 ,
. x2 ny 2 = 1
(x, y),

{xk /yk }, n, k
.

: xt + yt n = (x0 + y0 n)t ,
t = 0, 1, 2, ... .
3. x2 ny 2 = 1 n = 14.

3 + 14
1
14 2
=
(2)
= 1+
,
(1) 14 = 3+( 143),
5
5
14 3

2 + 14
2
2 + 14
5
14 2
14 3
=
= 2+
, (4)
=
= 1+
,
(3)
2
2
5
5
14 2
14 2

5
= 3+ 14 = 6+( 143).
(5)
14 3
4.
k = 4 ( ):
3 +

1
1+

1
2+

=3 +
1
1

1
1+

1
3

=3 +

3 15
= .
4
4

x1 = 15, y1 = 4 .

152 14 42 = 225 224 = 1. ,

t (x0 + y0 n), t = 0, 1 2, 3 ... . , t = 2

(15 + 4 14)2 = 449 + 120 14, .. (x2 , y2 ) = (449, 120).

,
i {ri } = {3, 1, 2, 1, 6 ... }.

 2.

73

,
(2.41),
.
1 ,
:
2.3. n > 0 ,
. x2 ny 2 = 1
,
k .
(x1 , y1 ) () x2 ny 2 = 1,
(xt , yt )

(x1 + y1 n). (x1 + y1 n)

x2 ny 2 = 1.
4. x2 ny 2 = 1 n = 29.

29
, k = 5. , 5-
, (x5 , y5 ) = (70, 13). 702

132 29 = 1. 70+13 29 (x2 , y2 ) = (9801, 1820),

x2 29y 2 = 1.

(the
continued fraction factorization method CFRAC) 1975 .
(.[40]).

x2 y 2 n = 1
{pi /qi }, i = 1, 2, 3, ...

 2.

0,
Pk =
b nc,

rk1 Qk1 Pk1 ,

0,

rk =

:
k = 0
k 2.

k = 0

(
b nc,

pk =

qk =

(2.44)

k = 1

n r02 ,

Qk2 + rk1 (Pk1 Pk ),

Qk =

74

k
c,
b r0Q+P
k

(2.45)

k = 1
k 2.

k = 0

(2.46)

k 2.

r0 ,

1 + r0 r1 ,

rk pk1 + pk2 ,

1,

r1 ,

rk qk1 + qk2 ,

k = 0
(2.47)

k = 1
k 2.

k = 0
(2.48)

k = 1
k 2.

,
Si = p2i qi2 n
Si = B 2 . , qi2 n = p2i B 2 =
(pi +B)(pi B), n
c (pi +B), (pi B). ,
...(n, pi B ). ,
Qi , 2.2 -
.

:

11111

 2.
k

p2 nq 2

105

105

-86

1 105 86

211

77

67

77

1527

-46

87

46

2319

22

37

97

37

12122 115

-91

88

91

26563 252

25

75

p2 nq 2
25, 252n = 265632 52 .
d=..(n, 26563 + 5) =..(26568, 11111),
d = 41 n.
,

n = 11 111. , 11 111 =
105, 408 728 3..., p5 /q5 =
105, 408 730 1, , 2 106 .
. , CFRAC

,
n,

. 4-
.

2.8.

, ,
SQUFOF SQUare FOrm Factorization
1975 . (D. Shanks),
, .

(J. Gover, S.S. Wagstaff [25]).

 2.

76

, 1010 1018 .
,
.
.
x y :
f (x, y) = ax2 + bxy + cy 2 = (x y)

a b

0 c

x
y

!
.

f = ax2 + bxy + cy 2
f = (a, b, c). (a, b, c)
D = b2 4ac.
definite,
indefinite.
.
. f = (a, b, c) g = (p, q, r)
,
!


1, f g :
!
!
!
!

a b

p q
=

0 r

0 c


,

.
, ,
. f = (a, b, c)
,

| D 2|a|| < b < D.

(2.49)

 2.

77

, ,

f = (f ), f :
. (f )
,
:


r2 D
,
(f ) = (a, b, c) = c, r,
4c
(2.50)
r

= r(b, c) ,

:
1. r b ( mod 2c),

2. |c| < r |c|, D < |c|,

3. D 2|c| < r < D , |c| < D .

f n
n (f ). 1 :
 2

r

D
1 (a, b, c) =
, r, a ,
4a
(2.51)
r = r(b, c) . :
2.4. f
, f k (f )
k . f , (f ) .
.

(a, b, c)

(c, b0 , c0 )

(adjacent), b + b0 0 (mod 2c ).
(a, b, c) , ,
(a, b, c) (c, b, a)

(2.52)

(), , a b

 2.

78

,
(a, b, ac)2 (a2 , b, c)

(2.53)

f = (a, b, c2 ),
,
(square). f .
f
f (c2 , b, a), (2.53).
:

g=f

1/2

(a, b,

c2 )

(c2 , b, a) = (c, b, ac).

(2.54)

. (k, kn, c) (ambiguous). , k :

D = (kn)2 4kc = k(kn2 4c).
n,
, f D = 4n,

f (a0 , b0 , c0 ). , ...(a0 , b0 )
n.
:
: n, .
n mod 4 = 1, n 2n.

n mod 4 = 2 3.

,
, .
: n.
1. f = (1, 2b, b2 D),

D = 4n, b = b nc.
2. f = (f ), f
:
while not (f square ) do f = (f );

 2.

79

3. f (2.54):
g = (a0 , b0 , c0 ) = f 1/2
4. g = (g),
b0i+1 = b0i . m

. a0 n (
).

. ,
,
(2.44)(2.46)
P, Q r
.
.
fk = (ak , bk , ck ) :
(ak , bk , ck ) = (1)k1 Qk1 , 2Pk , (1)k Qk

(2.55)

SQUFOF
:
SQUFOF n
: n.
: n.
I. .
1. , n . , d =

n, . , .
2. n 1 (mod 4), n 2n. D = 4n, q0 =

b Dc.

 2.

80

3. P, Q, r :

P0 = 0, Q0 = 1, r0 = P1 = b nc, Q1 = nr02 , r1 = b2r0 /Q1 c.

II. . P Q
(2.44)-(2.46)
CFRAC ( 2.6):


Pk + b nc
, k 2.
Pk = rk1 Qk1 Pk1 , Qk = Qk2 +(Pk1 Pk )rk1 , rk =
Qk
(2.56)
Pk , Qk rk , k = 2, 3, ... ,
Qk , .
k . Qk = d2 d > 0.
.
III. .
Pj0 , Q0j , rj0 , j = 0, 1, 2, ....
, .
P 0 , Q0 r0 :
 0

P
+
b
nc
0
0
P00 = Pk , Q00 = d, r00 =
, P10 = r00 Q00 P00 , Q01 = (N P12 )/Q00 .
0
Q0
$
%
0
+
b
P
nc
j
0
0
0
0
, j 2.
Pj0 = rj1
Q0j1 Pj1
, Q0j = Q0j2 +(Pj1
Pj0 )rj1
, rj0 =
Q0j
,
0
Pj0 Pj+1
. , Qj

n.
.


n = 11 111.

. n mod 4 = 3, r0 = b nc = 105.

 2.

81

1. P , Q r
(2.56). , Q
:
k

105

1 105 86

67

77

87

46

97

37

88

91

94

25

Q d2 = 25,
d = 5, .
2. . ,
P 0 .
Qj1 , Q,
n.
P0

Q0

r0

0 -94

1 104

59

73

98

25

107 1

82

41

82

107 1

P 82.
. Q
41 n = 11 111.
, 2-
(
j = 4 k = 6).

 2.

82

, ,
w n

C
n1/4 ,
w
2 2
C , 2, 4 .
,
O(n1/4 ) , ,
18
.

83

3.

(Elliptic Curves)
,
. 1985 .,
. (N. Coblitz) . (V. Miller)

.

.
, ,
,
, ,
(. [31]).

(p 1) .
, . (p 1) ,
n,
, , n
,
. (p 1)
(.. 2.2), .

. . ,
, . [8].

.
, ,
, .
[69] . , . , . .

84
[60] [61].
, , 2-
. Elliptic Curves Number Theory and Cryptography. [54]

[16].

.

3.1.
.

Fq , q = pk ,

p 2. Fq
(x, y) Fq Fq ,
y 2 + ay + b = x3 + cx2 + dx + e (mod q).

(3.57)

, ,
.
p 3 (
), (3.57)

y 2 = x3 + ax + b (mod q),

(3.58)

a, b Fq . a b
4a3 + 27b2 6= 0, x3 + ax + b
0, .

q , (3.58)
, , ,
=.
E
+,
.

 3.

85

P = (x, y) E , P P =
(x, y). P + (P ) = . P = (x1 , y1 ) Q = (x2 , y2 ),
P 6= Q, :
x3 = 2 x1 x2
y3 = (x1 x3 ) y1
(
y2 y1
x2 x1 , P 6= Q,
=
3x21 +a
2y1 P = Q

(3.59)

Fq
E(Fq ), ( ) #E(Fq ).
, E(Fq )
= Cn Cn , Cn - n,
1

n2 n1 , n2 q 1.
. E(Fq ) - y 2 = x3 +x+1
F23 . P (0, 1).
kP P :
P (0, 1)

2P = (6, 4)

3P = (3, 10)

4P = (10, 7)

5P = (5, 3)

6P = (7, 11)

7P = (11, 3)

8P = (5, 4)

9P = (4, 5)

10P = (12, 14) 11P = (1, 7)

12P = (6, 3)

13P = (9, 7)

14P = (4, 10)

16P = (6, 3)

17P = (1, 7)

18P = (12, 4) 19P = (4, 5)

21P = (11, 3)

22P = (7, 11) 23P = (5, 3) 24P = (10, 7)

25P = (3, 10)

26P = (6, 4)

15P = (9, 7)

27P = (0, 1)

20P = (5, 4)
28P = ()

, 28 . A
k , kA = .
, ,
{1, 2, 4, 7, 14, 28}.
. 3P = (3, 10) 7P = (11, 3).
. = (y2 y1 )/(x2 x1 ): y2 y1 = 3 (10) =
13, x2 x1 = 11 3 = 8. 81 3 (mod 23), = 13/8 =

 3.

86

13 3 mod 23 = 16. , x3 = 2 x1 x2 = (162 3 11) mod 23 = 12,

y3 = (x1 x3 ) y1 = (16 12 (10)) mod 23 = 14.
: (3, 10) + (11, 3) = (12, 14).
.
Fq .
(..1.8).
kQ Q
,
kQ Q(x1 , y1 ),
,
. k
k = bt bt1 ... b0 , bi {0, 1}, 2Q, 4Q,
... , 2t Q 2i Q, bi = 1.
. k = 13. k = 1 1 0 12 , ,
13Q = 8Q + 4Q + Q. 16Q 2Q Q.


. ,
.
,
.

Y 2 Z = X 3 + aXZ 2 + Z 3 ,

(3.60)

(3.58)
. E(Fq )

(X, Y, X)

(X, Y, X)

(aX, aY, aX).

(X, Y, X)

 3.

87

(0, 1, 0)
. P = (X, Y, Z) 6= , P
P 0 = (x, y), x = X/Z, y = Y /Z , -
.

