Хэггерти Дискретная математика для программистов

.
2,

..
.. ,
.. , ..

,

2012
519.854
22.176
13
13 .

2-,
: , 2012. 400 ., ISBN 978-5-94836-303-5
, .
, , .

, , , .
, . ( )
.

, , .
, ,

, -.
519.854
22.176
Pearson Education Limited 2002

This translation of DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
FOR COMPUTING, First Edition is published by
arrangement with Pearson Education Limited.
2012, ,
, ,
-,
ISBN 978-5-94836-303-5
ISBN 0-201-73047-2 (.)

................................................
..................................................................
6
9
1.
........................................................................
1.1. ............................................................
1.2. ...................................................................
1 ...........................................................
..................................................
11
11
14
19
21
2.
.............................................
2.1. .................................................
2.2. .................................................
2.3. ..................................................
2.4. .............................................
2 ...........................................................
..................................................
. ................................
23
23
27
30
32
35
38
39
3.
..........................................................
3.1. ....................................
3.2. ........................................................
3.3. ......................................
3 ...........................................................
..................................................
. ....................................
44
44
51
53
58
61
63
4.
....................................................................
4.1. ....................................................
4.2. .....................................................
4.3. ..........
4 ...........................................................
..................................................
. ..................
5.
........................................................................
5.1.
5.2.
5.3.
5.4.
................
.....................................................................
......................
.........................................................
68
68
73
77
82
85
86
91
91
96
102
105
4
5 ........................................................... 108
.................................................. 112
. ....... 113
6.
.............................................................
6.1. ......................................
6.2. ..............................................
6.3. ...........................................................
6 ...........................................................
..................................................
. ..............................
117
117
120
128
131
135
136
7.
............................................................................
7.1. ..................................................
7.2. ....................................................
7.3. .......................................................................
7 ...........................................................
..................................................
. .........................................
141
142
147
152
158
163
165
8.
............................................
8.1. ...............................................
8.2. ..........................................................
8.3. .........................................................
8 ...........................................................
..................................................
. ..................................
171
171
175
181
184
187
189
9.

.............................................................
9.1. .............................................................
9.2. ...............................................................
9.3. .................................................
9 ...........................................................
..................................................
. 2- ................
194
194
200
205
208
211
212
...................................................
217
..................................
275
.1. ......................................... 275
.1.1. ........................................................... 277
5
.1.2.
.................................................................. 278
.1.3.
............................................. 279
.2. ................................................... 281
.2.1. , 282
.2.2. ............................. 286
.3. ........................................................ 288
.3.1. .......... 289
.3.2. ................................................... 292
.4. ........................................ 294
.4.1. .......................................... 300
...............................
.........................................................
.5. ............
..............................................................
.5.1. .......................
.5.1 .....................................................
.5.2. ....................................
.5.2 .....................................................
.5.3. . ................................................................
.5.3 .....................................................
.5.4. ..
.5.4 .....................................................
.6.
...........
..............................................................
.6.1. m- ............................................................
.6.2. , .............................
.6.3. NP- ...................
.6.4. ............................................
.6.5. ....................
.6.6. ........
.6 ........................................................

305
305
305
305
306
317
318
332
333
344
345
359
359
359
361
362
366
368
372
381
392
................................................................... 395
................................................
397

:=
P
P Q
P Q
P Q
n!
{P } A {Q}
aS
a 6 S
{x : P (x)}
N
Z
Q
R
AS
AB
AB
A\B
U
A
AB
|S |
(a; b)
AB
R2
An
P (A)
M (i; j )
xRy

P
P Q
P Q
P Q

n
- A
a | S
a S
x,
P (x)

A | S
A B
A B
A B

A
A B
S

A B

n A

,
i- j -
(x; y ) R
15
24
25
25
27
28
28
37
39
45
45
45
46
46
46
46
46
46
47
47
48
48
48
49
54
55
55
56
57
61
71
72
R
Ex
xy
R 1
SR
MN
f (x)
f : A B
f (A)
f 1 : A
gf
|x|
x
P (n; k )
C (n; k )
O (g (n))
(v )
G = (V; E )
(G)
Kn

Mk
M
d[v
p
pq
pq
{
R
x
x | y

R S
M N
x
A B
f

f g
x
x
(n; k )-

(n; k )-

, , g (n)

V
E

n

k
M

v
p
p q
p q
{
75
78
80
87
88
89
91
92
94
97
97
97
102
104
110
110
121
123
137
143
143
146
148
154
160
171
176
176
182
195
195
195
200

a
a
205
205
205
205
209
a
a b
b

| , , .
,
,
, . , , ,
,
, , .
,
. , ,
, .
, , , . ,
, .
() .
20 . , , .
,
.
7
- 8
4
6
- 2
- 3
?
- 5
pp
ppp
p
?
- 6
10
,
. .
, , ,
, .
,
.
, , Pearson Edu ation , .
, | , .
2001
. ,
, , .
. , ,
, .

. |
. , ,
, .
| , .
| , .

. , ,
. 1 , , .
1.1.
, . 1.1.
:
( ) : , , , ,
1
Pas al | . |
. .
12
1.
. 1.1.
, .
1.1.
. .
1.1
|
120
147
142
107
81
120
|
132
42
157
45
147
132
|
108
66
105
142
42
108
|
168
61
107
157
66
168
|
112
81
45
105
61
112
|
, , |
. 7. , . 1.2, , . 1.1.
( ,
),
, , .

1
,
( ) .
1.1.
2
3
13
() ,
, .
2
.
81
120
107
147
45
105
112
157
132
142

66
61
168
42
108
1.2.
1.3, 1.4 1.5 ,

, . ( 339)
,
.
45
45
42
1.3.
, ,
. ,
, , . ,
14
1.
, ? ,

! | , .
.
81
81
45
45
105
42
42
1.4.
81
45
105
66
42
1.5.
1.2.
, . .
begin

,
end
, : .
1.2.
15

:
:=
1.2.1. ( , First Se ond ,
Sum .)
begin
First and Se ond ;

:=
Sum First + Se ond ;
Input
end
,
.
:
;
;
.
,
, . :
begin
1;
2;
.........
n;
end
1.2.2. ( : One
Two .)
begin
One and Two ;

Temp := One ;
One := Two ;
Two := Temp ;
Input
end
, , One T wo 5 7 , . 1.2.
16
1.
1.2
T emp
One
T wo
2
3
4
5
5
5
5
7
7
7
7
5
. if-then
if-then-else. :
begin
if then
end
:
begin
if then 1
else 2
end
1.2.3. ( n ab .)
begin
Input n;
if n < 0 then ab := n
else ab := n;
Output ab ;
end
, ,
n, |
( ). ,
, else:
begin
Input n;
if n < 0 then n := n;
ab := n;
Output ab ;
end
n .
1.2.
17
,
.

:
for X := A to Z do ;
while do ;
repeat
1;
2;
.............
n;
until .
(1)
(2)
(3)
X | , A Z | .
(1) . :
for do
(2) ,
, , , .
, .
, (3)
, . (2) (3) , ,
.
1.2.4. ( n
.)
begin
sum := 0;
for i := 1 to n do
begin
j := i i;
sum := sum + j ;
end
Output sum;
end
n = 4, . 1.3
18
1.
1.3

Sum
1
2
3
4
1
4
9
16
1
5
14
30
: sum = 30.
1.2.5. (
,
.)
begin
v := ;
u := ;
v u;
while do
begin
u := ,
;
end
;
end
| , .
. , ( ) ( . 7, . 146).
| ,
.
,
, . |
. . , , 1.2.5 ?
1
19
, , , : ? 1.5 , ( 1.2.4). . ,
? ,
?
: |
,
.
1
1.1. . 1.6 , -
.
. , , .
B
3
1
6
G
A
3
1.6.
1.2.
() n = 3;
() n = 5.
begin
f := 1;
Input n;
for i := 1 to n do
f := f i;
Output f ;
end
20
1.
n?
1.3. i j m = 3 n = 4:
begin
Input m, n;
i := 1;
j := m;
while i 6= n do
begin
i := i + 1;
j := j m;
end
Output j ;
end

m n > 0. n = 0?
1.4. ,
begin
f irst := 1;
Output f irst;
se ond := 1;
Output se ond;
next := f irst + se ond;
while next < 100 do
begin
Output next;
f irst := se ond;
se ond := next;
next := f irst + se ond;
end
end

.
1.5. l, sum k , n = 6.
21
begin
Input n;
k := 1;
l := 0;
sum := 0;
while k < 2n do
begin
l := l + k ;
sum := sum + l;
k := k + 2;
end
Output sum;
end
n.
1.6. ,
. 1.1. ?
begin

: 1, 2, 3, . . . . .;
m := ;
:= ;
:= 1;
while > m 1 do
begin
if
then
begin
;
:= 1;
end;
:= + 1;
end
end

-
,
.
22
1.
| ,
.
() , ,
() , .
| , -

.
,
.
, -

,
.
(-
),
, .
.
-
.
2

(). , , .
, .
, ( ) ,
. , , 1 . ,
( , ),
, . ,
,
.
, , .
, .
2.1.
. , , . . ( ) ( ). ,
;
| ;
1
29 | .
, ,
.
24
2.
. ,
, P , Q | | R | 29 | .
, , , ,
, , . ,
( P ) | ;
(P Q) | | ;
(P Q) | | .
2.1. P | , Q | .
.
() | , .
() , | .
() | , .
.
() ( P ) Q.
() ( P ) ( Q).
() P Q.
, , . .
.
.
P ( P ), P .
. 2.1.
2.1
P
2.1.
25
P Q (P Q). -
,
. .
| . 2.2.
2.2
P
(P
P
Q (P Q). ,
,
. , (P Q) , P ,
Q, , . . 2.3.
2.3
P
(P
2.2. : VIII
, , 1 ?
. P , Q | VIII
R | . : (P Q) ( R). , P ,
Q R . (P Q) ( R)
: ( ) , .
1
| , XVII{XVIII .. . | . .
26
2.
,
, ,
. .
2.3. , ( (P ( Q))) (( P ) Q).
. (. 2.4)
:
R = ( (P ( Q)))
S = (( P ) Q):
P Q.
2.4
P
. , R S .
, . : ,
| .
, .
P , Q. ,
P , , Q . P ,
Q , .
P | () 1 = 5, Q |
( ) 3 = 7 R | () 4 = 4. , : P , Q
P , R, | .
2.4.
. 1 = 5, , 2 ,
, 3 = 7. , P , Q
2.2.
27
. 1 = 5
3 2 = 2. (2)2 = 22 , . . 4 = 4. ,
P , R .
P , Q , P ,
Q . .
, P Q P , Q. P Q , P Q, P
Q, Q P .
. 2.5.
2.5
P
(P Q)
2.5. (( Q) ( P )) (P Q).
, (( Q) ( P )) (P Q).
. (. 2.6).
2.6
(P Q)
((
) (
))
,
, , .
2.2.
, | ,
. , ,
28
2.