, (3.58)
2y1 , ,
,
(X 0 , Y 0 , Z 0 ) 8y13 .
,
,
:

2
2 2
2

X3 = 2Y1 Z1 ((3X1 + aZ1 ) 8X1 Y1 Z1 )(modp)

Y3 = 4Y12 Z1 (3X1 (3X12 + aZ12 ) 2Y12 Z1 ) (3X12 + aZ12 )3 (modp)

(3.61)

Z3 = 8Y 3 Z 3 (modp)
1 1
Z3 = Z1 Z2 (X1 X2 X1 Z2 )3 (modp),
:

X3 = (X2 Z1 X1 Z2 )[Z1 Z2 (Y2 Z1 Y1 Z2 )2 (X2 Z1 + X1 Z2 )

(X Z X Z )2 ](modp)
2

Y3 = (X2 Z1 X1 Z2 )2 [Y2 Z1 (Y2 Z1 + 2Y1 Z2 ) Y1 Z2 (X1 Z2 + 2X2 Z1 )]

Z1 Z2 (Y2 Z1 Y1 Z2 )3 (modp)
(3.62)

3.2.
,
,

. (Hasse) ,
#E(Fq ) = q + 1 t,

|t| 2 q .

(3.63)

 3.

88

p | t,
(supersingular), (ordinary). ,
p | t p 5 t = 0.

X
#E(Fq ) = pk + 1
(x3 + ax + b),

(3.64)

xFpk

(z) Fq ( , (z) = 1, 1, 0
, z ,
0). ,
(. 1.9).
(3.64) ,
.

. , . . [54], . 4.3, .
98:
3.1. (W. Waterhous). Fq , q = pn N =
q + 1 t. Fq

#E(Fpk ) = N t 2 q :
1. ...(a, p)=1,

2. n , t = 2 q ,

3. n , p 6 1 (mod 3) , t = q ,
4. n , p 6 1 (mod 4) , t = 0,
5. n , p = 2 3, t = p(n+1)/2 ,
6. n , t = 0.
,
q = pn
t O(q 1/2 ).

 3.

89

, .
, G k ,
G = kP , P , .. ,
,
.
-
,
, (
Fpk ) . ,
160 1024
RSA (.[74], .132).

3.3.
.
n ,
p. ,
,
, n.
Zn = {0, 1, 2, ..., n1}
EC(Zn ) : y 2 = x3 + ax + b.

( ), . F ,
, ,
, .
, P (x1 , y1 )
Q(x2 , y2 ) , x2 x1
0 n, ,
... (n, x2 x1 ), .

EC(Zn ) P0

 3.

90

kP0 = (mod p),

(3.65)

p n.
1. , n
, (3.65) ,

...(n, C) = d > 1

C P0 .
2. ,
1 2 (stage-one and stage-two).
B1 , 1
(stage-one limit).
(p 1) (. 2.2),
p
p. ,
(p 1).

I. :
1. B1 , , B1 = 10000.
2. x, y, a [0, n 1].
3. b = y 2 x3 ax mod n g = ... (n, 4a3 +27b2 ).
g = n, .2. 1 < g < n,
. , E : y 2 = x3 + ax + b
- P0 (x, y).
4. P (x, y) ,
P0 .
II. :

 3.

91

1. p < B1 r
, pr < B1 . for (j = 0; j < r; j + +)

P = pP,

P pr . p
,
.86.
2. ,
, B1 , ,
.. (n, P ) = d > 1.
, n .
, B1 ,
.

,
q > B1 , P ,
, (3.65).
1. B2 ,
[B1 ; B2 ] : {q1 , q2 , ..., qm }.
2. q1 P, q2 P, q3 P, ...
B2 , (3.65).
(p 1) ,
qi+1 P qi P i P ,
i = qi+1 qi .
, i P .
.
qi P .
.

2 P q1 P
(3.65).

 3.

92

1. n = 455 839.

y 2 = x3 + 5x 5,
P = (1, 1) 10! P .
1. 2P . .P
= (3 2 + 5)/(2y) = 4 P2 = 2P = (x2 , y2 ) =
(14, 53) (modn).
2. , P3 = 3(2P ) = 3P2 .
3P2 , 2P2 ,
3P2 , 2P2 P2 . 2P2 = (259 851, 116 255),
3P2 = (195 045, 123 227).
3. 4!P , 5!P ..
8!P 599
...(n, 599) d = 599. 599 n,
n 599 n: 455839 = 599 761.
, 8!P ,
, y 2 = x3 + 5x 5 ( mod 599) 640 = 27 5 .
y 2 = x3 + 5x 5 ( mod 761) 640 = 27 5 .
8! 640, 777.
p = 599.

,
.
n, , p,
n,
, ,
kP = , k =

Y
a
pi i B1

pai i ,

(3.66)

 3.

93

y 2 = x3 + ax + b
Fp .
l = #E(Fp ) . e
p
p
l [p + 1 2 (p), p + 1 + 2 (p)]. Q(x, y)
lQ = , , ,
, , k (3.66)
l . , l
B1 .
(smoothness),
. B
. x
B , x
B . , x = 25 5 132 B - B 13.
,
. ,
l pr , ,
B1 , pr r = 1
B2 . , #EC(Fp ) = 25 5 132 233 B1 , B2
B1 132 = 169, B2 233.
l , pr , p ,
B , B . .
, l
#EC(Fp ), , ,
a b . ,

#EC(Fp ).
2. p = 1007
B1 , B2 k
[1001, 1013], p. :

 3.
k

94

1001 1002 1003 1004 1005 1006 1007 1008 1009 1010 1011 1012 1013

B1

16

11

B2

143

167

1003

251

67

503

1007

16

1009

101

1011

23

1013

, n,
p = 1007, B1 = B2 = 16,
B2 , 1007,
. , B1
( = 16), B2
.

.
1987 .
. ,
, ., n
, l ,
B1 .
. [61],
[36] [37].

n p. ,



p
2 + o(1) ln p ln ln p) ,
exp

(3.67)

, B1


p
exp
2/2 + o(1) ln p ln ln p) .
p , B1
,
. ,
,

 3.

95

.

,
, , , ,
.
QS
NFS,
n. n RSA
, ,
,
.

QS NFS, (,
RSA NFS 768
), n
.

3.4.

.
-
-

.
2160 a b
. Ep (a, b).
Ep (a, b) G = (x1 , y1 ). G
, n, nG = 0,

 3.

96

. G .
Ep (a, b)
, .
:
1. nA < n.
.
PA = nA G,
Ep (a, b).
2. nB
PB = nB G.
3. ,
KA,B :
A KA,B = nA
PB , . B
KA,B = nB PA .
KA,B = nA PB = nA (nB G) = nB (nA G). ,
,
x, y ,
x + y .
, nA , nB G,
, ..
(..
k . kG G).
. 1993
, ( MOV)
([34]), -,
()
(),
.

 3.

97

.
2000 . ([27])
- ,
.
, 3.5.

/
.
, ,
Pm (x, y).
, /
Ep (a, b)
G . B nB ,
2 n, n G
PB = nB G, .
k Cm ,
:
Cm = {k G, Pm + k PB }.
,
:
Pm + k PB nB (k G) = Pm + k (nB G) nB (k G) = Pm .
Pm kPB .
k , , PB ,
k PB .
k , G k G. , ..
. k ,
k G. k G
, ,

 3.

98

. , k ,
, .
. ,
.
, .
- ASCII, DOS-866
WIN1251
.
(.. 0 255)
- .
, k x kG.
, x [n/2]

U1 (2x, y1 ) U2 (2x + 1, y2 ),
x. , (x0 , y 0 ) U1
U2 x, x0 /2.

ECDSA (Elliptic Curve Digest Signature Algorithm)
ANSI X9F1 IEEE P1363. :
1. Ep (a, b).
n.
2. G Ep (a, b) n, n G = .
3. d (1, n).
4. Q = d G.
5. d, - <
a, b, G, n, Q >.
:

 3.

99

1. k (1, n).
2. k G = (x1 , y1 ) r = x1 (mod n).
3. r 6= 0,
. r = 0,
k.
4. k 1 (mod n).
5. s = k 1 ((M ) + dr) (mod n).
6. s 6= 0,
s1 (mod n) . s = 0,
k .
(r, s).
:
1. , r s (1, n).
,
.
2. w = s1 (mod n), H(M ),
3. u1 = H(M )w (mod n), u2 = rw (mod n)
4. u1 P + u2 Q = (x0 , y0 ), v = x0 (mod n)
5. , v = r .

[21] [37].

100

3.5. -

,
( ) ,
.

RSA (160 1024 ),
, .
, 1993 . , . . [34]
,
GF (q) .
(Weils Pairing)
(19061998),
.
E : y 2 = x3 +ax+b Fq , q = pm .
, K
( K ).

p.

E[n] E n
Fq Fq , ..
P (x, y) EC(Fq ), nP = .
Fq , . ,
E[n] ( ,
Zn Zn ) , ,
Fqk . k .

n | (q k 1). n n-
1, Fqk .

e : E[n] E[n] n ,
:

(3.68)

101

() e(A + B, C) = e(A, C) + e(B, C),

e(A, B + C) = e(A, B) + e(A, C),
e(P, P ) = 1 P E[n],
() (P, Q E[n]) e(P, Q) 6= 1,
() e(X, Y ) .
k (
k = 6),

q k . , ,
k ,
. , ,
, k {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
E

= EC(GFpr ) ,

#E = pr + 1 t, p | t.
E : y 2 =
x3 + 1 (mod p), p 2 (mod3), E
p + 1 , t = 0 E , 2.
,
, MOV- (MOV-attack)

,
,
. ,
.
2002 . [27]

-. ,
, , ,

102

, , , (identity based open

keys) (. Advances in Elliptic Curve [4]).

MOV
5 . [54].
EC : y 2 = x3 + ax + b (modpr ),
P , Q EC n, n ,
m , Q = mP . m.
e(X, Y ). m
:
1. T EC(Fqk ).
2. M T .
3. d =...(n, M ). d = 1, .1.
, . , .T
n.
4. a = e(P, T ) = e(Q, T ).
5. Fqk ,
m.
, n,
d n
m mod d.
Ti , mi = m mod di ,
di n.
m .
. Q, ,
, ,
m, Q = mP . ,
:
3.2. .Q EC(Fqk ) m ,

103

Q = mP , :
1. nQ = ,
2. e(P, Q) = 1.

3.6.

() ,
.
. . [54].

, .
, P (x) ri
xi ,
P (x) = a

Y
(x xi )ri .

, ..
x y ,
.
E : y 2 = x3 +ax+b K ,
f (x, y) : E K - . f ,
P E , f (P ) = 0
f (P ) = . f ,
f .
f ,
. f
() k P , f
f = ukP g , uP P () ,
g(P ) 6= 0, 6= . uP f
P

104

. y 2 = x3 x f (x, y) = x/y .
f
f (x, y) =

xy
y
1
x xy
= 2 = 3
= 2
=y 2
.
y
y
x x x 1
x 1

, P (0, 0) 1-
f (x, y) = x/y , u(x, y) = y
P (0, 0).
M1 , M2
f (x, y). f
f (x, y)

rP [P ]

P M1

rP [P ],

(3.69)

P M2

rP () P .
3.1. E : y 2 = x3 + ax + b
k . D E

D=

rP [P ],

P E

rP

) rP
.

P ,

rP

6=

0,

(support) D supp(D).
P
k =
rP , P supp(D), D deg(D).
P
,
P E rP P ,
D sum(D).
.

, ,
0.
, (principal divisors).

105

l : ax + by + c,
P1 (x1 , y1 ) P2 (x2 , y2 ) E . l
.P1 P2 , E
.P3 (x3 , y3 ), . P1 , P2
P3 l 1 , . 3 .
, y 2 = x3 + Ax + B :
1

 2
B
A
x
1
=x
1+ 2 + 3
,
(3.70)
y
x
x

x1


 2 
B
A
x
=
1+ 2 + 3 .
y
x
x

(3.71)

(3.70) , x/y 0 .,
(3.71) , x/y
x1 . . x1 . .
2 x. y = x (y/x), .
3 y l = Ax + By + C .
l
div(lP1 ,P2 ) = 1[P1 ] + 1[P2 ] + 1[P3 ] 3[].

(3.72)

.P3 v = x x3 .
.P3 (x3 , y3 ), P3 (x3 , y3 ) .,
div(vP3 ) = 1[P3 ] + 1[P3 ] 2[].

(3.73)

(3.72) (3.73)


Ax + By + C
div
= div(Ax+By+C)div(xx3 ) = [P1 ]+[P2 ][P3 ][].
x x3
P1 + P2 = P3 E ,


[P1 ] + [P2 ] = [P1 + P2 ] + [] + div

Ax + By + C
x x3


.

(3.74)

106

(3.72) (3.73) ,
3.1 lP1 ,P2 vP3 0, ,
, :
3.3. D E ,
0, ,
sum(D) = .

(3.74) f
D , 3.3. f
E : y 2 = x3 + 4x(mod 11),
D = [(0, 0)] + [(2, 4)] + [(4, 5)] + [(6, 3)] 4[].
l , .(0, 0) (2, 4) l = y 2x,
.(2, 4) 2 ,
div(y 2x) = [(0, 0)] + 2[(2, 4)] 3[].
.(2, 4) v = x 2
div(x 2) = [(2, 4] + [(2, 4)] 2[].
,

[(0, 0)] + [(2, 4)] = [(2, 4)] + [] + div


y 2x
.
x2

,

[(4, 5)] + [(6, 3)] = [(2, 4)] + [] + div


y+x+2
,
x2


D = [(2, 4)] + div

y 2x
x2


+ [(2, 4)] + div

y+x+2
x2


2[].

107

(2, 4)] + (2, 4)] = div(x 2) + 2[],





y 2x
y+x+2
D = div(x 2) + div
+ div
=
x2
x2


(y 2x)(y + x + 2)
= div
.
x2
y 2 x3 + 4x,
x 2 , (y 2x)(y + x + 2) = (x 2)(x2 y),
D = div(x2 y).

, (3.76),

K , ..
f (D1 + D2 ) = f (D1 ) f (D2 ), f (D1 D2 ) =

f (D1 )
.
f (D2 )

(3.75)

(3.75) ,

X
Y
f(
kP ) =
f (P )k .

(3.76)

(Weil
reciprocity).
3.4. f g ,
div(f ) div(g) ,
:
f (div(g)) = g(div(f )).


(Weil and Tate Pairings). E : y 2 = x3 + ax + b

108

K , n
E[n] E n:
E[n] = {P E |n P = }.
Zn Zn .
.T E[n]. D = n[T ] n[].
0, . 3.3 f ,
D :
div(fT ) = n[T ] n[].

(3.77)

fT , (3.77),
. .P E[n] .T , ..
kT , k n, T .
DS = [S] [], DT = [T + R] [R],

(3.78)

R E[n].
3.2. ()

en : E[n] E[n] n ,

(3.79)

n n 1 K ,
:
en (T, S) =

fT ([S] [])
fT (DS )
=
.
fS (DT ) fS ([T + R] [R])

(3.80)

(3.75), (3.80)
en (T, S) =

fT (R)fT (S)
.
fS (T + R)fT ()

(3.81)

, .R ,
(3.78) R
E[n]. . ([54])

109

(3.78),
T S . .
.
. E F7 ,

y 2 = x3 + 2.
, E(F7 )[3] ' Z3 Z3 . e3 ((5, 1), (0, 3)).
S = (0, 3), T = (5, 1) R = (6, 1). DS =
[(0, 3)] [], DT = [(3, 6)] [(6, 1)] = [(5, 1) + (6, 1)] [(6, 1)].
, (3.77) S T :
f(0,3) = y 3, f(5,1) =

4x y + 1
.
5x y 1

,
f(0,3) (DT ) =

f(0,3) (3, 6) 6 3
=
2 (mod 7).
f(0,3) (6, 1) 1 3

,
f(5,1) (DS ) = 4.

e3 ((5, 1), (0, 3)) =

2
4 ( mod 7).
4

, 4 1, .. 43 = 64 1 (mod 7).

- .T E[n].
nE {nQ | Q E}, E/nE
E nE .
3.3. ()

n : E[n] E/E[n] Fqk Fqk \ n ,

(3.82)

110

n n 1 Fqk ,
:
n (T, S) =

fT (S + R)
,
fT (R)

(3.83)

R 6 {T, S, T S, }.
,
( 1) P = Q. m
, Q = mP . ,
(P, Q) = (P, mP ) = (P, P )m = b ( mod q).
m,
loga b (modq), a = (P, P ), K = Fq .
, (P, Q)
P Q , n .
, (P, Q)
(q k 1)/n). un :
un (P, Q) = (P, Q)(q

1)/n

(3.84)

f ,
D . .T E[n].
(3.77) n[T ]n[] fn,T ,
n .T .
Dj = j[S + R] j[R] [jS] + [],
(3.3). fj,T
, Dj .
.

111

fn,P (Q)
,
fj,P (Q) j < n :
f1,T (Q) = 1 .Q E(K),

li,j 
,
fi+j,T (Q) = fi,T (Q) fj,T (Q)
vi+j Q

(3.85)

li,j = Ax + By + C , .iT jT ,
vi+j = x x0 , . R =
(i + j)T .
A, B C
lP,Q , .P (x1 , y1 ) Q(x2 , y2 ):
1. P = Q.
= (3x21 + a)/(2y1 ) ( mod p).

(3.86)

2. P 6= Q.
= (y2 y1 )/(x2 x1 ) ( mod p).

(3.87)

, P (x1 , y1 )
, y y1 = (x x1 ),
l :
l = y x + (x1 y1 ).

(3.88)

P +
Q = (x3 , y3 ) ( ,
x2 = x1 ):
(

x3 = 2 x1 x2
y3 = y1 + (x1 x3 ).

fP,n

(3.89)

112

1. n = (nt ... n0 )2 .
2. Z f
P 1 .
3. i i = t 1 i = 0:

f = f 2 lZ,Z /v2Z ,
Z = 2Z.
ni = 1, P + Z :
f = f 2 lP,Z /vP +Z ,
Z = P + Z.
4. fP,n = f .
1. y 2 = x3 + 11 F31 .
25 Z5 Z5 .
P = (2; 9) Q = (3; 10), n = 5.
k = 1, .. p1 1 = 30 n = 5. f5,P ,
:
1. n = 5 = (101)2 , t = 2.
2. Z = (2; 9). 3
i = t 1 = 1.
= 3 22 /(2 9) mod 31 = 2/3 mod 31 = 2 21 mod 31 = 11.
l = y x + (x1 y1 ) = y 11x + 11 2 9 = y 11x + 13.
Z = 2Z = (2 2x1 ; y1 (x2 x1 )) = (24; 28)
v = x 24 x + 7.
f2,P = (11x + y + 13)/(x + 7).
ni = 1. .. ni = 0, i
. i = 0.

113

3. Z = (24, 28). .Z : = 22, l2,2 =

9x + y + 4, 2Z = (2; 22), v4 = x 2.
f4,P =

2
f2,P

9x + y + 4 (11x + y + 13)2 (9x + y + 4)

=

x2
(x + 7)2 (x 2)

.. ni = 1, 3 .
.5P = l = x 2, v = 1,
f5,P = f4,P (x 2) =

(11x + y + 13)2 (9x + y + 4)

(x + 7)2

(P, Q), Q = (3; 10).

R . , , R =
Q. S = 2Q = (1; 14).
S R:
f (S) = f (1; 14) = 20, f (Q) = f (3; 10) = 10. (P, Q) = 20/10( mod 31) = 2.
(P, Q), R =
2Q. , , R = 2Q = (1; 14). S = 2Q+Q =
(1, 17).
f (S) = f (1; 17) = 23, f (2Q) = 20. (P, Q) = 23/20 = 12( mod 31) = 2.
,
R .
(q k 1)/n. (31
1)/5 = 6. ,
26 ( mod 31) = 2,

126 ( mod 31) = 2.

2. P = (2; 9) xP = (24; 3).

x y 2 = x3 + 11( mod 31) .
. fP, 5 ,
. (P, P ), R = (15, 10):
S = P + R = (2; 9) + (15, 10) = (3, 10), fP, 5 (S) = 30,

fP, 5 (R) = 7,

114

(P, P ) = 30/7 22( mod 31), a = un (P, P ) = 226 8( mod 31).

(P, xP ), - R = (15, 10):
S 0 = xP + R = (24; 3) + (15, 10) = (6, 14), fP, 5 (S 0 ) = 29,
(P, xP ) = 29/7 13( mod 31), b = un (P, xP ) = 136 16 ( mod 31).
x x = loga b(modp) =
log8 16 ( mod 31). x :
82 mod 31 = 2,

83 mod 31 = 16, x = 3.

115

4.

,
. .

4.1.
20- . XX (Maurice Kraitchik),
, , A2
B 2 = n (2.20), ,
A2 B 2 (mod n)

(4.90)

, q(x) (2.21)
(..
). [46]:
. n = 2041, .
n , , m = 45,
m2 = 2025. {x; q(x)},
q(x) = (m + x)2 n,

(4.91)

x 0 :
{(2; 192), (1; 105), (0; 16), (1; 75), (2; 168), (3; 263), (4; 360), (5; 459),
(6; 560)}.
,
:
192 = 26 3, 105 = 3 5 7, 16 = 24 , 75 = 3 52 , 168 =
23 3 7, 360 = 23 32 5, 560 = 25 5 7.

F B = {2, 3, 5, 7}. ,
,
. ,
. ,

 4.

116

v = (r1 , r2 , ... rk ), k
. , 560 v = (5, 0, 1, 1).
,
, :
75 168 360 560 = 504002 , (192) (16) 75 = 4802 .
4.1.

(A, B)

( F ), :
1. A2 B (modn),
2. B F .
, M = {(2, 192), (1, 105),
(0, 16), (2, 168), (4, 360), (5, 560)}, ,
.
? , ,
.
,
,
. , 75 168 360 560
(0, 1, 2, 0) + (3, 1, 0, 1) + (3, 2, 1, 0) + (5, 0, 1, 1) =
(8, 4, 4, 2).