.
, ,

. , x | , x = x2 ,
x = 0 x = 1 .
. . , ( ),
.
2.6. ,
() 180 .
() .
() x, x2 = 2.
() .
.
() .
() . 1 .
() .
() . 2 , .
2.6 , , ( )
, .
() , , .
, .
.
1
| . |
. .
2.2.
29
2.7. P (x) x |
x2 = 16. : x : P (x)
. x : P (x) , x, x2 = 16. ,
, , x2 = 16 x = 4. , x = 4 |
. x, x : P (x).
2.8. P (x) | : x |
x2 +1 = 0. : x : P (x)
. :
x, x2 + 1 = 0. -
, . .
x2 > 0, , x2 + 1 > 1. ,
x : P (x) .
2.8 : x : P (x). , , ,
, x, x2 + 1 = 0. ,
x, x2 + 1 6= 0.
x P (x).
P (x) 2 :
x : P (x) x P (x);
x P (x) x : P (x).
, , .
2.9. , x y | ,
P (x; y ) x + y = 0. -
.
() x y : P (x; y );
2
() y : x P (x; y ).

. | . .
30
2.
() x y : P (x; y ) ,
x y ,
x+y = 0. , , , x
, y = x x + y = 0
.
() y : x P (x; y ) :
y , x x + y = 0. , , : y ,
. , .
2.3.
.
|
. ,
(P Q). ,
:
, P Q. , P , Q | , (P Q)
(. . 2.5 . 27).
1. .
2. . , Q
P . , ,
(( Q) ( P )),
2.5, (P Q).
, P
, Q , , . - ,
(P Q) , P , Q .
3. .
2.10. , xy x y .
2.3.
31
. , ,
x, x = 2m + 1, m |
. , y = 2n + 1 n.
,
xy = (2m + 1)(2n + 1) = 4mn + 2m + 2n + 1 = 2(2mn + m + n) + 1
.
2.11. n | . , , n2 , n
.
. n2 n2 , n n . ,
,
n n2 .
n , n = 2m - m. , n2 = 4m2 = 2(2m2 ) | .
2.12. ,
x2 = 2 , . .
.
. , x
x2 = 2 , . . x = m
n
m n, n 6= 0. ,
, - .
,
2m
3m
. , x = m
n = 2n = 3n . . , m n .
.
, , x = m
n (m n ). x 2
x2 = 2. , m
m2 = 2n2 .
n = 2,
2
, m . , m (. . ())
m = 2p - p. m2 = 2n2 , , 4p2 = 2n2 , . . n2 = 2p2 .
n . , , m, n | .
32
2.
2. , m
n,
.
:
x2 = 2 ,
. . .
2.4.

, , . ,
- , ,
. , .
, , , .
, , a1 ; a2 ; a3 ; : : : ; an .
begin
i := 0;
M := 0;
while i < n do
begin
j := j + 1;
M := max(M; a);
end
end
: a1 = 4, a2 = 7, a3 = 3
a4 = 8 . 2.7.
2.7
j <
4?
0
1
0
4
2
3
4
7
7
8
2.4.
33
M = 8, . , M ,
.

n?
a1 ; a2 ; a3 ; : : : ; an n Mk M k - .
1. a1 1,
M 0 a1 ,
, , a1 ( 0).
.
2. k - Mk |
a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; ak , Mk+1 max(Mk ; ak+1 ), . .
a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; ak ; ak+1 .
. 1 , 1. . 2, 2. . 2
, ,
3, . . , n, . .
.
.

P (n) | , n.
,
1. P (1)
2. k > 1 (P (k ) P (k + 1)) .
P (n) n.
2.13. ,
1 + 2 + +n =
n.
n(n + 1)
34
2.
nn
. P (n) | 1 + 2 + + n =
.
2
n = 1 | 1,
(
+1)
,
1(1 + 1)
= 1:
2
, P (1) .
, 1 + 2 + + k =
- k .
kk
( +1)
2
1 + 2 + + k + (k + 1) = (1 + 2 + + k ) + (k + 1) =
k (k + 1)
=
+ (k + 1) =
2

1
=
k (k + 1) + 2(k + 1) =
2

1
=
(k + 2)(k + 1) =
2
(k + 1)(k + 2)
=
:
2
, k
P (k ) P (k + 1)
. , , P (n) n.
2.14. ,
7n 1 6 n.
. , a
b ,
a = mb - m. , 51 17,
51 = 3 17. , , ,
b b.
P (n) 7n 1 6.
n = 1
7n 1 = 7 1 = 6;
. . P (1) .
, 7k 1 6 - k .
2
35
7k+1 1 = 7(7k ) 1 =
= 7(7k 1) + 7 1 =
= 7(7k 1) + 6:
7k 1 6,
7(7k 1) + 6 6.
, 7k+1 1 6, k
(P (k ) P (k + 1)) .

P (n) n.
2.15. x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xn -
:
x1 = 1
xk+1 = xk + 8k
k > 1:
, : xn = (2n 1)2 n > 1.

. xn = (2n 1)2 P (n).
n = 1, (2n 1)2 = (2 1)2 = 1,
P (1).
, xk = (2k 1)2 k > 1.
xk+1 = xk + 8k =
= (2k 1)2 + 8k =
= 4k 2 + 4k + 1 =
= (2k + 1)2 :
2
, xk+1 = 2(k + 1) 1 (P (k ) P (k + 1)) k > 1. ,
, P (n)
n.
2
2.1. P , Q R | -
P:
36
2.
Q:
R:
.
.
, P , Q R.
() .
() , .
() , .
() , .
() , .
2.2. P : , Q |
. :
() , ;
() ;
() , ( )
.
, () ().
2.3. ,
, . :
() (P ( P ));
() P ( P );
() (P (P Q)) Q.
2.4. , (P Q) R (( P ) R) (Q R).
2.5. x , P (x) x
.
:
() ;
() ;
() .
2
37
() ,
() ,
.
2.6. P (x) x , Q(x) | x ,
x | - . :
x (P (x) Q(x)):
:
() ;
() ;
() .
2.7. () -
:
n m | n + m | .
() :
n2 | n | .
() ,
n + m |
, | .
2.8.
() 1 + 5 + 9 + + (4n 3) = n(2n 1)
n.
() 12 +22 + + n2 = 16 n(n +1)(2n +1)
n.
()
+ 315 + + (2n1)1(2n+1) =
n.
n
n
1 3
+1
() n3 n 3 n.
() 1 1! + 2 2!+ + n n! = (n + 1)! 1
n.
( n! n 1 n :
n! = 1 2 3 (n 1) n.)
38
2.
2.9. x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xn -

x1 = 1
xk+1 =
xk
k > 1:
xk + 2
x2 , x3 x4 . ,
xn =
n > 1.
2n 1
2.10. x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xn -

x1 = 1; x2 = 2
xk+1 = 2xk xk1
k > 1:
x3 , x4 x5 . xn
.

-
, . . .
-
. , , ... .
. 2.8 ,
.
2.8
(P Q)
,
.
39
x
, , : P (x).
() () | .

(P Q) P Q.

( Q P ) (P Q).
(P Q), Q P ,
.
, .
| :
P (n) | , n.
,
1. P (1)
2. k > 1 (P (k ) P (k + 1)) .
P (n) n.
.
( , , , ), , , .
.
P | ,
A, Q | , , . {P } A {Q} ,
A P , Q. P
, Q |
40
2.
. {P } A {Q} .
A {P } A {Q}.
.
1. .
begin
z := x y ;
end
. P :
x = x1 y = y1 . Q | z = x1 y1 .
{P } {Q}
x = x1 y = y1 , z = x1 y1 . x = x1 y = y1
, z , x y . : z = x y , x = x1 y = y1
z = x1 y1 .
A
, A1 ; : : : ; An

{P } A1 {Q1 }; {Q1 } A2 {Q2 }; : : : ; {Qn1 } An {Q};

.
2. -
{x |
begin
y := ax;
y := (y + b)x;
y := y + ;
end
{y = ax2 + bx + }
. ,
- .
41
{x = x1 }
begin
y := ax;
Q1 {y = ax1 x = x1 }
y := (y + b)x;
Q2 {y = ax21 + bx1 }
y := y + ;
end
Q {y = ax21 + bx1 + }
P
, , , :
{P } y := ax {Q1 },
{Q1 } y := (y + b)x {Q2 },
{Q2 } y := y + {Q}, |
. ,
{P } {Q}
, . . .

.
if ... then,
.
: ,
if then
1;
else
2;
P , Q.
:
{P } 1 {Q}
{P ()} 2 {Q}.
42
2.
3. , .
{x |
begin
if x > 0
then
ab := x;
else
abs := x;
end
{abs | x}
. P {x = x1 },
Q {abs | x}.
{P x > 0} abs := x {Q} ,
x1 .
{P (x > 0)} abs := x {Q} ,
x1 .
- ,
while ... do, .
.
4. .
{n |
begin
sq := 0;
for i := 1 to n do
sq := sq + 2i 1;
end
{sq = n2 }
. P (n) sq = n2 n-
, sqk | sq k -
. ,
(1) sq1 = 12 ;
(2) sqk = k 2 , sqk+1 = (k + 1)2 .
43
, sq1 = 1 (1)
. , k - sqk = k 2 .

sqk+1 = sqk + 2(k + 1) 1 = k 2 + 2k + 1 = (k + 1)2 :
, (2) .
, , P (1) (. (1)). ,
((P (k ) P (k + 1))
k > 1. ,
, P (n) n.
4 for
(). , , while ... do, , .
, .
3

| ,

, .
. , ,
.
, ,
. , ,
, , . ,
, , , , (
).
.