2, ..
F2

{0, 1}, M

,
2 .
k F2 = {0, 1}
Lk k ,
, k , ,
,
. ,
,
2.

 4.

117

0,
1,
. ,
, ,
k + 1 , k .
, k+1 , ,
4.90 ,
, ,
.

1981

[22]

. ,
,
, ..
.

4.2.
1982 .
, , .
, p F B x
, q(x) 0 ( mod p), p q(y), y
x , p, .. y = x+kp, k Z. ,
p x q(x) 0 ( mod p),
y , y x (mod p) q(y) 0 (mod p).
:
1. [L; L],
,
2. W [L .. L] q(x)
x [L; L],
3. p F B 0 x < p

 4.

118

,
q(x) 0 mod p

(4.92)

, 2 ,
.
4. x (4.92)
xk = x + kp [L; L], k Z,
W [xk ] p.
p
pk < B , B .
W [x] W
1. (x, q(x)) .
(4.90)
, , -
, 1 .

,
.
,
(A; B),
(4.90). ,
n
k > 1, ,
k = 3 k = 4.

.
(the Quadratic Sieve).
, 1994 . , ,
129- , RSA.

 4.

119

.
(A, B),
A2 B mod n.

(4.93)

, .
,
.
L
, .
,
,
. , 129-
RSA , 524338 .
k .
n, k 0 (A; B), k 0 k + 2.
k k 0
F2 = {0, 1}
. ,
M (x, q(x)).
(A, B), (4.90),
A=

(x + m) mod n, B =

xM

q(x) mod n.

(4.94)

xM

...(n, A B).
( 1 n),
(A, B).
.

 4.

120

4.3.

:

I. :
1. ,
B : F B = {2, 3, 5, . . . , pk }.
n 10100 106 107 .
2. , F B p,
n p.
,
n = k 2 mod p
k . p
.
O (log n log p) (. [17], . 29-31), ..
n.
3.

q(x) = (x + m)2 n = x2 + 2mx a,

(4.95)

m = [ n] a = n m2 .
(p)

(p)

4. p F B , r1 , r2

q(x) = 0(modp)

(4.96)

p
0, 1, . . . , (p 1)/2 (4.96), .
p (D. Shanks, Tonelli),
. 1.14, O(log2 p).

 4.

121

,
(p)

(p)

: r1 + r2

= 2m(modp). ,
(p)

(p)

p F B < p, r1 , r2 > .


q(x) = 0(mod pk )
k > 1,

(4.97)

pk < B .

p = 2 p > 2:
p=2. :
a) a (4.95) . (4.97)
x, x = 2y + 1,
(2y + 1)2 + 2m(2y + 1) a 0 mod 4 1 + 2m a 0 mod 4.

(4.98)

, (4.95)
k > 1. (4.98) ,
y = 2y + 1 (4.97), 4
.
(4.97).
b) a (4.95) . , (4.97)
x, x = 2y ,
4y 2 + 4my a 0 mod 4 a 0 mod 4.

(4.99)

:
: n = 3159302165809317095910228615234377.

n = 56207669990930215, a = n m2
m

603298676152881520
p = 2
, B = 1500,
, B , 10: 210 = 1024 < B .

 4.

122

m mod 1024 = 897, a mod 1024 = 856.

(4.99) :
x2 + 1614x 856 0(mod 2k ).
a 0(mod 4), x = 2y .
x = 2y :
4y 2 + 4 807x 856 0 (mod 2k ).
4:
y 2 + 807y 214 0 (mod 2k2 ).

(4.100)

:
1. k=3. (4.100) 8.

y 2 + y 0 (mod 2),
y .
2. k=4. (4.98) 16.

y 2 + 3y 2 0 (mod 2),
y 2 (mod 4) y 3 (mod 4).
3. k > 4 (4.98)
.
z = y + 2k r , y
(4.99) , r - ,
. z = y + 2k r s(z) = z 2 + 807z 214
0 (mod 2k+1 ):
(y + 2k r)2 + 807(y + 2k r) 214 0 (mod 2k+1 )

s(y) + 807 2k r 214 0 (mod 2k+1 ).

 4.

123

, s(y) 0 (mod 2k ),
2k :
f + r 0 (mod 2), f = [s(y)/2k ] (mod 2).

(4.101)

, z = y+2k f , f
(4.101).

k + 1 = 5 y {2, 3}:
f = ((y 2 + 807y 214) mod 8)/4 = ((y 2 + 7y 6) mod 8)/4
1. y = 2, f = ((4 + 14 6) mod 8)/4 = 1.
z1 = 2 + 4f = 6 z = 6 + 8t, t Z .
1. y = 3,

f = ((9 + 21 6) mod 8)/4 = 0.

z2 = 3 + 4f = 3 z = 3 + 8t, t Z .
p> 2

q(x) = (x + m)2 n = x2 + 2mx a 0 (mod pk ),

(4.102)

p > 2.
z n p. ,
(4.102) k = 1
x = (m z)(mod p).
, x (4.102)
k 1. k + 1.
y = x + pk+1 r , r .
y (4.102):
(x + pk+1 r)2 + 2m(x + pk+1 r) a 0 (mod pk+1 ).
:
q(x) + 2(x + m) pk r 0 (mod pk+1 ).

 4.

124

q(x) 0 (mod pk ),
pk . :
f + 2(x + m)r 0 (mod p),
f q(x)/pk p.
f = 0, r = 0 y = x. ,
u,
2(x + m) Fp , y :
y = x uf pk+1 .

(4.103)

II.

L. W
2L. q(x) W
q(x): W [x] = logq(x) log(2m) + logx
x [L; L], .
. , n 34
,
.
- ,

,
W . , < 19, 3, 10 >
FB, , 19 q(3), q(10),
q(y), y [L, L], y 3 mod 19 y 10 mod 19.
, x 3 mod 19, L, W [x]
log19, , x x+19, W [x] log19
.. [L, L].

, . , ,
< 19, 22, 105, 2 > .
q(x) , x 22 mod 361 x 105 mod 361

 4.

125

361 = 192 .
, em 19,
[L; L] c 361 361, 19.
q(x) ,
, W [x] ,
0 ( - ).
,
,
B.
[L; L] q(x) = x2 + 2mx a
. m
a 0(n1/2 ). , L
m, q(x) 0(L n1/2 ).
,
q(x), B/, c ,
, , c = 10,
,
q(x) [L; L]:
k logB/c (L2 n1/2 ).
34- n
B = 104 , c = 10, L = 2 106 , ,
k log103 (4 1012 1017 ) 10.
,
, , , 10 .



Smooth = {x1 , x2 , ..., xk },
[L, L], q(x)

 4.

126

. L
.
q(xi )
, .. ,
Smooth.
, ,
[L, L]
Smooth.
.
Smooth
V ec[1..k, 0..sz ], sz
+ 1. V ec[i, 0]
:

(
V ec[i, 0] =

0, q(xi ) > 0,
1, .

V ec[i, j] ,
FB pj q(xi ). V ec[i, j]
j = 1, 2 ... log2 q(L).

4.4.


F2 = {0, 1}, m
k .
Amk X = 0.

(4.104)

,
j -
2. k m
. ,
,
(. ).

 4.

127

.
,
106 106 .

, , (Lanszos
Block method). ([38])
.
([23]).
.
.
,
, .
i
SystM atr[1..m, 1..k]. i- 1
, 0. SystM atr[i, i] = 1,
. SystM atr[i, i] = 0,
i- , SystM atr[i, i],
SystM atr[i, j] = 1 i < j k . SystM atr[i, j] =
1 , i j ,
SystM atr[i, i] .
, SystM atr[i, j]
. SystM atr[i, i]
, , i .

.

4.5.
[47]. ,
(0, 1) ,
L L + N .
q(x) [L, L]

 4.

128

max q(x) 2n1/2+ . ,

q(x), x [L, L], B , B
. (X, B) B -
[1, X].
(X, B) B = x1/2 :
X
1/2
(X, X ) = X
[X/p],

(4.105)

X 1/2 <pX

p [1, X]. ,
, X 1/2 X 1/2 .
[1, X] , -
p, X 1/2 < p < X . p
bX/pc (.. X/p). ,
[1, X], (x),
X/ ln X .

(X, X 1/2 ) = X 1

1/p + 0(X/ ln X).

(4.106)

X 1/2 <pX

,
X
1/p = ln ln t + C + 0(1/ ln t),

(4.107)

pt

C. ,
X
X
X
1/p =
1/p
1/p = ln ln X ln ln(X 1/2 ) + 0(1/ ln X 1/2 ) =
X 1/2 <pX

pX

pX 1/2

= ln 2 + 0(1/ ln X).
(4.106),
(X, X 1/2 ) = (1 ln 2)X + 0(1/ ln X 1/2 ),

(4.108)

(X, X 1/2 )
1 ln 2 x
X

(4.109)

 4.

129

, 30 % , X ,
B

X .

X 1/u

. (K. Dickman [1930]):

(X, X 1/u )
(u),
X

(4.110)

(u) u > 0 .

u0 (u)+(u1) = 0 u > 1 c (u) 1 [0, 1].
(u) uu .

u

(u) 0.25 3, 7 102 3, 9 104 3, 2 104 2, 1 105 1, 2 106 5, 96 108

, X/(X, X 1/u )
.
ln ln B .
, , .. (B) (
,
, .. p
n). , T (u)

T (u) = (B) ln ln BX/(X, X 1/u ) X 1/X u1/u .

(4.111)
. :
ln T (u) =

1
ln X + u ln u.
u

0, u2 (ln u + 1) = ln X ,

1/2
u (2 ln X/ ln ln X) B e 2 ln X ln ln X) .
(4.112)
B (4.112) X = n,
n

 4.

130

c ln n ln ln n

T (n) = e

c (1, 2).

(4.113)

L(k, n)


Ln (; c) = exp (c + o(1))(ln n) (ln ln n)1 ,

(4.114)



1/2
1/2
T (n) = Ln (1/2; c) = exp (c + o(1))(ln n) (ln ln n)
,

4.6.

(4.115)

n = 750513679, m n = 27396, a = n m2 = 27137.

(4.95) :
q(x) = x2 + 54792x 27137

(4.116)

. n
(4.111)
p

. , B exp
2 ln n ln ln n) 104
. B 100.
I.
1. B = 100. , B ,
25. p np = n mod p
g = Leg(np , p). g <> 1, p
. 14

F B = {2, 3, 5, 11, 17, 23, 29, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 83}.
2. p ,
, x2 np (mod p), np = n mod p,

 4.

131

(x, p) Roots:
Roots = {(1, 2), (3, 1), (5, 2), (11, 5), (17, 5), (23, 9), (29, 1), (43, 35), (47, 17),
(53, 36), (59, 7), (61, 22), (67, 39), (83, 17)}.
3. Roots2, < x, p, r >, x
q(x) 0(mod pr ) 2 r k, pk B .
4. L ,
[L; L] .
14,
16. ,
L = 300.
5. W [L .. L]
q(x), x [L, L].
, , a = 2 e = 2, 71828....
n .
56
. 2
.
6. LogF B[1..14],
: LogF B[i] = log pi .
II.
1. ,
[L .. L]. ,
,
x [L .. L], x r(modp),
r q(x) 0 (mod p). ,
Roots[1..14].
2. p
. {r1 , r2 } q(x) 0 (modp).

 4.

132

ri x [L, L], x
r(mod p), :
while (x L) {
W [x] = W [x] log p;
x = x + p; }
p F B ,
. ,
x k > 1, W [x] = W [x]log p
- , .. x
k W [x] k 1 .
3. p
W [L, L] , 0 ( , ,
1 ). x W [x] 0
Smooth, .
Smooth 16 :
{224, 166, 155, 99, 77, 40, 23, 21, 13, 12, 11, 22, 32, 41, 46, 268}.
4.
p, q(x),
[L, L],
Smooth. .
V ec[1..16, 0..14],
. V ec[i, j]
Smooth,
, pj xi . V ec[i, 0]
q(xi ), 0, q(xi ) > 0, 1,
. :

 4.
x

q(x)

133

-224 -12196095

3 5 232 29 53

-166

-9040779

32 11 29 47 67

-155

-5769579

3 17 29 47 83

-99

-5387470

2 5 11 17 43 67

-77

-4185918

2 38 11 29

-40

-2162943

37 23 43

-23

-1232550

2 33 52 11 83

-21

-1123054

2 172 29 67

-13

-684990

2 33 5 43 59

-12

-630223

11 23 47 53

11

629970

2 3 5 11 23 83

22

1233045

32 5 11 47 53

32

1781505

32 5 11 59 61

41

2275290

2 34 5 532

46

2549685

3 5 43 59 67

268

14783217

3 174 59

5. p FB ,
p :
p

2 3 5 11 17 23 29 43 47 53 59 61 67 83

#p 6 9 8

1 , p = 61
q(32). 61 , q(32)
Smooth. ,
(
1, - , 0, - ).
6. A 14 15,
(
1, pi q(xj ) ,
A(i + 1, j) =
0, .
q(xj ).

 4.

134

III.
A
15 14 , ..
. A
2. ,
0, 1. ,
14. 15 , , ,
, ,
,
. , 0,
1, ( 2).

, (. [38]).
.

4.7.
n =
2041. m 45, n = m2 + 16 q(x)
(x + m)2 n = x2 + 90x 16. L = 5
q(x) [-5; 5]:
x

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

q(x) -441 -360 -277 -192 -105 -16 75 168 263 360 459
F B = {2, 3, 5, 7 }
q(x) [-5; 5] .
:
x

-5

-4

-2

-1

q(x) 32 72 23 32 5 26 3 3 5 7 24 3 52 23 3 7 23 32 5
1. .
,

 4.

135

q(x) 1, q(x) < 0, 0, .

2. :
x

2 3 5 7

441 1 7 0 0 2
360 1 3 2 1 0
192 1 6 1 0 0
105 1 0 1 1 1
16

1 4 0 0 0

75

0 0 1 2 0

168

0 3 0 0 1

360

0 3 2 1 0

1 1 0 0 0

1 1 0 1 0

1 0 1 0 0

1 0 1 1 1

1 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 0

0 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 0

8 8
(
, )
:

-5

-4

-2

-1

-5

-4

-2

-1

0


0

0

1

.
- , ,
6, , :
X = {2, 0, 1}.
Y
A=
(x+m) = (452)45(45+1) = 89010,
xX

B2 =

q(x) = 4802

xX

... (n, A
B)=... (2401, 88530) = 13, n.
q = 157 ... (n, A + B),
n 13. , 7, 8

 4.

136

:
... (n, A + B) = n, ... (n, A B) = 1

Pascal
( mt, nt ).
A mtnt,
mt nt. OrdRow[1..mt] .
OrdRow[i] = i 1 i mt.
A[k, k]
, OrdRow :
Procedure Gauss(mt,nt:int64;var A,E:SysMatr);
var
i,j,k,c:integer;
Begin
k:=1; { k enumerates rows of matrix }
While k<=mt do
begin
j:=k;
{Search for a non-zero element in the column k:}
while (A[OrdRow[j], k] = 0) And (j <= mt) do inc(j);
if j > mt then { Case when all elements below A[k,k] are 0 }
begin
inc(k); continue;
end;
If j > k then { Case A[k,j]>0.Exchange k and j rows }
begin
c := OrdRow[j]; OrdRow[j]:=OrdRow[k];OrdRow[k]:=c;
end;
i:=k;

 4.

137

{Making column k equal to 0 below A[k,k]}

while i < mt do
begin
inc(i);
If A[OrdRow[i], k] = 1 Then
begin
For j := 1 To nt do
A[OrdRow[i], j] := (A[OrdRow[i], j] + A[OrdRow[k], j])mod2;
For j := 1 To mt do
E[OrdRow[i], j] := (E[OrdRow[i], j] + E[OrdRow[k], j])mod2;
end;
end;
inc(k);
End; { of cycle by k}
End;

4.8.

Large Prime Variations (LPV).
.

q(x), x [L; L], q(x) = Px Cx ,
Cx , Px
, B , B 2 ,
Px . Px
, ..
, B . .
, , ,
x , .
x [L; L],
y = q(x)
B 2 , Px .
, y1 , y2 , ..., yk , k 2,

 4.

138

yi = g(xi ), L xi L, Px . ,
k 1
g1 = y1 y2 , g2 = y1 y3 , ..., gk1 = y1 yk ,
, gj = Px2 C1 Cj+1 , ,
,
.
, ,
,
, ,

. , ,
,
B
.
B 2 , ,
, ,
Px , Px ,

, ,
[B; kB], k 10 100.
129- ,
RSA, . . 1994 .
LPV
.
,
.
( ) B 3 , ,
[B; B 2 ],
[B 2 ; B 3 ]. ,
[B 2 ; B 3 ] ,
2y1 6 y . y ,

 4.

139

, , , (,
). ,

, B 2 -
.


.

4.9.

(). .
(multiple
polynomial quadratic sieve MPQS).
:
za,b (x) = (ax + b)2 n = a2 x2 + 2abx + b2 n,

a, b Z.

(4.117)

,
x [L, L]. za,b (x)
x [L, L] a2 K 2 n,
p
n. a 2n/M ,
. b
, b2 n a, b2 n = ac, c Z.
(4.117)
za,b (x) = a(ax2 + 2bx + c).
,
a. a = t2 , t Z.

 4.

140

q(x) = ax2 + 2bx + c

Y

(ax2 + 2bx + c) = A2 ,

xM

Y
xM

za,b (x) =

t2 (ax2 + 2bx + c) = (tA)2

xM

2L + 1
q(x) = za,b (x)/a = ax2 + 2bx + c,
p
L n/2. b2 n a , b2 n(mod t2 ).
t , n
t, b .
,
L. L
,
, . L ,
,
, a,b.
, ..
, . ,
L ,
, .
, L.

(self initializing quadratic sieve) ,
L,
.
,
a b, 0 < b < a/2.

 4.

141

a, b, c ,

ax2 + 2bx + c 0 ( modp)

(4.118)

p < B , B ,

t2 n( modp)

(4.119)

. (4.119) , tp
( ). (4.118)

r1 = (b + tp )a1 ( mod p), r2 = (b tp )a1 ( mod p).

(4.120)

,
a1 ( mod p) p F B .
za,b (x) = a(ax2 + 2bx + c), a
.
za,b (x) ,
ax2 + 2bx + c. a
b. a =
q1 q2 , ... qs , qi F B .
b, b2 n (mod a). 2s b (moda),
. ,
za,b (x) , za,b (x).
2s1 a.
Bi , 1 i s, :
Bi2 n (mod qi ),

Bi 0 (mod a/qi )

(4.121)

b = B1 B2 ... Bs ( mod a),

(4.122)

 4.

142

b
Bi .

, 1988 ([48]). (William Hart)
SIMPQS (
http://www.friedspace.com/QS),
GMP).

4.10. (Zhang Special QS)

(Zhang Special Quadratic Sieve) 1998
. ([55]).
, ,
n. n , m ,
n1/3 . n m- :
n = m3 + a2 m2 + a1 + a0 .

(4.123)

ai

. m
. b2 , b1 , b0
Z,
x = b2 m2 + b1 m + b0 .

(4.124)

:
m3 a2 m2 a1 m a0 ( mod n)
m4 (a22 a1 )m2 + (a1 a2 a0 )m + a0 a2 ( mod n),
(4.125)
,
x2 c2 m2 + c1 m + c0 , ( mod n),

(4.126)

 4.

143

c2 = (a22 a1 )b22 2a2 b1 b2 + b21 + 2b0 b2

c1 = (a1 a2 a0 )b22 2a1 b1 b2 + b21 + 2b0 b1
c0 = a0 a2 b22 2a0 b1 b2 + b20 .
b0 , b1 , b2 , c2 .

b2 = 2,

b1 = 2t,

b0 = a1 a22 + 2a2 t t2 ,

(4.127)

t . (4.127)
(4.125),
x(t)2 y(t) ( mod n)

x(t) = 2m2 + 2mt + a1 a22 + 2a2 t t2

y(t) = (4a1 a2 4a0 (4a1 + 4a22 ) t + 8a2 t2 4t3 ) m+
+4a0 a2 8a0 t + (a1 a22 + 2a2 t t2 )2 ).
, t
, (x, y) ,
.

(4.123), .
.
, , n = 2601 1.
, , ,
, n:
n = 3607 64 863 527 n0 ,
n0 170- .
4n = 2603 4 = (2201 )3 4 = m3 4,
m = 2201 . x(t), y(t) :
x(t) = 2m2 + 2mt t2 ,

y(t) = (16 4t3 )m + 32t + t4 ).

 4.

144

y(t) t 4- , t
. ,
, ,
. , ,
,
, ai , .

, .

.

 5.

145

5.

. , 1988
. (. [44]),
Z ,
, .

2n c,
(the Special Number Field Sieve SFNS).

. , . , . . (.[32])
1990 ., 9
9

22 . b c 1
(.[11]).
,
.
(the General Number Field Sieve GFNS).
, Ln (1/3, c)
Ln (, c) (4.114), ..
= 1/2 = 1/3
.
.
. . [33],
Springer 1993 .,
. ,
: [12], [13],
[21], [23], [32], [46], [47], [64].
GNFS.
, , [12].

 5.

146

5.1.
n , .
,
q(x) = (m+x)2 n
x [L; L]. ,
L = O(1010 ) n = O(10100 ) q(x) O(1060 ). ,
.

2 q(x) = (x + m)2 n,
,
Pd (x) d 3, Pd (m) = n
m, Z
Z[], Z
, Pd (x).


,
.
,
.
, ,
, Pd (m) = n m,
Pd (x)
Pd (x),
q(x), .

.


, ,

 5.

147

:
1. d 3 (
d = 2,
).
2. m, bn1/(d+1) c < m < bn1/d c, n
m:
n = md + ad1 md1 + ... + a0 .

(5.128)

,
f1 (x) 1, , . 169 ,
.
3. (5.128) Z[x] (
x )
f1 (x) = xd + ad1 xd1 + ... + a0 .