, I.
3.1.
| , . ,
{, , };
{2, 3, 5, 7, 11};
{, , , }.
. , . -
3.1.
45
, S = {3; 2; 11; 5; 7} | , . , S ,
, , , .
a S , a |
S . , a S .
a S , : a 6 S .
, .
.
S = {x : P (x)}
, x,
P (x) . ,
S = {x : x | }
S = {1; 3; 5; 7; : : :}:

2n 1, n | ,
:
S = {2n 1 : n | }:
3.1. , -
() A = {x : x | x2 + 4x = 12};
() B = {x : x | , };
() = {n2 : n | }.
.
() x2 +4x = 12, x(x +4) = 12. x | ,

12, 1, 2, 3, 4,
6 12. , x + 4 12.
: x = 6 x = 2.
x2 + 4x 12 = 0.
x = 6 x = 2.
, A = {6; 2}.
46
3.
() B = {, , }.
() = {0; 1; 4; 9; 16; : : :}.
, .
| ;
N = {1; 2; 3; : : :} | ;
Z = {0; 1; 2; 3; : : :} | ;
Q = { pq : p; q Z; q 6= 0} | ;
R = { } | .
, N 0.
,
.
. ,
.
. .
,
. , = {0; 1; 4; 9; 16; : : :}
Z = {0; 1; 2; 3; : : :}.
, A S ,
S . ,
A S . : A S .
. 3.1 . .
, .
, .
A = B
:
{x A x B }
{x B x A}:
3.1.
47
S
A
3.1.
3.2.
A = {n : n2 | }
B = {n : n | }:
, A = B .
x A, x2 | .
2.11, , x |
. , x B , . . A B .
, x B . x |
. 2.10, x2 , , x A.
x B , B A, . . B A. , A = B .
A B
A B = {x : x A
x B }:
, A, B , .
. 3.2.
A B
A B = {x : x A
x B }:
, A,
B . . 3.3.
48
3.
3.2.
3.3.
1 B A
A \ B = {x : x A x 6 B }:
A \ B A,
B (. . 3.4).
U , U
. .
A U A U , . . U \ A.
, U \ A A
1
. | . .
3.1.
49
A. , , U ,
A = {x : (x A)}
A = {x : x 6 A}:
. 3.5.
3.4.
\B
3.5.
A B
A B = {x : (x A x 6 B )
(x B x 6 A)}:

, A B ,
, B , A. ,
, A, B ,
. , ,
. 3.6.
50
3.
3.6.
3.3.
A = {1; 3; 5; 7};
B = {2; 4; 6; 8};
C = {1; 2; 3; 4; 5}:
A C , B C , A \ C B C .
.
A C = {1; 3; 5; 7; 2; 4};
B C = {2; 4};
A \ C = {7};
B C = (B \ C ) (C \ B ) = {6; 8} {1; 3; 5} = {6; 8; 1; 3; 5}.
3.4.
A = {x : 1 6 x 6 12 x };
B = {x : 1 6 x 6 12 x , 3}:
, (A B ) = A B .
. ,
U = {1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10; 11; 12}:
,
A = {2; 4; 6; 8; 10; 12}
B = {3; 6; 9; 12}:
3.2.
51
(A B ) = {6; 12} = {1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 7; 8; 9; 10; 11}

A B = {1; 3; 5; 7; 9; 11} {1; 2; 4; 5; 7; 8; 10; 11} =
= {1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 7; 8; 9; 10; 11}:
, (A B ) = A B .
3.2.
, , .
, | , . 1
, . 3.1.
3.1
3.5. , A B
: (A B ) = A B .
.
(A B ) = {x : x 6 (A B )} =
= {x : (x (A B ))} =
= {x : (x A) (x B ))};
A B = {x : (x 6 A) (x 6 B )} =
= {x : ( (x A)) ( (x B ))}:
,
:
(P Q)
1
( P ) ( Q);
, . |
. .
52
3.
P Q | . (. 3.1), , (P Q) (A B ), ( P ) ( Q) | AB .
, (A B ) = A B .
, 3.5, , . ,
, .
3.2.
, , 3.5.
(. 3.2)
,

, U . , |
.
3.2.

A
(B C ) = (A B ) C
(B C ) = (A B ) C
B =BA
B =BA
=A
U =A
U =U
A=A
A=A
(B C ) = (A B ) (A C )
(B C ) = (A B ) (A C )

A
A=U
A=
=U
=A
=A
(A B ) = A B
(A B ) = A B
3.3.
53
. , ,
, - , .
3.6. , ,
A B :
A B = (A B ) (A B ):
. -
A B = (A B ) (B A):
, .
(A B ) (A B ) =
(. )
= (A B ) (A B )) =
(. .)
= (A (A B )) (B (A B )) =
(. .)
= ((A B ) A) ((A B ) B ) =
(. .)
= ((A A) (A B )) ((B A) (B B )) = (. .)
= ((A A) (B A)) ((A B ) (B B )) = (. )
= ( (B A)) ((A B ) ) =
(. .
)
= (A B ) (B A)
,
A B = (A B ) (A B );
3.3.
6 , ,

. ,
. ,
?
?
54
3.
S . |S |.
. ,
.
.
|A B | = |A| + |B | |A B |:
. . 3.7, A B : A \ B , A B B \ A,
. ,
A = (A \ B ) (A B )
B = (B \ A) (A B ):
|A \ B | = m;
|A B | = n;
|B \ A| = p:
|A| = m + n, |B | = n + p
|A B | = m + n + p =
= (m + n) + (n + p) n =
= |A| + |B | + |A B |:
A B
A B
3.7.
B A
3.3.
55
3.7. 63 ,
,
. 16 , 37 |
, 5 ,
?
. .
A = {, };
B = {, }:

,
|A| = 16;
|B | = 37;
|A B | = 5:
|A B | = 16 + 37 5 = 48:
, 63 48 = 15
.
,
,
.
.
, , , . .
, .
(a; b), a | A, b | B .
A B A B .
, A B = {(a; b) : a A b B }.
, ,
.
3.8. A = {x; y } B = {1; 2; 3}.
: A B , B A B B .
. A B
{(x; 1); (x; 2); (x; 3); (y; 1); (y; 2); (y; 3)}:
56
3.
B A |
{(1; x); (2; x); (3; x); (1; y ); (2; y ); (3; y )}:
, A B B A ! B B
{(1; 1); (1; 2); (1; 3); (2; 1); (2; 2); (2; 3); (3; 1); (3; 2); (3; 3)}:
3.8, , A B 1
|A B | = mn;
|A| = m |B | = n:
,
.

, . , A B 3.8
. 3.8
x
(x, 1)
(x, 2)
(x, 3)
(y, 1)
(y, 2)
(y, 3)
3.8.
R . RR
R2 , ,
(x; y ).
. R2 . . 3.9
1
, , A
( m ) n . |
. .
3.3.
57
A1 ,
A2 , . . . , An
A1 A2 An = {(a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; an ) : ai Ai ; i = 1; 2; : : : ; n}:
| , , . .
.
y
(3, 2)
3.9.
, A1 , A2 , . . . , An A, An
n A.
3.9. B = {0; 1}. B n .
. B
n. n.
,

. S = {s1 ; s2 ; : : : ; sn }, . A S , n-
(b1 ; b2 ; : : : ; bn ), bi = 1, si A bi = 0 . A.
, , 1
, 0 .
58
3.
3.10. S = {1; 2; 3; 4; 5}, A = {1; 3; 5} B = {3; 4}.

A B ,
A B , A B B .
. ,
A a = (1; 0; 1; 0; 1), B b = (0; 0; 1; 1; 0). ,
a b = (1; 0; 1; 0; 1) (0; 0; 1; 1; 0) = (1; 0; 1; 1; 1);
a b = (1; 0; 1; 0; 1) (0; 0; 1; 1; 0) = (0; 0; 1; 0; 0);
b = (0; 0; 1; 1; 0) = (1; 1; 0; 0; 1):

: A B = {1; 3; 4; 5}, A B = {3}
B = {1; 2; 5}.
3
3.1. () :
A = {x : x Z 10 6 x 6 17};
B = {x : x Z x2 < 24};
C = {x : x Z 6x2 + x 1 = 0};
D = {x : x R 6x2 + x 1 = 0}:
: 6x2 + x 1 = (3x 1)(2x + 1):
() :
S = {2; 5; 8; 11; : : :};
T = {1;
1
3
1
7
1
15
; : : :}.
3.2. U = {p; q; r; s; t; u; v; w}. A = {p; q; r; s}, B =

= {r; t; v } C = {p; s; t; u}.
:
() B C ;
() A C ;
() (A B ) (A C );
() B \ C ;
() A B C ;
() (A B );
() C ;
() B C .
3
59
3.3.
A = {x : x | , };
B = {x : x | , };
C = {x : x | , }.
, :
() C A B ;
() B C ;
() B C ;
() A B = .
:
() A B C ;
() (A B ) C .
3.4. :
A = {3n : n Z n > 4};
B = {2n : n Z};
C = {n : n Z n2 6 100}.
() , A, B C :
(i) ;
(ii) {10; 8; 6; 4; 2; 0; 2; 4; 6; 8; 10};
(iii) {6n : n Z n > 2};
(iv) {9; 7; 5; 3; 1; 1; 3; 5; 7; 9}.
() A \ B .
3.5. ,
A (B C ) = (A B ) (A C ):
,
A, B C .
60
3.
3.6. , -
A (B C ) = (A B ) (A C ):
, A (B C ) (A B ) (A C ).
3.7.
() (A B ) B = A B ;
() (A (B C )) = A B C ;
() (A B C ) (A B C ) (A C ) = ;
() (A \ B ) \ C = A \ (B C );
() A A A = A.
3.8. :
A B = (A B ):
A B . :
() A A = A;
() (A A) (B B ) = A B ;
() (A B C ) (A B C ) (A C ) = ;
() (A B ) (A B ) = A B .
3.9. () , A, B C :
|A B C | =
=|A| + |B | + |C | |A B | |B C | |A C | + |A B C |:
() , , . 25 , 27 , 12 . , 20 ,
,
, | . ,
61
.
?
?
3.10. A B ,
A B = B A?
A, B C
A B = A C . , B = C ?
3.11. A, B C | . ,
() A (B C ) = (A B ) (A C );
() (A B ) C = (A C ) (B C ).
3.12. P (A) ,
A.
, P (A) = {C : C A}.
() P (A), A = {1; 2; 3}.
() , P (A) P (B ) = P (A B ) A B .
() , P (A) P (B ) P (A B ).
3.13. U = {1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6} | . -
:
A = {1; 2; 4; 5}
B = {3; 5}:
A B
A B , .

| , -
, U | .
N = {1; 2; 3; : : :} | .
Z = {0; 1; 2; 3; : : :} | .
Q = { pq : p; q , q 6= 0} | .
R = { } | .
62
3.
S A, S. : A S .
,
.
A B
A B = {x : x A x B }:
A B
A B = {x : x A x B }:
B A
A \ B = {x : x A x 6 B }:
A ( U ) -
A = {x : x 6 A}:
A B
A B = {x : (x A x 6 B ) (x B x 6 A)}:
,
, U .
S . |S |.
,
|A B | = |A| + |B | |A B |:
A B -
A B = {(a; b) : a A b B }:
A B .
R R R2 .
( n) B n ,
B = {0; 1}.
63
.
.
.

.

, I. , .
( I,
II)
(, I)
( III, IV)
(, II)
( III, IV)
(, III)
( III, )
(, IV)
(, )
(, IV)
(, VII)
(, )
( VII, V)
(, VII)
( V, VIII)
( , V)
( V, VI)
(, VI)
( VI, II)
( II, )
(, )
(, )
( , {)
({, )
, (x; y ) , x y , (x; y ) , x | y .
, , , , , PROLOG.
,
. , : I
III?, , ( I, 3) .
: ? | . , . , ? | (x, IV)
IV?.
, , x , , .
64
3.
1. :
() ? | ( II, );
() ? | (, II);
() ? | ();
() ? | (, II).
.
, . , ,
.
, .
,
. , ,
, .
,
x, (x; y ), . (1) , ,
x | y , x | .
(1) (x) from (x; y ).
, (2), .
, x | y , y | x.
(2) (y; x) from (x; y ).
2. 1?
:
() ? | ({);
() ? | (, );
() ? | ().
. () 1 -
, (1), :
(, IV).
() , { - .
65
() | , (, ) (2).
(),
.
, , (1):
(3) (y ) from (x; y )
,
:
(3) (x; y ) from ( (x) (y; x))
3. :
() ? | ( IV);
() ? | ( IV, III);
() ? | ( IV, );
() ? | ( VIII, V).
.
() (,
IV) (3).
() ( III,
IV) ()
(4).
| .
, () ()
, , . ,
. , III, IV | , III. , (4)
().
() , VIII. (3)
? | ( VIII).
66
3.
, , ,
, ,
.

. , , .
, , ,
(A) (B ):
(A) (x) from (x; y );
(B ) (x) from ( (x)).
: ? | ( VIII), , (A) (B ). ? | ( VIII) . ( VIII) . (B ) ? | ( VIII) ! , ,
.
4. . (x) , , x |
- x | - . (1)
.
?
. :
(x) from ([ (x; y ) (z; y )

[ (x) (x; y )).
[ (x; y ) (z; y )
: , , , . [ (x) (x; y )
.
67
, . , ,
II.
.
, , . ,
.
4

, , , , .
(, ) ,
(, , . . ). A B A B
, ,
.
S K .
S K (s; k ), : s
k . ... ...,
.

.
. , : . , . .
n-
.
4.1.
A B R A B . ,
A = B , R A.
4.1. ,
. 4.1. ,
P :
4.1.
69
() R = {(x; y ) : x | y };
() S = {(x; y ) : x | y }.
&
&
&
4.1.
() R : (, ), (, ), (, ), (, ), (, ) (,
).
() S : (, ), (, ), (, ), (, ), (, ), (, ), (, ),
(, ) (, ).
4.2. , A = {1; 3; 5; 7}
B = {2; 4; 6}:
() U = {(x; y ) : x + y = 9};
() V = {(x; y ) : x < y }.
.
() U : (3; 6), (5; 4) (7; 2);

() V = {(1; 2); (1; 4); (1; 6); (3; 4); (3; 6); (5; 6)}.
4.3.
R = {(x; y ) : x | y }
A = {1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6}.
, .
70
4.
. R : (1; 1), (1; 1), (1; 2), (1; 3), (1; 4), (1; 5),
(1; 6), (2; 2), (2; 4), (2; 6), (3; 3), (3; 6), (4; 4), (5; 5) (6; 6).
, . ,
.
A B | R | . . R
, , .
, , ,
.
V A = {1; 3; 5; 7} B = {2; 4; 6} 4.2 (). . 4.2.
1
4.2.
A ,
A, , , ,
.
4.4. , R
4.3.
. R |
A = {1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6};
.
. 4.3.
4.1.
4.3.
71
. ,
R A
B .
- . :
A = {a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; an };
B = {b1 ; b2 ; : : : ; bm }:
R M n
m . A,
| B ,
. ,
i- j -
M (i; j ), :
M (i; j ) = ; (ai ; bj ) R;
M (i; j ) = ; (ai ; bj ) 6 R;
n m .
, U 4.2()
:
2
3

5
7
72
4.
, .
.
4.5. R A = {a; b; ; d}
A. ,
R.
. R : (a; b),
(a; ), (b; ), (b; d), ( ; b), (d; a), (d; b) (d; d).
4.6. , R
4.3.
. R :
1
2
3
4
5
6
R | , (x; y ) R x R y . , x |
y . 4.3
x | y .
, ,
:
( );
;
;
4.2.
73
4.7. R A = {1; 2; 3; 4} . 4.7.
,
R,

.
4.3.
. R = {(2; 1); (3; 2); (4; 3)}.
(
) :
1
3
4

x y = 1:
4.2.
, .
, R A
, x A x R x;
, x R y y R x x y A;
, (x R y y R x x = y ) x y A;
, (x R y y R z x R z ) x; y; z A.
. R , (x; x) R
x; ,
(x; y ) R , (y; x) R; ,
: (x; y ) R x 6= y , (y; x) 6 R; , (x; y ) R (y; z ) R (x; z ) R.
74
4.
, , , . . , . x
y , : y
x. ,
x y , y x . , ,
, x y
y z x z .
, . , A , . .
. , M , ,
, , (M (i; i)), ; M , . . M (i; j ) = M (j; i); :

M (i; j ) = i 6= j M (j; i) = :
, .
4.8. (, -
, )
:
() x y ;
() x 6= y ;
() x y
.
.
() x , . , , , , , 2
6, : 6 2. ,
. , x
y , y z . , y = mx
4.2.
75
m, | z = ny , n | . , z = ny = (nm)x, . . x z . ,
. , , : x y y
x , y = x.
() x 6= x , . , x 6= y
, y 6= x.
, , , 2 6= 3 3 6= 2, ,
, 2 = 2. ,
x 6= y y 6= x , x = y .
() , x .
, x
y y x. , , x, y z ,
x y ,
y z , . ,
.
R A
, R ,
. R A A , R
. , R
R . ,
R R , , R R
.
, R R P ,
1. R P ;
2. R R ;
3. R , R P .
76
4.
4.9. A = {1; 2; 3}, R A :

R = {(1; 1); (1; 2); (1; 3); (3; 1); (2; 3)}:
, .
.
(x; x). ,
:
.
R = {(1; 1); (1; 2); (1; 3); (3; 1); (2; 3); (2; 2); (3; 3)};
.

, . ,
R = {(1; 1); (1; 2); (1; 3); (3; 1); (2; 3); (2; 1); (3; 2)}:
, . R (3; 1)
(1; 2), (3; 2). , (2; 3) (3; 1) (2; 1), (3; 1)
(1; 3) | (3; 3). :
R {(1; 1); (1; 2); (1; 3); (3; 1); (2; 3); (3; 2); (2; 1); (3; 3)}:
(2; 1) (1; 2). , R (2; 2). ,

( ,
A2 ). ,
R = {(1; 1); (1; 2); (1; 3); (3; 1); (2; 3); (3; 2); (2; 1); (3; 3); (2; 2)}:
, 4.9, . 8 , ,
.
. , , .
,
.
4.3.
77
4.3.

.
, A . . (. .
), , - .
.
... , ...
. , ,
.
R, : x R y ,
xy > 0 .
.
... , ...
.
.
, ,
.
. |
.
A A1 ; A2 , . . . An A,
:
1) A = A1 A2 An ;
2) Ai Aj = i 6= j .
Ai .
A . 4.4. , ,
78
4.
. ,
.
4.4.
, R A .
.
. Ex x A Ex = {z A : z R x}.
.
R |
A.
A.
. .
, A. , Ex |
A. , R | , . . x R x. , x Ex Ex .
, x R y Ex = Ey . , x R y z Ex . z R x
x R y . R | , ,
z R y . , z Ey . , Ex Ey .
, Ey Ex , Ex = Ey , .
, , , A .
4.3.
79
.
, Ex | A
A. , x A, x Ex . , x . ,
A . ,
A .
, , , . , . . , Ex Ey 6= .
z A, Ex Ey . ,
z R x z R y . R | , , x R z z R y . R, x R y .
, , Ex = Ey . , , Ex Ey
, . .
.
, ,
A, : , .
4.10. R R
: x R y , x y | . ,
R |

, 0,
2.
. x x = 0 Z
x, R . x y , y x = (x y ) . ,
R | . x y y z | .
x z = (x y ) + (y z ) | , . . .
, R .
, , R , . , R | .
Ex
x :
Ex = {z R : z x | }:
80
4.
,
E0 = Z;
1
| } =
2
1
1 1 1 1
= {: : : ; 1 ; ; ; 1 ; 2 ; : : :};
2
2 2 2 2
= {z R : z 2 | } =

= {: : : ; 1 + 2; 2; 1 + 2; 2 + 2; : : :}:
E 1 = {z R : z
2
E2
, , R
A . , - . ,
, .
.
6 ;
;
... ... .
.
R | A,
x 6= y x R y x
, y | .
y . x y , z ,
x R z z R y , x 1 y x y .

, . A,
x y , x y
.
,
.
1
x. |
. .
4.3.
81
4.11. , ... ... A = {1; 2; 3; 6; 12; 18}.
,
.
. .
4.1

1, 2, 3
2, 3
12
1, 2, 3, 6
18
1, 2, 3, 6
6
18
12
3
1
4.5.
A ,
.
.
6 ;
.
,
. . , ,
2 2
, . , Z 6 ,
. | . .
82
4.
( ) (
).
4.11
, , 1. , : 12 18. .
. ,
{1; 2; 6; 18} ... ....
4
4.1. -
, :
a
2
3
4.2. -
N , :
R ={(x; y ) : 2x + y = 9};
S ={(x; y ) : x + y < 7};
T ={(x; y ) : y = x2 }:
4.3. R | {1; 2; 3; 4}, : u R v , u + 2v |

. R :
() ;
() ;
() .
4.4. ,
, :
() ... , ...;
() ... ...;
() ... , ...;
() ... , ....
4
83
4.5. , Z
, , ?
() x + y | ;
() x + y | ;
() xy | ;
() x + xy | .
4.6. , , {x : x Z 1 6 x 6 12}.
() R = {(x; y ) : xy = 9};
() S = {(x; y ) : 2x = 3y };
() R ;
() S .
4.7. .
.
() x , y ;
() x = 2y N ;
() x < y R ;
() x y .
4.8. ,

(a; a); (b; b); ( ; ); (a; ); (a; d); (b; d); ( ; a); (d; a) ;
{a; b; ; d}.
?
4.9.
A ,
A:
() A | , R
: x R y , x y ;
() A = Z, R : x R y ,
x y | ;
() A | , x R y , x ,
y ;
84
4.
() A = R2 , R : (a; b) R ( ; d) , a2 + b2 = 2 + d2 .
4.10. R Z : x R y
, x2 y 2 3. ,
R
4.11. -
:
() {1; 2; 3; 5; 6; 10; 15; 30} x y ;

() {1; 2; 3}
X | Y .
4.12. R A =
= {a; b; ; d; e; f; g; h} . 4.6. R
A.
g
4.6.
4.13. () : X Y
, ,
. X ( ), Y ,
X Y ; X
Y , , X Y , , Y X .
85
: ,
, , . ,
.