(5.129)

4. F1 (a, b)
a b:
F1 (a, b) = bd f1 (a/b) = ad +ad1 ad1 b+ad2 ad1 b2 + ... +a0 bd .

(5.130)

, , F1 (a, b)
a bx Q[],
Q
f1 (x) (.. 184).
N r(h1 (x)h2 (x)) = (N r(h1 (x))N r(h2 (x))
Z[] .
5. f2 (x) = x m
F2 (a, b) = a bm.
(f1 , f2 ) , :
f1 (m) f2 (m) ( mod n ),

(5.131)

 5.

148

, , ..
. m n, .
6. L1 L2 ,
SR = {1 b L1 , L2 a L2 },
(sieve region).
7. f1 (x).
Z[] ( ,
).
F B1,
a b (5.130), .

K = Q[].
F B1
B1 .
8.

F B2 ,

,
B2 .
9. , a K
, x K ,
x2 = a.
,
,
1 c d ,
. F B3 .
F B1 F B3 =
(the Quadratic Character
Base).
10.

{a b | (a, b) SR} F B1
{a bm | (a, b) SR} F B2 c

 5.

149

M ,

(a, b). (a, b)

, ...(a, b) = 1, a b
a bm
F B1 F B2 .
M ,
- , .
11. S

Y
N r(a b) = H 2 , H Z,
(a,b)S

M ,

(a bm) = B 2 , B Z.

(a,b)S

,
F2 = {0, 1},
S .
12.
Y
0
2
(a b),
g() = (f1 ())

(5.132)

(a,b)S

f10 (x) f1 (x).

13. , g()
Z[].
g() B 2 ,
() B .
14. () (m). : m

ZK Z, :

Y
A2 = g(m)2 ((g()2 ) (f10 ())2
(a b)
(a,b)S

(f10 (m))2

Y
(a,b)S

(abm) (f10 (m))2 C 2 ( mod n )

(5.133)

 5.
B

150

= f 0 (m) C , (A, B),

A2 B 2 ( mod n).
n ,
, ...(n, A B).

,
n = 45113. . [12].

n = 45 113. n1/3 = 35, 4...,

m = 35. n m ,
n = m3 + m2 + 28m + 33.
,
m 1 = 34. m
, 1 m 1-
. :
n = m3 + m2 + 29m 2.
m ,
1 m . :
n = m3 + 2m2 6m 2.

F1 (a, b) ,
.
m m1/(d+1) m1/d ,
.

ai

1 ai+1 , f1 (x)

 5.

151

xi (x m). , ,
f1 (x) g(x) f2 (x), g(x)
, (5.131).
, m ()
f1 (x) g(x) f2 (x)
(f1 (x), f2 (x)),
.
. ([41]).
5.7.
m = 31
n = m3 + 15m2 + 29m + 8.

.

5.2.

F B2 . a bm
Z, F B2
, B1 . B1
106 107 .
n = 45113 B1 = 30 F B2 =
{2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29}, 10 .


c d ,
Z K . ,
, (. [12], .3.1.7)

(p, r):

 5.

152

5.1. ZK

(p, r) , p , 0 r < p, f1 (r)
0 ( mod p).
,
Z K , B1 (p, r),
p B1 , r [0, p 1], f1 (r) mod p = 1.
B1 = 103. F B1
(.1).
1

(p, r)

(p, r)

(p, r)

(p, r)

(2, 0)

(41,19) (67,44)

(89,62)

(7, 6)

(43,13) (73,50)

(89,73)

(53,1)

(97,28)

(17,13)

(79,23)

(23,11) (61,46) (79,47) (101,87)

(29,26)

(67,2)

(79,73) (103,47)

(31,18)

(67,6)

(89,28)

p. ,
f1 (x) mod p.
:
5.2. GFq = GFpk xq x

q1
Y
x x=
(x i).
q

(5.134)

i=0

p
:

 5.

153

1. g(x) =...(f1 (x), xp x).

f1 (x), p. ,
, g(x) = 1, f1 (x) p.
2. 5.2 g(x b) | xp x
xp x = x(x(p1)/2 + 1)(x(p1)/2 1) b, 0 b < p

(5.135)

3. 5.135 g(x) mod p.

f1 (x) = x3 + 15x2 +
29x + 8, p = 67:
1. g(x) =...(f1 (x), xp x) =...(, x6 7 x) = x3 +
15x2 + 29x + 8. g(x) = f1 (x), , f1 (x)
f1 (x) 67.
2. b = 0 (5.135)
g(x) = x3 +15x2 +29x+8 | x(x33 +1)(x33 1)
g(0) = 8 6= 0, x = 0 g(x).
3. ...(g(x), x33 +x) = x2 +21x+21, ...(g(x), x33
x) = x + 61, x = 61 6 ( mod 67 ).
g1 (x) = x2 + 21x + 21 x2 +
21x 46 ( mod 67 ). , ,

D = (21)2 + 4 46 = 2998 50 ( mod 67 ).
b.
(5.135) b = 1, ...(g(x 1), x33 + x) = g(x 1)
...(g(x 1), x33 x) = 1. , g1 (x1 )
b = 1 .
b = 2. ...(g(x 2), x33 + x) = x + 21
...(g(x2), x33 x) = x+63, x = 21 46 ( mod 67 ), x = 63
6 ( mod 67 ). x = 44 x = 2 f1 (x) ( mod 67 ).
.

 5.

154

, , .
B3 > B2
B2 B3 . B3 ,
[B2 , B3 ] 104 105 .
B3 ,
(. Buchler et alt. [13]).
B3 = 109,
, (..2).
2

(p, r)

(p, r)

(p, r)

(107,4) (107,80) (109,99)

(107,8) (109,52)

s = 10 +
23 + 5 = 38. ,
40 ( a
bm ,
(.. 4.4).
,
, ,
.

5.3.
, ,
.

 5.

155

SP = {(a, b) | 1 b L2 ; L1 a L1 }.

(5.136)

,
b,
1, 2, ..., L2 , b1
a, L1 L1 .
[45], 1993 .,

, p (p, r),
. p
.
b = i, |a| L1 ,
Lp,r = {(a, b) SR | a br 0 ( mod p)}.
,
F1 (a, b) 0 (mod p), .. p,

F1 (a, b)/p,

F1 (a, b).

,
, , .

.
([67])

a = x0 b, x0
f1 (x). ,
F1 (a, b) ,
.

 5.

156

n = 45113
n = 45113
L1 = 1000 b, 1, 2, ...,
40 . .3.
3
,
(a, b)

(a, b)

(a, b)

(a, b)

(a, b)

(a, b)

(a, b)

(73,1)

(2,1)

(1,1)

(2,1)

(-3,1)

(-4,1)

(-8,1)

(-32,1)

(-56,1)

(-61,1)

(-104,1)

(-3,2)

(-25,2)

(-33,2)

(8,3)

(-2,3)

(-17,3)

(-19,4) (-48,5)

(-54,5)

(-313,5)

(43,6)

(8,7)

(-11,7)

(-38,7) (-44,9)

(-4,11)

(-119,11) (-856,11) (-536, 15)

(-5,17)

(-5,31) (-9,32) (202,43)

(-13,1)
(-116,1)

(-14,1) (-15,1)
(5,2)

(-24,55)

,
, (

).
,
.
F1 (a, b) F2 (a, b)
.
n = 45113
M .
.
F2 (8, 3) = 83m = 85 = 20 30 51 70 110 130 171 190 230 290 ,

v(8, 3) = (1, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0)

 5.

157

0
a bm, 1, .

N r(a, b) = F1 (8, 3) = 5696 = 26 891 .
24.

,
S (a, b),
F1 (a, b) F2 (a, b)
F B1 F B2 .


(a, b) S (p, r) .
, (a, b) S , (p, r) F B3 ,



a br
.
p

(5.137)

.
|S| . k =
s1 + s2 + s3 + 2 , F2 = {0, 1}.
si ,
F Bi .
,

(a, b),

. a bm
0, 1.
s1 , a bm F B2 .
2.
F1 (a, b) F B1 ,
2. , s3

 5.

158

, (5.137). ,
F1 (a, b) ,
.


(..4.4).

, (.[38]).
,
, .
n = 45113, .
[12].
4
M ,
(a, b)

(a, b)

(a, b)

(a, b)

(1,1)

(-104,1)

(8,3)

(43,6) (-856,11)

(-3,1)

(-3,2)

(-48,5)

(-13,1)

(-25,2)

(-54,5) (-11,7)

(x)

(a, b)

(8,7)

a bx, (a, b)
S :
(x) =

(abx) = 2051543129764485x2 +15388377355799440x+

xS

+24765692886531904

(5.138)

.
, N r((x))
. , (x) = 2 (x)

 5.

159

, N r(g(x))
Z. .

. Q[ 3],

f (x) = x2 3. v = 2 + 3

Q[ 3] (2, 1) B = (1; 3).

, (.169), N r(v) = v12 3v22 = 1.
, Z ,

v Q[ 3], .. v = w2 w = ( 6 + 2)/2,

w 6 Q[ 3]. , :
1. ,
(. .7)
Z K Q[],
Z[] ,
Z K .

. K = Q[ 5] g = (1 + 5)/2
, .. f (x) = x2 + x 1,

Z[ 5].
, ,
:
5.3. K = Q[] ,
Q Q f (x).
(x), Z K , h(x) =
(x) f 0 (x) Z[], f 0 (x)
f (x).
, Z[] GNFS,
Q
(x) = xS (a b) f1 (x):
g(x) = (f10 (x))2 (x).

(5.139)

g(x)
n = 45113:
g(x) =

(f10 (x))2 (x)

= (3x +30x+29)

xS

(abx)

 5.

160

22455983949710645412x2 +54100105785512562427x+22939402657683071224
(mod (x3 + 15x2 + 29x + 8))
(5.140)
2. , (x)
,
Z(), , 1 -1.
v Z[] Q[] ,

N r(v) . , v = 2+ 3 Q[ 3]
1 .
(.[62], .2, 4).
([62], .133), ,

= r11 ... rkk ,

(5.141)

1, 1 , ..., 1rk
k = s + t 1 , s t
f (x).
, g(x)
Z , g(x) 2 (x)
h(x) , 1.
,
([13]) .
.
, ,
, ..
. (x) =
Q
2
,
xS (a bx) = (x)
:
5.4. cdx,
(q, s), a bx,

 5.

161

M , f 0 (s) 6 0 ( mod q),

Y a bs
= 1.
q

(5.142)

xS

xS (a

bx) ,

(q, s), ,
(a bs/q) 0.
, (q, s), ,
.
(5.142) , ,
S , ,
,
.
,
, K[]
g(x) .
3. , g(x)
, ,
ZK ,
ZK , ..
a b , a, b Z.

5.4.
M (a, b), ,
, (x),
0

g(x) = (f (x))

(a bx)

(5.143)

xS

,
, ,
.

 5.

162

,
,
, ,
(..1.14).
,
,

, .
7, ,
, .

.
, GNFS.

1993 . (Jean
M. Couveignes) [20] (. . [39]).
,
p. p
, .. g(x) mod p (.. ,
g(x) p)
Fp , p2 (x) = g(x) mod p,
g(x) p (x) p.
,
(x)
. p ,
p
(x).
n = 45113.
d
f1 (x). , ,
p, g(x) mod p

 5.