A B
R A B . A = B , , R | A.

( ), , .
R A
, x R x x A;
, x R y y R x x; y A;
, (x R y y R x x = y )
x; y A;
, (x R y y R z ) x R z x; y z A.
R R P ,
1) R P ;
2) R R ;
3) R | ,
R P .
, R A .
x A
Ex = {z A : z R x}:
A A1 ; A2 ; : : : ; An A, :
A = A1 A2 An Ai Aj = i 6= j:
Ai . R | A, A.
86
4.
, R
A . ,
, ,
.
| , .
R | A x R y ,
x 6= y , x y . , x y z , x R z
z R y , , x | y . : x y .
, -
. ,
x y , x y .
.
, , . ,
,
().
4.2. T1 =
4000123
1.2.83
2 ,
5001476
5112391
5072411
5532289
5083001
5196236
4936201
4.5.84
21.3.84
12.12.84
15.8.83
9.7.83
21.3.84
7.10.77
4 ,
17 ,
21 ,
4 ,
18 ,
133 ,
11 ,
, , .
, . 4.2 : , , , , . . 4.3
.
.
87
, . , . 4.2

, . 4.2 , . 4.3.
4.3. T2 =
.
.
n , A1 ;
A2 ; : : : ; An A1 A2 An . n ,
Ai , n-
.
, . 4.3 T 2
A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 , A1 | ,
A2 = A3 = A4 = A5 = {, , , }.
| (, , , ,
), ,
.
, , , : , .
, ,
, .

. , (1, {, }) . 4.4.
1.
(2, {, ., . .}).
. . 4.5
88
4.
4.4. T3 = (1, {, })
2 ,
4 ,
17 ,
21 ,
4 ,
18 ,
133 ,
11 ,
4.5
.
.

, , . , R S | ,
, R | A1 Am B1 Bn , S |
A1 Am C1 Cp . A1 ; A2 ; : : : ; Am . R S |
A1 Am B1 Bn C1 Cp , (a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; am ; b1 ; b2 ; : : : ; bm ; 1 ; 2 ; : : : ; p ),
(a1 ; : : : ; am ; b1 ; : : : ; bm ) R, (a1 ; : : : ; am ; 1 ; : : : ; p ) |
S .
, (3, 2) . 4.6.
4.6
.
.
2 ,
18 ,
4 ,
11 ,
133 ,
.
89
,
. , (1, = = ) . 4.7.
4.7
5001476
5083001
4.5.84
9.7.83
4 ,
18 ,
2. (2, . . = ).
. (. 4.8) 2, , .
.
4.8
.
.
, .
3. , :
R1 = (T2, {, ., . });
R2 = (R1, . = . = );
. -, 2, , . . , . -
R1. ,
, ,
. R2 (. 4.9).
4.9
90
4.
4. :
R1 = (T1, = );
R2 = (T2,{, . .});
R3 = (R1, R2).
. 1 , -
, R1.
2 , , R2.
R1 R2 .
R1 R2, (. 4.10).
4.10
4000123
1.2.83
5196236
21.3.84
4936201
7.10.77
2 ,
133 ,
11 ,
.
.
5. (, ) -
, :
.
. -
.
R1 = (1, = );
R2 = (2, . . = . . = );
R3 = (R2, . = . = );
R4 = (R1, R3);
R = (R4,{, }).
, ,
- .
| , .
,
. ,
, , 4.
.
. , . , , . ,
, .
, . , ( ). ,
.
5.1.

R | A B . R1 B A :
R1 = {(b; a) : (a; b) R}:
, ... ...
... ....
, .
92
5.
. R |
A B , S |
B C . R S
A C ,
S R :
S R = {(a; ) : a A; C a R b; b S b B }:

A C , B .
5.1. R | a | b, S b | .
: S R S S .
. a | b, b | , a, ,
, . . a . ,
S R , a | .
, S S |
a | .
5.2. , R S -
, . 5.1. , S R.
a
5.1.
. , , .
R = {(a; 1); (a; 2); (a; 3); (b; 2)}
S = {(1; y ); (2; x); (3; x)}:
.
a R 1 1 S y (a; y ) S R;
a R 2 2 S x (a; x) S R;
5.1.
93
a R 3 3 S x (a; x) S R;
b R 2 2 S x (b; x) S R:
. 5.2 .
a
S R
5.2.
, . ,
.
.
:
A = {a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; an }; B = {b1 ; b2 ; : : : ; bm } C = { 1 ; 2 ; : : : ; p }:
, R | A B , S |
B C . , M R
:
M (i; j ) = (ai ; bj ) R;
M (i; j ) = (ai ; bj ) 6 R:
, N S :
N (i; j ) = (bi ; j ) S;
N (i; j ) = (bi ; j ) 6 S:
bk B , ai R bk bk S j ,
i- M k - . , j -
N k - .
, ai (S R) j , P (i; j ) P S R . i- M
, j -
N , P (i; j ) = .
94
5.
, P S R :
P (i; j ) = [M (i; 1) N (1; j )
[M (i; 2) N (2; j )
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
[M (i; n) N (n; j ):
P = M N .
5.3. R S | 5.2.
S R R S .
. R A = {a; b} B = {1; 2; 3}
M =
A B
, .
, S | B = {1; 2; 3} C = {x; y },

N = :

, P S R

:
P =

M , N | . P .
P (1; 1) M N . ,

P (1; 1) = = ( ) ( ) ( )
= = :
95
5.1.
, M
, N .
: P (1; 1) = .
M N , ,
. , P (1; 2) = .
, M
N , P (2; 1) = .
, P (2; 2) = , M N .
,

N =
:

5.4. R A = {1; 2; 3; 4; 5} -
R R , R .
. R R
R R (x; z ), x R y y R z
- y A. R R R R.
, , , R R , R. R
.
96
5.
5.2.

, A B . |
, .
A B , A
B . , a A (a; b).
,
, A, .
, . 5.3 , {a; b; } {1; 2}, (a; 1), (b; 1)
( ; 2).
a
5.3.
5.5. ,
A = {a; b; } B = {1; 2; 3}
A B .
() f = {(a; 1); (a; 2); (b; 3); ( ; 2)};

() g = {(a; 1); (b; 2); ( ; 1)};
() h = {(a; 1); ( ; 2)}.
.
() f | , a B : 1 2.
() g .
() , b .
5.2.
97
5.6. :
() x | y ;
() Z, : {(x; x2 ) : x Z};
() R, : {(x; y ) : x = y 2 }
?
.
() ,
, .
() ,
x x2 .
() |
, , ,
: (2; 2) (2; 2) | .
, (x; y ) x.
f | A B .
x A y B , , (x; y ) f , : y = f (x), , f A B ,
f (x) x f f ,
x.
, f : A B , ,
f A B . A , B |
1 f .
,
A f ,
. , f
B ,
x A. f (A)
:
f (A) = {f (x) : x A}:
. 5.4 , A B .
1
, f A
B . | . .
98
5.
f(A)
5.4.
: A B
f : A B , A B | , .
, , .
5.5.
= f (x)
, f : R R,
f (x) = x2 , . 5.5. x
R. y (
R). , . . ,
(x; y ) R R, y = f (x). ,
, f (2) = 4, (2; 4) ,
.
5.7. g : R R,
g (x) = 2 x. x = 2
x = 3. .
5.2.
99
. . 5.6. : g (2) = 0 g (3) = 1.

y
x
(2, 0)
(3, -1)
5.6. g (x) = 2 x
.
f : A B | . , ,
f (a1 ) = f (a2 ) a1 = a2
a1 ; a2 A.
,
a1 6= a2 f (a1 ) 6= f (a2 );
. . .
, .
f ,
,
. , b B
a A, b = f (a). , - f .
f ,
, .
5.8. , ,
. 5.7, , . .
100
5.
()
()
a
()
()
5.7.
() , 1 a, b. ,
, 2 .
() , . ,
.
() 1 a, b. , . ,
.
() , .
() .
5.9. , h : Z Z, h(x) = x2 , .
. , f : R R, f (x) = x2 ,
. , h
5.2.
101
. h, . 5.8,
.
y
1
x
-3
-2
-1
5.8. h(x) = x2 , Z.
, h ,
a1 6= a2 , h(a1 ) = h(a2 ).
. , a1 = 2 a2 = 2.
, , , h. -
. , 1, .
5.10. , k : R R, k (x) = 4x + 3, .
. , k (a1 ) = k (a2 ), . .
4a1 + 3 = 4a2 + 3:
, 4a1 = 4a2 , a1 = a2 . , k |
.
b R. ,
a R, h(a) = b. , a a = 14 (b 3).
, k | .
k ,
| .
102
5.
5.3.

, f : A B | . f 1 .
, f 1 : B A
.
f (a; b), b = f (a). f , f 1 (b; a), a = f 1 (b).
, :
f (a) = b, f 1 (b) = a. , .
5.11. 5.8 ?
.
, . , () .

.
k : R R, k = 4x + 3 (. 5.10).
k :
x -
4x -
3
4x + 3-
: 4 3 |
: 4 3, .
, :
1
4
(x 3) (x 3)

4

3
, k 1 : R R k 1 = 14 (x 3).
, . y = k (x), x = k 1 (y ).
, y = 4x + 3. y , , x = 14 (y 3). , k 1 (y ) = 14 (y 3) , x , k 1 (x) = 14 (x 3),
.
5.3.
103
, ,
, . : .
f : A B .
. f ,
. .
, .
f : A B | . , f
:
f = (a; b) : a A f (a) = b :
:

f 1 = (b; a) : a A f (a) = b :
f , b B
a A, f (a) = b. , f a b .
, f 1 ,
B
A. , , , f 1
, .
, . , f 1 | .
b B a A, (b; a) f 1 . , (a; b) f , . . b = f (a).
f .
f
. , f (a1 ) = f (a2 ). : (f (a1 ); a1 )
(f (a2 ); a2 ) | f 1 . f 1 ,
: a1 = a2 , f .
, f , . : ,
, .
5.12.
A = {x : x R x 6= 1}
f : A A :
f (x) =
x
x1
104
5.
, f .
. , f (a1 ) = f (a2 ).
a1
a1 1
a2
a2 1
a1 a2 a1 = a1 a2 a2 ;
a1 = a2 . , f .
b A | f . a
A, : f (a) = b, . .
a
a1
= b:
a,
a=
b
b1
a = bb 1 A, f (a) = b.
f .
, , f , . , .
: f 1 (b) = a ,
f (a) = b. , f ,
a=
, f 1 : A A,
b1
f 1 (x) =
. . f .
x
x1
.
,
, .
f : A B g : B C | ,
g f A C (a; ),
b B (a; b) f (b; ) g . b = f (a)
a, f | . , = g (b) b (g
5.4.
105
). , = g (f (a)) a , ,
f g | .
, g f : A C , (g f )(x) = g (f (x)).
5.13. : f : R R, f (x) = x2
g : R R, g (x) = 4x + 3. g f , f g , f f g g .
. R -
R.
(g f )(x) = g (f (x)) = g (x2 ) = 4x2 + 3;

(f g )(x) = f (g (x)) = f (4x + 3) = (4x + 3)2 = 16x2 + 24x + 9;
(f f )(x) = f (f (x)) = f (x2 ) = x4 ;
(g g )(x) = g (g (x)) = g (4x + 3) = 4(4x + 3) + 3 = 16x + 15.

.
. , sin x, log x, |x| . . ,
.
,
, . |
, , . , .
.
5.4.
f : A B | , A, B | . , A n :
a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; an . , |A| > |B |,
f 1 .
, ai 6= aj , f (ai ) = f (aj ).
1
,
: 10 9 ,
. | . .
106
5.
, ,
i 6= j : f (ai ) 6= f (aj ).
B n :
f (a1 ); f (a2 ); : : : ; f (an ). , |B | > n, : n = |A| > |B |. ,
ai ; aj A, f (ai ) = f (aj ).
5.14. 15 . ,
. A, 12 B .
f : A B ,
. |A| = 15, |B | = 12, |A| > |B |. f , . .
5.14 . 15 12 . , .
, , . ,
,
, , , . | . ,
, , f ( A)
( B ). .
5.15. -
,
,
?
. A | , B |
, , 33 . f : A B
, : . ,
f () = (; ). B 33 33 = 1 089
. , |A| > |B | = 1 089,
5.4.
107
, .
1 090 2 .
5.16. , 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7 8 , ,
9.
. , 9.
{1; 8}; {2; 7}; {3; 6}; {4; 5}:

A ( ), B :

B = {1; 8}; {2; 7}; {3; 6}; {4; 5} :
f : A B ,
B , . , f (3) = {3; 6}.
A . ,
9.
. f : A B , A B | . |A| > k |B |
k ,
f , k + 1 .
,
f k , A
k |B | .
5.17. -
,
,
?
. f : A B | 5.15.
, B 1 089 .
, , |A| > 4|B | = 4 356. , 4 357 .

2
, ,
. . | . .
108
5.
5.18. ,
, , ,
.
. x | , A | B = {0; 1}.
f : A B :
f (a) =
0; a x;
1; a x:
5 = |A| > 2|B |, ,

x, .
, a, b x.
,
. , - , a b
. x. , : a, b x |
. ,
, x .
, ,
, . ,
A B . ,
, ,
, .
5
5.1. R |
{1; 2; 3}
{1; 2; 3; 4};
:

R = (1; 1); (2; 3); (2; 4); (3; 1); (3; 4) :
, S |
{1; 2; 3; 4}
{1; 2};
5
109
:
S = (1; 1); (1; 2); (2; 1); (3; 1); (4; 2) :
R1 , S 1 S R. ,
(S R ) 1 = R 1 S 1 :
5.2. R | ... ..., S |
... ... . : R1 , S 1 , R S , S 1 R1 R R.
5.3. , R |
A, R1 A.
R R1 ?
5.4. R S M N ,
M =
N =
M N . ?
5.5. A = {0; 2; 4; 6} B = {1; 3; 5; 7}. A B
, A B ?
()

(6;

() (2;

() (2;

() (6;

3); (2; 1); (0; 3); (4; 5) ;

3); (4; 7); (0; 1); (6; 5) ;

1); (4; 5); (6; 3) ;

1); (0; 3); (4; 1); (0; 7); (2; 5) .
, ?
5.6. , -
Z, ,
, .
() f (n) = 2n + 1;
110
5.
() g (n) =
() h(n) =
n;
n ;
2
2n; n ;
n + 1;
n 1;
n ;
n :
5.7. :
() f : Z Z, f (x) = x2 + 1;
() g : N N, g (x) = 2x ;
() h : R R, h(x) = 5x 1;

2x 3 x > 1;
() j : R R, j (x) =
x+1
x < 1;
() k : R R, k (x) = x + |x|;
() l : R R, l(x) = 2x |x|.
, , (|x|
x, x x > 0 x x < 0).
5.8. , , x , x, : x.
() A = {1; 0; 1; 2} j
k f : A Z 2 +1
x
: f (x) =
:
3
f .
() , g : Z Z,
jnk
g (n) =
2
, .
5.9. f : A B : f (x) = 1 + x2 , A
, 0,
B | 1. ,
f .
5.10. f : R R g : R R :
f (x) = x2
(
2x + 1;
g (x) =
x;
x > 0;
x < 0:
: f g , g f g g .
5
111
5.11. f : A B g : B C | . ,
() f g , g f ;
() f g , g f ;
() f g , (g f )1 = f 1 g 1 .
5.12. () ,
- ?
() ,
:
?
() 52 ,
?
() 52 ,
?
5.13. , 79 ,
2 .
() , ,
, . .,
,
| .
() ,
.
5.14. S = {1; 2; : : : ; 20}.
()
S ,
22?
() , 11 S ,
- .
(: f , . , f (12) = 3.)
112
5.

R A B
R1 ;
B A : R1 = (b; a) : (a; b) R .
R | A B , S | B C . R S A C ,
:

S R = (a; ) : a A; C a R b; b S b B :
M N | R S . M N
S R.
, A B , f A B ,
A B .
f : A B A B . A f ,
B | f . y = f (x),
, y B | f ,
x. y x f .
f B :

f (A) = f (x) : x A ( ).
f : A B (
), f (a1 ) = f (a2 ) a1 = a2 a1 ; a2 A.
f : A B , . ,
b B a A, f (a) = b.
, , ,
.
f , f . f : A B
.
113
, . f
f 1 : B A. f (a) = b, f 1 (b) = a.
, f : A B | , A B ,
|A| > |B |, f
. |A| > k |B | k ,
f k + 1 .
.

,
.
, ,
.
, . , , .
, ,
.

C = ; ; ; : : : ; |
, P
0; 1; 2; : : : . S () . , | S, .
, :
har
: S C,
har(s)
| s.
: S S, rest(s) | ,
s .
rest
add har : C S S, add har( ; s) | , s .

len
: S P,
len(s)
| s.
114
5.
,
, . , ,
| .
1.
har(s),
len(rest(s))

add har har(s); add har
s = .

,
rest(s)
.
har(s)
= har() = ;
len(rest(s))
= len(rest()) = len() = 2;

add har har(s); add har ; rest(s)
=

= add har ; add har ; rest() =

= add har ; add har(; ) =
= add har(; ) = .
2.
add har( har(s); add har( ; rest(s)));
s | , | .
. ,

s.
3. third : S C -
.
third har rest.
. s , s
.
third(s)
= har(rest(rest(s))):
.
115
4. ,
reverse2 : S S,
2 .
s | . har(rest(s)), | har(s).
rest(rest(s)). , reverse2(s)
:
.
add har( har(rest(s)); add har( har(s); rest(rest(s)))):
5. , s = .
Input s
begin
u := ;
t := s;
i := 0;
while i < len(s) do
:= har(t);
t := rest(t);
u := add har( ; u);
i := i + 1;
end
Output u
?
. , t, u
i while
. 5.1
5.1

0
1
2
3
4

0
1
2
3
3
i <
4?
.
116
5.
, . , rest
s = , reverse2 2. , ,
. . ,
.
, rest :
rest : S S,
: s S s 6= ,
rest(s) | , s, .
, . , ,
rest(rest(s)) 1 ,
rest rest | s S len(s) > 1.
6

, . ,
,
. , ( 3) ( 5).
, :
.

.
, :
,
.
. , .
,
:
(x1 + x2 + + xk )n :
, .
,
.
, .
6.1.
.
1.
: ,
.
.
?
118
6.
2. ,
. 6 9 .
?
3. 3 4?
. , .
4 + 2 + 3 = 9 ,
.
6 ,
,
. ,
, , 6 9 = 54.
.
, A B | , n1 A, n2 B ,
A B n1 + n2 .
, k n1 , n2 | , . ., nk ,
k
n1 n2 nk .
, , | . , A B
, |A| = n1 , |B | = n2 ; A
B , , . ,
, |A B | = |A| + |B |, . . A B
n1 + n2 . , n1 + n2
A B .
. A1 n1
, A2 | n2 , . .
k
A1 A2 Ak ,
|A1 | |A2 | |Ak |.
.
, . , , -
6.1.
119
.
, 3, | 4. , (
3), 10 10 .
,
1 10 10 = 100.
. 100. ,
, 100 + 100 = 200 , 3 4.
6.1. .
, .
?
, 3 4 = 12 1 . 3 2 = 6 .
, 4 2 = 8 . ,
, ,
12 + 6 + 8 = 26.
6.2.

( ). , . ?
. 33
. 33 33 33 = 35 937. ,
10 10 10 = 1 000. ,

, : 35 937 000
.
: .
, . | .
.
120
6.
6.2.
, : (A), - (B )
(C ).
?

. , ,
. ,
, . . AA? ,
? ,
AB BA ?
.
1. .
9 : AA, AB , AC , BA, BB , BC ,
CA, CB CC .
2. ,
. | 6 : AB , AC , BA, BC ,
CA CB .
3. , .
| 6 : AA, AB , AC , BB , BC
CC .
4. , , ,
,
: AB , AC BC .

, .
, .
. , x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xk X k .
k n , , (n; k )-. , .
,
, . , .
, .
6.2.
121
(n; k )- (n; k )-, ;

(n; k )- (n; k )-, ;
(n; k )- (n; k )- ;
(n; k )-
(n; k )- .
(n; k )- . n .
,
, . . k
, , , (n; k )- nk .
6.3.
N . (+ ),
N 1 . -
?
. | 0 1. N . , , -
, ,
, , .
(2; N )- . , 2N .