163

. .
, [13]
.

(Hensels Lifting)

q(x) pk+1 ,
q(x) 0 ( mod pk ) .
p,
g(x) mod p . , ,
1 (x) q(x) (modp ). ,
k (x) q(x) ( modpk ) k+1 (x)
pk+1 . k+1 (x) k (x)
pk . , ai , k + 1 ai , k + 1+ti p,
ti [0; p 1].
2
ai , k + 1 k+1
(x) = g(x) mod pk+1 , ,

ti , ,
k+1 (x).
f1 (x), k k (x)
, k+1 (x)
.

5.5.

5.140, n = 45113,
. .

 5.

164

1. p
p,
gp (x) = f1 (x) mod p = x3 + 15x2 + 29x + 8 mod p
Fp . p 9929.
gp (x)
(,
1):
5.5. q = pd .

wq (x) = xp x

(5.144)

Z/pZ , d.
5.6. p . f (x) d
Z/pZ ,
:
d

1. xp x f (x),
d/pi

2. ...(xp

x, f (x)) = 1 pi , d.

1. hp (x) = f1 (x) mod

p. , hp (x) f1 (x).
3

2. hp (x) | x9929 x.
3

x9929 x hp (x). .
3. 2 5.6
p1 = 3. , ... (x9929 , hp (x)) = 1.

(x9929 x) mod hp (x) = 7449x2 + 4697x + 5984
, ... (7449x2 + 4697x + 5984, x3 + 15x2 + 29x + 8) 1.

 5.

165

, p = 9929 .
p = 9851 p = 9907.
, p 5.6,
p = 9923. ... (xp x, hp (x)) = x 847 6= 1.
2.

gp (x) = g(x) mod p p,
(g(x) 5.140).
p = 9929:
1. a(x) = g(x) mod 9929 = 2027x2 + 3891x + 6659.
2. q = p3 = 978 850 872 089. q 1
q 1 = 23 122 356 359 011, r = 3, s =
122 356 359 011. , (1.14).
3. gp (x)
Z/pZ . z(x) = x + 1.
z(x)(q1)/2 (mod hp (x)) = 9928 1 (mod p).
4. y(x) = (x + 1)s (mod hp (x)) = 1273.
5. 0 (x) = (a(x))s (mod hp (x)) =
= (2027x2 + 3891x + 6659)122 356 359 011 (mod x3 + 15x2 + 29x + 8) =
= 9928 1 (mod 9929).
6. w0 = (a(x))(s+1)/2 =
= (2027x2 + 3891x + 6659)61 178 179 506 (mod (x3 + 15x2 + 29x + 8)) =
= 2124x2 + 5715x + 4075.
7. 20 1 (mod 9929), 0 2, m = 1.
k = 2dm = 4.

 5.

166

8. 1 w1 :
1 = 0 y k (mod hp (x)) = 1
w1 = w0 y k1 (mod hp (x)) = 6527x2 + 8769x + 6852.
w1 = 1, . gp (x) =
2027x2 + 3891x + 6659 6527x2 + 8769x + 6852.
xp = gp (x) mod
p = (2027 312 + 3891 31 + 6659) mod 9929 = 5694.
3.


a bx x M p = 9929
x = m.
p = 9851
p = 9907.
, . :
p

gp (x)

gp (m)

9851 7462x2 + 5679x + 4037 5694

9907 5126x2 + 5072x + 3125 4152
9929 3402x2 + 1160x + 3125 3077
g(m) mod n,
g(m) 9851, 9907 9929. ,
:

x 5694 ( mod 9851 ),

x 4152 ( mod 9907 ),

x 3077 ( mod 9929 ).

(. 1.15).

 5.

167

, x = g(m) mod n =
694683807559 mod 45113 = 43992.

, ,
f1 (x)
, f1 (x) mod p ,
.
, ([13])
.

.
f (x) ,

:
T (n) = y 1+o(1) ,

(5.145)

y a, b ,
n d f1 (x).



q
1
log y =
+ o(1)
d log s + (d log d)2 + 4 log(n1/d ) log log(n1/d ).
2
(5.146)

,

(i (s), i (s)). S = {(ai , bi )}ki=1 ,
(i , i ) :
(0 (s), 0 (s) = (1, 1)).
(
i1 /(a b), (a b) | i1 ,
i =
i1 (a b), .
(
i =

i1 (a b), (a b) | i1 ,
i1 , .

(5.147)

(5.148)

 5.

168

g(x) (5.143)
g() = (f 0 ())2

(ab) = (f 0 ())2 s s2

xS

(5.149)
g(x)

s f 0 (x), s s .
,
,
.
4.
n =
45113.

y 2 = f10 (m)2

(abm) = (3312 +3031+29)2 (1+31)(3+31)(13+31)(104+31)

xS

(3+231)(8+331)(48+531)(54+531)(43+631)(8+631)(8+731)(11+731)
(856+1131) = 38422 317465033886002 mod n,
y = 3824 31746503388600 mod 45113 = 15160. (x, y) =
(43992, 15160) x2 y 2 mod n, x2 y 2 =
(x + y)(x y) = (43992 + 15160)(43992 15160) = 59152 28832.

...(n, x y), n = 45113:
...(n, x + y) = ...(45113, 59152) = 229,
...(n, x y) =...(45113, 28832) = 197.

5.6.

,
,

 5.

169

Z[x]/(f1 (x)).

GNFS.
, ([13])
Ln (; c), .130.
, d y ,
:


2
1/3
d = 3 + o(1) (log n/ log log n)1/3 , n > d2d > 1,


1/3

u = y = Ln 1/3, (8/9)


+ o(1) .
(5.150)

(5.150) (5.146)



1/3
T (n) = Ln 1/3, (64/9) + o(1).
(5.151)
, (64/9)1/3
1, 92. ,
log n Ln (; c) 1/2
1/3
,
,
.

5.7.

GNFS
.
f1 (x) f2 (x),
.
m

 5.

170

f1 (x) g(x) f2 (x),

g(x) d 1.
m g(x) GNFS

(.Murphy [41]). f1 (x) f2 (x),
, 1 (
).

f1 (x) f2 (x).

1993 . , [13],
.
:
1. cd f1 (x)

, ,
, F1 (a, b)
p p cd b, p.
.
, .
cd 6= 1, C f1 (x). = cd
. ,
d
d1
H(x) = cd1
+ cd cd2 xd2 + ... cd1
c0 .
d f1 (x) = x + cd1 x
d

, S - (a, b) ,

(a,b)S

(a b)

Q() S ,
(H 0 (cd ))2

(acd bcd )

(a,b)S

Z[cd ], , 2 . H 0 (cd x)

 5.

171

2 (x):
d1

H (cd x) =

0
cd1
d f1 (x)

0
cd1
d F1 (x, 1)

1 X
1 0
ici xi cd1i
,
= F1 (x, cd ) =
d
cd
cd i=1

2 () :
Y
1
2
0
(acd bcd ).
() = 2 (F1 (x, cd ))
cd
2

(5.152)

(a,b)S

(x) =

Pd1
i0

,
{1, cd , ... (cd )d1 }.
cd m g(x) n ,
f1 (x).
GNFS 3.
2. f1 (m) = n F1 (m1 , m2 ) = n
f1 (m1 ) = F1 (m1 , 1), m2 = 1
.
,
. [13]
m1 , m2 :
cd

= 1. m1

n1/(d+1) ,

n md1 m2 n1/(d+1) ,
n md1 .
(n md1 )/m2 m1 , m2 :
n md1
= cd1 md1
+ ... + c1 m1 md2
+ c0 md1
1
2
2 .
m2

(5.153)

3.
[13]
, cd m2 1,
,

 5.

172

, ,
.

. f1 f2 ,
2006 . . [29]:
1. m2 , 1 m2  n1/d .

m2 p. p
pi ,
pi 1 ( mod d). m1 m.
2. ad m (n/ad )1/d ,

ad md n (mod p)

(5.154)

cd - p,
cd xd n ( mod p) , d .
3. rd = n. ri , ci
d > i 0 :
ri+1 ci+1 mi+1
,
ri =
p

ci =

ri
+ i ,
mi

(5.155)

0 i < p , ri ci mi (mod p).

, i
ri =

i
X

cj mj pij ,

(5.156)

j=0

i = d rd = n = pd f1 (m/p) = F1 (m, p).

f1 (x) ,

f2 (x)

px m.

.
.

 5.

173

p
pi , 1
d. (cd , m)
cd .
512- RSA [15]
d = 5, p 7
p0 , cd
60.
cd (5.154).
, d x d
m , n ad md
. cd1 = (n ad md )/p,
, |cd1 |
.
cd1 , cd2
(5.155). i .
,
, ,
cd .
,
, ,
.
, . [29]
,
A:

 

Z
log F1 (x, y) + 1
log F2 (x, y) + 2
6

dxdy
2 A
log B1
log B2

(5.157)

- (..129),
6/ 2 (a, b) - ,
i F1 , F2

 5.

174

:

X 
p
log p
i {1, 2},
1 r(Fi , p)
i =
p+1 p1

(5.158)

small p

(5.157)
f1 , .

Z

1
1 + log
F12 (x, y)dxdy ,
2
A
.

(5.159)

,
f1 (x), n = pd f1 (m/p) ,
(5.159).
RSA-512, :
f1 (x) = 498520x5 + 15578368316860x4 513748876280490487x3
1021157413079535703297344x2 3989311146723167867825129900x+
+14658919460374074323550710377995600,
f2 (x) = 8794555574829559x 293947565389650342960556270613.
,
,
. , x0 = b/a,
x0
. .., .. .. [68]
.
GNFS
, GNFS,
.146, cd m2 = p:
1.

F1 (a, b) F2 (a, b),

:
F1 (a, b) = cd ad +cd1 ad1 b+ ... + c0 bd

F2 (a, b) = am2 bm1 .

(5.160)

 5.

175

2. ,
S (a, b) .
3. (5.132) g 2 (x),
d 1:
g 2 () = (f10 ()/cd )2

(cd a b)

(5.161)

(a,b)S

4. g(x) f1 (x)
. g(x) v :
g(x) =

d1
Y

bi x ,

v=

i=0

d1
Y

bi mi1 md1i
mod n.
2

(5.162)

i=0

5. D2 C :
D2 =

(am1 bm2 ),

C = D mod n.

(5.163)

(a,b)S
#S/2

6. A = m2

d2+#S/2

v mod n B = cd

C mod n.

7. n, ...(n, A B).

5.8.

, . ,

.
,
,

.

, . ,
.

176

. .

, ,
,
.
[63],
[62] .. .. ,
.. [75], .
, , 3-

. . , 2002 .,

.

.1.
C ,
+, C
0, , C
, .. a(bc) = (ab)c.

a (b + c) = a b + a c, (b + c) a = b a + c a .
,
.
.
Z,
Z[x] x Z .
1,
: a
a 1 = 1 a = a. .
, , aZ, a k, k Z,

177

a 6= 1,
. .
.2.
K ,
+ , K
, .
a
a a1 , , 4
, , .
Q,
R, C.
( Q,
).