, :
000000 00
+ 000000 00;
0. ,
(2N 1) .
(n; k )-
1 : P (n; k ). . n . ,
.
k
An
. |
122
6.
(n 1) . | (n 2) , k - ,
(n k + 1) .
.
P (n; k ) = n(n 1)(n 2) (n k + 1):
, 1 n n n!.
P (n; k ), , .
P (n; k ) = n(n 1)(n 2) (n k + 1) =
(n k )(n k 1) 2 1
=
(n k )(n k 1) 2 1
n(n 1)(n 2) (n k + 1)(n k )(n k 1) 2 1
=
=
(n k )(n k 1) 2 1
n!
=
:
(n k )!
= n(n 1)(n 2) (n k + 1)
, (n; k )-
P (n; k ) =
n!
(n k )!
6.4.
, : , , , ,
,
.
. ,
,
. P (6; 4). ,
P (6; 4) =
6!
6!
654321
=
=
:
(6 4)!
2!
21
:
P (6; 4) =
6 5 4 3 6 2 6 1
= 6 5 4 3 = 360:
6 2 6 1
6.2.
123
, . . ,
.
(n; k )- 2 C (n; k ).
.
: (n; k )n! . P (n; k ) = (n
k)!

, P (n; k ), , C (n; k ).
, .
. n = 4, k = 3. A = {1; 2; 3; 4}, .
(4; 3)- |
, ,
, . , {1; 2; 3} (4; 3)- . {2; 1; 3},
( ),
( ). ? , .
(n = 4, k = 3) ,
. . .
(n; k )- , . . B A, |B | = k |A| = n.
(n; k )- ?
, (k; k )-
! (, .) 3 :
P (k; k ) =
k!
= k !:
(k k )!
, (n; k )- k ! (n; k )- . ,
C (n; k ) =
P (n; k )
k!
n!
(n k )! k !
k

`n Cn , ,
, : k . | . .
3
, 0! = 1. | . .
124
6.
6.5.
.
?
. (7; 3)- -
. :
C (7; 3) =
7!
7654321
7!
=
=
=
(7 3)! 3!
4! 3!
(4 3 2 1)(3 2 1)
7 6 5 6 4 6 3 6 2 6 1
7 6 6 5
=
= 35:
(6 4 6 3 6 2 6 1)(3 2 1)
6 3 6 2 6 1
, 35 .
, , . , , , .
, ,
, - .
, , ,
, a, .
, , , ||,
: ||. , , , |
, , , , . , ,
( ),
,
. , ,
. ,
, (7; 2)- , . . C (7; 2). ,
, | , . 7 6 . ,
, . , 7 6 2. ,
6.2.
125

76
7654321
=
=
2
(2 1)(5 4 3 2 1)
7!
7!
=
= C (7; 2):
=
5! 2!
(7 2)! 2!
(n; k )-
(k n ), , n 1 k . , (n 1) + k
. , (n; k )- (n 1) (n + k 1)
. , (n; k )-
C (n + k 1; n 1) =
(n + k 1)!
(n + k 1)!
=
:
(n + k 1 (n 1))! (n 1)!
k ! (n 1)!
6.6. , -
?
. -
, . . .
, ( 6
) , . . (6; 5)- . ,
C (6 + 5 1; 6 1) = C (10; 5) =
10!
= 252:
5! 5!
. 6.1 k n- ,
.
6.1
k
n
(n + k 1)!
k ! (n 1)!
n!
(n k)!
n!
(n k)! k!
, , .
126
6.
4 49 . , ,
, .
. |
49 . (49; 6)-

49!
49!
=
= 13 983 816;
(49 6)! 6!
43! 6!
: 1 13 983 816. , , .
, , , , .
, , ,
, ,
.
, ,
. ,
, $1 ( ), ,
( ) , $10. $10.
, : . C (6; 3) ,
, C (43; 3) . , $10,
6!
43!
= 246 820:
C (6; 3) C (43; 3) =
3! 3! 40! 3!
|
, . .
246 820
1
0; 018:
13 983 816
57
4
. |
. .
6.2.
127
6.7. , , -
.
12 ?
() , ;
() , ;
() , , ?
.
C (12; 5) =
12!
= 792
7! 5!
() , .
10!
= 120
7! 3!
. , 120
.
C (10; 3) =
() ,
.
10!
= 252
5! 5!
, ,
.
C (10; 5) =
()
, , .
C (10; 4). ,
. , 2 C (10; 4)
, , .
, 792
: (), () (). ,
, ,
792 120 252 = 420:
128
6.
6.3.
C (n; k )
(a + b)n . ,
(a + b)3 = (a + b)(a + b)(a + b) =
= aaa + aab + aba + abb + baa + bab + bba + bbb =
= a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3 :
, , , . , ,
a b.
, C (3; 2) = 3
, b ( a).
: C (3; 0) = 1, C (3; 1) = 3, C (3; 2) = 3 C (3; 3) = 1.
C (n; k ),
, , 0! = 1.
, .
, (a + b)n ,
ank bk ( k
0 n) b, k , a,
(n k ) . C (n; k )
k n, C (n; k )
ank bk k = 0; 1; : : : ; n. ,
(a + b)n = C (n; 0)an + C (n; 1)an1 b + C (n; 2)an2 b2 + + C (n; n)bn :
. C (n; k ) .
(. . 6.1).
C (0; 0)
(1; 0) C (1; 1)
C (2; 0)
C (2; 1)
C (2; 2)
C (3; 0)
C (3; 1)
C (3; 2)
C (3; 3)
C (4; 0)
C (4; 1)
C (4; 2)
C (4; 3)
C (4; 4)
C (5; 0)
C (5; 1)
C (5; 2)
C (5; 3)
C (5; 4)
C (5; 5)
C
:::
C n;
0)
:::
C n;
:::
1)
:::
:::
:::
:::
:::
:::
:::
:::
:::
:::
:::
C n; n
6.1.
:::
1)
:::
C n; n
6.3.
129
(n + 1)- ,
(a + b)n .
,
1
:::
1
5
:::
1
4
1
3
10
:::
1
2
6
1
3
10
1
4
:::
1
5
:::
1
:::
C (n; 0) = C (n; n) = 1, . :
C (n; k ) = C (n; n k );
C (n; k ).
,
. , , ,
, .
:
C (n 1; k 1) + C (n 1; k ) = C (n; k );
0 < k < n.
:
(n 1)!
(n 1)!
+
=
(n k )! (k 1)! (n k 1)! k !

1
(n 1)!
1
=
=
+
(n k 1)! (k 1)! n k k

(n 1)!
n
=
=
(n k 1)! (k 1)! (n k )k
C (n 1; k 1) + C (n 1; k ) =
n!
(n k )! k !
= C (n; k ):
,
. ,
130
6.
7! . .
,
.
3!, | 2!,
7!
= 420
3! 2!
.
.
.
n!
n1 ! n2 ! nr !
n , n1
1, n2 | 2, . . nr r .
6.8. 15 -
?
. 15 ,
.
15!
= 68 796
5! 5! 5!
.
n1 ! n2n!! nr ! .
xn1 1 xn2 2 xnr r
(x1 + x2 + + xr )n .
, xn1 1 xn2 2 xnr r , x1 , n1
, x2 , n2 , . . , xn1 1 xn2 2 xnr r n
, n1 , n2 | . .
6.9.
() x3 y 2 z 4 (x + y + z )9 ;
() x3 y 2 (x + y + 3)7 .
6
131
() x3 y 2 z 4 (x + y + z )9
9!
= 1 260:
3! 2! 4!
() x3 y 2 z 2 (x + y + z )7
7!
= 210:
3! 2! 2!
(x + y + z )7 210x3 y 2 z 2 :
z = 3, , (x + y + 3)7
1 890x3 y 2 . , x3 y 2
(x + y + 3)7 1 890.
6
6.1. () ,
. ?
() ,
. ?
() . ,
.
?
6.2. () | , -
,
.
? ?
() , 6 000,
, ?
() , ,
. | ( 26 ),
, . ?
132
6.
6.3. S | , -
: 0, 1, 2, 3, 6, 0
, , .
() S ?
() S
?
() ()?
() () , 4 000?
6.4. :
() P (7; 2), P (8; 5), P (6; 4) P (n; n 1);
() C (10; 7), C (9; 2), C (8; 6) C (n; n 1).
, C (n; k ) = C (n; n k ).
6.5. () -
,
?
() 20 . ?
() , , 6.2 ().
?
6.6. () 18 . -
.
.
() 5 7
8 11 .
?
()
.
?
?
6.7. -
, , -.
() ?
6
133
() ,
-?
() , ?
() ,

?
6.8. -
, | , | .

.
,
() ;
() ;
() ?
6.9. () -
. .
?
() . ?
6.10. ,
.
() ?
() ,
,
?
6.11. :
21
35
35
21
1:
() .
134
6.
() , a, b |
, :
a + 2b + .
()
:
C (n; k ) + 2C (n; k + 1) + C (n; k + 2) = C (n + 2; k + 2)
0 6 k 6 n 2.
( ()
.)
6.12. () a = b = 1, ,
n = 0; 1; 2; : : : :
C (n; 0) + C (n; 1) + + C (n; n) = 2n :
, S n 2n .
(: , k S .)
() ,
C (n; 0) C (n; 1) + C (n; 2) + (1)n C (n; n) = 0:
6.13. ()
?
() ?
() ?
6.14. () a3 b5
(a + b)8 .
() xy 3 z 4 (x + y + z )8 .
() xy 2 z
(x + 2y + z 1)5 .
135

, A B | , n1 A n2 B ,
A B n1 + n2 .
, k n1 , n2 | , . ., nk ,
k
n1 n2 nk .
k S n.
, (n; k )-, | (n; k )-.
,
, .
.
| :
(a + b)n = C (n; 0)an + C (n; 1)an1 b + C (n; 2)an2 b2 + + C (n; n)bn ;
n!
C (n; k ) =
(n k )! k !
(n; k )- (n; k )-,
, . 6.1.
6.1
k
n
(n + k 1)!
k ! (n 1)!
n!
(n k)!
n!
(n k)! k!
,
n!
n1 ! n2 ! nr !
n , n1
1, n2 | 2, . . nr r .
136
6.
.
| . . ,
, , .
, .
, , X , n ,
. X
, , . . , X
, , . ,
n . , () X , ,
, , ( ) .
. . ( )
1 + log2 n . . 6.2,
, .
6.2
n
1 + log 2 n
8
64
4
7
218 = 250 000
19
, log2 2k = k .
1. A, B , C , D E
n, 3n2 , 2n2 + 4n, n3 2n .
, n = 1,
n = 10, n = 100 n = 1000, -
1 .
. . 6.3.
, , n ( ), , n -
137
( ). n.
n,
(. B C ).
6.3
A
1
10
100
1000
3n
1
10
100
1000
3
300
30
0,83
2n + 4n
2n
6
240
20,4
0,56
1
1
0,28
11,6
2
1,024
4 1017
10176
, f (n) g (n) ,
. , f (x)
, g (x), C , |f (n)| 6 C |g (n)| n.
1 f (x) = O (g (n)).
2. , 2n2 + 4n = O (n2 ).
. n 6 n2 n > 1, ,
2n2 + 4n 6 2n2 + 4n2 = 6n2

n N. , C = 6 , , 2n2 + 4n = O (n2 ).
, , n2 6 2n2 + 4n n > 1. , n2 = O (2n2 + 4n). , n2 2n2 + 4n,
, . , B C 1 ,
,
.