GFp

{0, 1, 2, ..., p 1} Z p,
GFpk , pk , p ,
k .
C
K C , a/b,
a, b C . C .
Q,
Z .
K[x] K
.
.
.3. f K[x]
K ,
h K[x] g K[x], .

178

.4. M R
R : R M M ,
:
1. m M, r1 , r2 R, (r1 r2 )m = r1 (r2 ),
2. 1 M, m M 1 m = m 1 = m,
3. m1 , m2 M, r R, r(m1 + m2 ) = rm1 + rm2 ,
4. m M, r1 , r2 R, (r1 + r2 )m = r1 m + r2 m.
.
Z[x]
Z .
M R ,
a1 , a2 , ..., ak M ,
x M
x = c1 a1 + c2 a2 , ..., ck ak ci R .
a1 , a2 , ..., ak (..
R , - ,
0), M .
.
. 1. Z[],
Q, , d
1, , 2 , ... d1 .
2. Z[i],

a + bi, i =
1 , a, b Z.
i, x2 + 1, 2.
,
=2. Z[i]
(3, 2i), a + bi, a 3,
b.

179

.1.
.5. K .
K , -
f (x) K .
1, ,
.
. ,
,
.

.

Q 7, 2, 3i f (x) = x 7,
x2 2 x2 + 9 .
.6. , K
{1 , 2 , ... r , },

K
K[1 , 2 , ... r ].

. ,
K[1 , 2 , ... r ] K , ,
K[1 , 2 , ... r ] = K[].
.7.

Q.
. Q i =

1. i

x2 + 1, K = Q(i)
. 1- ax + b
. (2x 1)(x + 3)
x2 +1, .. (2x1)(x+3) = 2x2 +5x3 mod (x2 +1) = 2x2 +5x3

180

2(x2 + 1) = 5x 5. g(x) ,
, u(x) f (x) + w(x) g(x) = 1,
g 1 (x) = w(x).
, K = Q()
,
B = {1, x, x2 , ..., xd1 } Q, d
.

. ,
Z()
. ,
.

g(x)

(content

of

polynomial

g(x))

,
content(g). content(g) = 1,
.
g(x) Z[x] ,
1. Z[x]
B = {1, x, x2 , ...}. , ,
Z[x],
f (x). Z[x]/(f (x)), (f (x))
Z[x], f (x).
Z[], f (x).

.2.
.8. M

C . < C, +, >,

M,
M

C :
1. (x, y I) x + y I

181

2. (x C)(y I) x y I.
, .
R
R .
.9. I C ,
: I = (a).
:
1. , .
2. , .
3. (a), a C
ra + ka, r C , k Z.
I , a b C ab I
a 6 I , b I . I , a
b C , ab I , a 6 I , n bn I .
, .
,
, .. .
,
Z.
I1 I2 C ( I1 + I2 )
, , I1 , I2 .
I1 I2 C ( I1 I2 )
, ab, a I1
b I2 .
, Z I1 , I2 I1 =
(6), I1 = (9), I1 + I2 = (3), I1 I2 = (18).
I C
I . a b C

182

I , a b
I ,
a b (mod I).
[a] , a.
,
, [a] + [b] = [a + b], [a] [b] = [a b]. ,
, ..
.
,
- C I C/I .
.10. X K
I
K . X , I ,
I . .
, Z[],
d. ,
Z[] . ,
, (noetherian)
-Amalie Emmy Noether (18821935).,
- .

.3.
, ,
.
K = Q(),
f (x) = xd + ad1 xd1 + ... a0 ,

ZK

K .
,

ZK .

ZK

183

ZK ,
ZK . :
.1. ZK ,
Z[] .
ZK Z[]. ,

K = Q[ 5] g = (1+ 5)/2 , ..
() f (x) = x2 +x1,

Z[ 5].

,
K
:
.2. C K
, C ,
..
C .
, ZK Z[]
,
Z[]
Z[]:
.3. g() ZK , g() f 0 () Z[].
f (x) .

K .
.11.

(integral domain), , ..
a, b, 0.
,

.

184

Z.
.
.12. C ,
, N r ,
:
(a, b C)(k, r C)a = k b + r,
, N r(r) < N r(b).

, .

.4.
Z(), , -,
f (x) d .
Z() d
Z . B =
(xd1 , xd2 , ... 1). B ,
h V

H , h
(.. ,
B h B ).
N r(h) = det(H)

(.164)

:
N r(g h) = N r(g) N r(h)

(.165)

185

f (x) = x3 + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 .
h = x b. h B = (x2 , x, 1)
B h = (x3 bx2 , x2 bx, x b).

2- , B h
f (x), V :
B h = (a2 x2 a1 x a0 bx2 , x2 bx, x b).
:

a2 b 1

2
2
B h = (x , x, 1) H = (x , x, 1)
b
a1
a0

(.166)

, H :

a2 b 1 0

a1
b 1

a0
0 b
b3 + a2 b2 + a1 b + a0 = f (b). ,
N r(x b) x b f (x) .
x = b.
a bx
,
1- a bx K ,
f1 (x) = xd + ad1 xd1 + ... + a0 :
a

a
d
= b f1
(.167)
N r(a bx) = N r(b) N r x
b
b
,

Z[x]/(f2 (x))

0- , .. .

186

g(x) = a bx
f2 (x)
g(x) = a bx mod f2 (x) = a bx mod (x m) = a bm = g(m),
.. .m.
g(x) = a bx Z[x]/(f2 (x))
N r(a bx) = b f2 (a/b) = b (a/b m) = (a bm) = g(m) (.168)
.. .
,
.
F1 F2 :
 
b
= ad ad + ad1 ad1 b + ... + a0 bd ,
F1 (a, b) = ad f1
a
F2 (a, b) = a bm.

(.169)
(.170)

.5.

, ,
.
, .. ,
(.12). ,
,
(.2), . ,
ZK K = Q() ,

.
,
Z[],

.
.

Z[]

187

(.refClosedRing),
.

Z[]

ZK Z[],
.


. , p ,
:
1. : p = a b, a = 1, b = 1,
2. : a b p, a p,
b p.
.
, .

. , Z[ 6].

6 6 = 2 3, 6 = 6

6. , 2, 3, 6

Z[ 6], , : 23

6, 2, 3 6.

1844 . ,
.
, , ..

. , ,

Z[i].

188

ZK
ZK
ZK
. , ,
, ,
, , .

, 1 =
,

2 = 1 ,
, .. .

:
.4. ZK I0 I1
I2 ..., , .

, ZK , K = Q[ 5],

(2) (2, 5) (1, 5) ((1 + 5)/2, (1

5)/2). (integral basis) ZK , .

. Q[ 5] p + q 5.

(x p + q 5)(x p q 5) = x2 2pt + (p2 5q 2 ).

p + q 5 ZK , 2p p2 5q 2
. , 2p = a, p2 5q 2 = m, a, m Z . a,
p Z , 5q 2 Z , , q Z . a, 20q 2 Z , 2q Z .

, ZK (a + b 5)/2, a, b Z .

e ZK , , ..
e1 ZK . ZK ,
1.

189

, e ZK , a ZK
ae = a, ZK
ZK . a b
, a = be, e ZK .
.13. , C ,
, ,
. , a, b, c, d C ,
a = bc, a = bd, b 6= 0, c d c = ed.

Z[ 6] ,
, ,
. ,
, :
.5.

, .
. ,
R .
x R
x = e1 p1 p2 ...pk ,
e, pi (, , ) R .
, :
x = e1 p1 p2 ...pk = e2 q1 q2 ...qm ,

(.171)

k , k = m pi
- qj . k = 0
. k > 0 pk | q1 q2 ...qm . pk j
, pk | qj , pk = eqj . (.171) pk , ,
e1 p1 p2 ...pk1 = e2 q1 ...qj1 eqj+1 ...qm ,

(.172)

190

.
.
, ,
.
Zk

Z[ 6] ,

.
, ,
.

, .
.
, , , a
a = p1 p2 a = q1 q2 , L
K , , p1 = b1 b2 ,
p2 = b3 b4 , q1 = b1 b3 , q2 = b2 b2 , ,
a = p1 p2 = (p1 p2 ) (p3 p4 ) = (p1 p3 ) (p2 p4 ) = q1 q2 .

. Q( 15) 10 :
10 = 2 5 = (5 +

15)(5

15).

, 2 5 5 15.

L = Q( 3, 5).
L :

10 = ( 5)( 5)( 5 + 3)( 5 3).

(.173)

, (.173)
ZK K ,
(.. ), K

191

. , I1 I3 ,

ZK ( 5), ( 5+ 3) ( 5 3).
, ZK :
10 = (I1 )2 I2 I3 ,

(.174)

I1 I3 .


, , I2 = ZK ( 5+ 3). 5( 5+

3) = 15+5 3( 5+ 3) = 15+3 I2 . I2

( 15 + 5) ( 15 + 3) = 2.

I2 , (a + b 15),

(2) a + b 15, 2, 4, ab 15,

a2 15b2 . I2 , 1,
,
a2 15b2 = 2.
5, a2 2 ( mod
5), .

ZK

,
, .
:
.6. ZK .
, -
(.5.5
[52]):
.7. I
Zk ,
.

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[75] .. / .. .
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199
[76] .. / .. . , .
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..

/ .. . ,
, 1999, 136 .
[78] . . /. ,
. . .: , 1987, 118 .
[79]

..

/ .. . .: , 2002.


L- , 117

, 43

(p + 1) , 59

, 13, 41, 51

(p 1) , 53

, 32

- , 60

., 8

, 74

, 63

, 25, 27, 37, 39, 42, 45

, 70

, 13

, 81

SQUFOF, 78

., 8

, 11

22

, 7

, 36

, 39

, 148

, 42

-, 33

, 159

, 81

87

, 42

, 11, 13

, 12

, 38, 42

, 165

, 114, 145

, 125

., 81, 87

, 9

, 24, 32, 38,

, 24

42

, 20

GNFS, 148

, 44

, 39

., 163

, 32

, 169

, 10

, 70

, 10

, 20

, 10

, 7, 53, 60, 63

, 25

, 7

, 168
200

201
, 168

, 171

, 177

, 170

, 42

, 62

, 35

, 150

, 10, 163

, 11, 164

, 11

ZK , 138

, 164

, 170

, 11

, 170

, 171

, 95

, 163

, 83

, 169

, 39

, 39

176

, 40

, 37

, 112

e, 37

, 92

, 23
, 142

, 49

, 142

, 14

, 141

, 98

, 42

, 74

-, 63, 93

RSA, 6

, 31

, 59

, 103
, 14
, 164
, 157
, 62, 65

GNFS, 141

, 114
,
121, 123

, 165

, 15

, 85

, 13

202
83

, 24
, 24, 147

, 25

116

-, 97

(n), 27

, 9

, 45

, 168

, 49

, 41

, 14, 49

, 13

, 47

, 11

, 90
, 47

, 116

, 49

, 48

, 103

, 18

, 9

AKS, 30

, 9

, 26

,
28

, 82

, 51

, 74

, 66
, 103
,
135

85

, 135
, 135
(x), 32
, 37

,

, 86
, 70