, 1
, O(g (n)) , ,
g (n). , ,
. | . .
138
6.
, . :
2
3
: : : nk : :}:
2n
|n n n {z

log n
, (n log n) n n2 , (n2 log n) n2 n3 . .

,
, . , ,
n.
. 6.2.

f (n) g (n)
, f (n) g (n),
, , g (n). ,
( )

.
, , f (n) = 9n + 3n6 + 7 log n. ,
( ,
)
. 9n = O (n), 3n6 = O (n6 ) 7 log n = O (log n).
n log n , n6 , , 9n, 7 log n O (n6 ). , f (n) = O (n6 ), f (n)
3n6 . , f (n)
, n6 . ,
f (n) , n6 .
3. , ,

:
() n4 + 2n3 + 3;
() 6n5 + 2n ;
() 5n + n2 log n.
() O (n4 ), n4 |
.
139
() O (2n ), 2n |
.
() | n2 log n. , , n2
n3 . , ,
, , O (n3 ).
6.2.

, , n
.
140
6.
4.

, , x := x + 1, .
begin
for i := 1 to 2n do
for j := 1 to n do
for k := 1 to j do
x := x + 1;
end
. ( i) 2n . , j , n
. j x := x + 1 j .
, i
x := x +1 1+2+ + n , 12 n(n +1).

T (n) :
T (n) = 2n
, T (n) = O (n3 ):
1
n(n + 1) = n2 (n + 1):
2
, , ,
. ,
, . 7.1. : ,
, , , . ,
, , | ,
. 7.1, ,
.
C
c
g
d
A
e
D
a
b
B
f
7.1.
, , , . ,
, . | , , .

142
7.
. , .
7.1.
. 7.1 ,
. , , : ,
?
| ,
, . A, B , C D
, a, b, , d, e, f g
(. . 7.2). (
) ,
. , ,
.
C
7.2.
, , ,
, . ( ), , , .
, ,
, - , ,
1 , 1
, ,
. | . .
7.1.
143
: ,
.
, , , ,
, . v (v ) , 2.
, ,
, . , : (B ) = (C ) = (D ) = 3
(A) = 5. , ,
, ,
.
G = (V; E ), V | , E | , G (, ) ( , ).
, . 7.2, , ,
, A B (
).
u v ,
- e, ,
u ( v ). , E ,
,
V . , , . . ,
.
, e, u v , v u
( , , . . ).
, u
v , uv ( vu).
,
, .
M , M . -

M .
2
, v x, ,
. | . .
144
7.
7.1. G(V; E ) V =
= {a; b; ; d; e} E = {ab; ae; b ; bd; e; de}. .
. G . 7.3.
c
7.3.
:
a
b

d
e

, .
G = (V; E ) G = (V ; E ),
E E V V .
7.2. H , K L,
. 7.4, G.
G, H K
. 7.5. H K | G,
. L G,
4, G .
.
k G v0 ; v1 ; : : : ; vk , i = 1; : : : ; k
vi1 vi .
v0 v1 : : : vk . , 1 4 3 2 5 | 4
G 7.2.
7.1.
145
7.4.

v0 ; v1 ; : : : ; vk , ,
v0 = v1 , ( ) .
, | ,
.
7.5.
7.3. G 7.2.
. 5:
132541
1 2 5 4 3 1:
, -
146
7.
, . ,
4:
1 2 5 4 1;
12341
2 5 4 3 2;
3:
1231
1 3 4 1:
, , . , ,
.
.
,
- . , .

(G). . .
.
G = (V; E ) | . = (G), . .
G.
begin
V := V ;
:= 0;
while V 6= do
begin
y
V ;
, y ;
y V
E ;
end
:= + 1;
end
7.4. -
, . 7.6.
7.2.
147
7.6.
. . 7.1.
7.1
V

y = 1
y = 2
y = 7
{1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8}
{2; 4; 5; 7}
{7}
0
1
2
3
, (G) = 3. . 7.7.
7.7.
7.2.
, , . ,
148
7.
. , , ,
| .
, , . .
,
.
.
, . , - .
Kn , n |
. , .
K5 . 7.8. a b d e a,
, . . ,
a,
. ,
a. , 4 3 2 = 24
. , , K5 12
1 .
7.8.
K5
( )
() | .
.
1
: a b
, . | . .
d e a
a e d b a
7.2.
149
7.5. , , . 7.9,
7.9.
. , . v C , , ( ) 2. | 2 3. 2
. , ab, ae, d, b, hi, hg ij
C (. . 7.10).
bf C , 2. , f j
f g C , f .
je gd C , .
ed,
: , , , ,
. : , . 7.10,
.

. ,
.
150
7.
, ,
.
7.10. ,
, , |
. , , , , , , , 2 .
.
,
. ,
, . .
, , ,
, ! .
.
,
2
, ,
. .
7.2.
151
V . , , , | w.
begin
end
v V ;
:= v ;
w := 0;
v := v ;
v ;
while do
begin
u,
v ;
:= u;
w := w + v u;
v := u;
v ;
end
:= v ;
w := w + v v ;
7.6. , . 7.11. D.
B
5
7
8
6
10
7.11.
. . 7.2.
7.2
u
DC
DC A
DC AB
DC ABD
0
3
9
14
24
A
B
B
152
7.
DCABD 24.
, : ABCDA 23 ACBDA 31.

6; 1 1016 ,
.
7.3.
, ,
, . G = (V; E ) ,
(. . ).
G = (V; E ) | n m . ,
G :
G .
G m = n 1.
G , .
G , , G
.

. .
, n
n 1 .
7.7. ,
T n m :
m = n 1.
. , n = 1.
T n ( m ), n > 1
, k < n
k 1 .
T . T
.
, ( T
7.3.
153
). , | .
T1 T2 . n1 |
T1 , n2 | T2 . n1 + n2 = n, n1 < n
n2 < n.
T1 n1 1 , T2 |
n2 1. , T (
) (n1 1) + (n2 1) + 1 = n 1 ,
.
, , . G,
G,
.
G : , , , , . 7.7,
, n
n 1 .
7.8. , -
. 7.12.
7.12.
. .
: a, b, d
f . | b, , e g . . 7.13.
, 7.8, :
, . .
.
154
7.

.
, , .
, , .
, 1

.
7.13.
.
G = (V; E ) | .
G,
.
T .
begin
e := G ;
T := {e};
E := E \ {e}
while E 6=
begin
e := E ;
T := T {e };
E := E \ {T },
T
;
end
end
7.9. . 7.3 ( )
A, B , C , D E . .
7.3.
155
7.3
A
|
13
3
9
13
|
11
11
3
11
|
9
9
11
9
|
9
13
7
2
13
A
B
C
. : |
DE 2; | AC 3; | CE 7.
, . 7.14
7.14.
| AD , AE CD ,
9. ,
.
. BC BD 11.
,
: {AC; BC; CE; DE } {AC; BD; CE; DE } 23 .
, , ,
, , (. 7.15).
, .
. ,
. 7.16, .
.
. , , (, ). , , . , , , .
156
7.
. 1623
I
. 1654
I
. 1662
II
. 1687
I
. 1667
III
. 1695
I
. 1700
II
. 1710
7.15.
7.16.
. ( ). T1 , T2 , . . . , Tk |
v1 , v2 , . . . , vk , , v v1 , v2 , . . . , vk , T v . v1 , . . . , vk
T | v .
, , , , (. . 7.17).
,
. T .
, | , , (
) . , , .
. , , , , .
7.3.
157
. ,
.
.
7.17.
, , , ,
.
, - , (. .
| ). , ,
.
7.10. T | ,
. 7.18.
7.18.
158
7.

()
()
()
()
T ;
B ;
T ;
C .
T , T .
. () A; () D ; () G, H , E , I J ; () F .
T . 7.19.
7.19.
7
7.1. ,
G .
, ,
n(n1) .
Kn n
2
n Kn ?
7.2. , ,
G ,
.
7
159
7.3. , :
Kn .
7.4. , -
. 7.20 .
7.20.
()
()
()
7.5. . 7.21
7.3?
7.21.
160
7.
7.6. . 7.22.
7.22.
3, 4, 5, 6 7.
7.7. . 7.23 P .
7.23.
9. , P
.
7.8. -
(. 7.24),
() A;
() D .
7
161
7.24.
7.9. , , -

()

()

, :
7.10. , T 3 -
2.
1. 1 T ?
(: T n .)
7.11. ( ), | . G | n
k .
() , G n k .
() ,
G , G
2k 1.
162
7.
() ,
1.
7.12. , -
. 7.25.
7.25.
7.13. . 7.4 ( )
7.4
|
78
56
73
71
114
78
|
132
121
135
96
56
132
|
64
85
154
73
121
64
|
144
116
71
135
85
144
|
185
114
96
154
116
185
|
, , .
7.14. v T -
.
T | .
163
() :
(i) 1 ;
(ii) 2;
(iii) 3,
i (i > 0) (i + 1) .
() n,
n 2n .
( ,
( ) .)

G = (V; E ) V ,
, E , -
.
u v ,
- e, , u v .
v (v ) , v .
, ( ),

,
.
, .
, G = (V; E ) .
G = (V; E ) V E ,
.
G, , .
164
7.
G = (V; E ) G = (V ; E ),
E E V V .
k
v0 ; v1 ; : : : ; vk ,
vi1 vi .
v0 ; v1 ; : : : ; v0 , -
, , .
, , .
, -
.
,
, . , , .
.
G = (V; E ) . G = (V; E ) n m
:
() G | ;
() G ;
() G m = n 1;
() G , ;
() G , ,
.
.
165
G , G. -

.
, | . , v ( ), v . , ( ), .
, ,
. | ,
.
T - , T .
, v , v . ,
, ,
.
v T , .
T .
.
, , , .
, , ,
( ),
. , ,
v , , ,
| . ,
, .
166
7.
, , . 7.26,
. , ( ) ,
, .

7.26.
- , , .
,
( ),
. , - . , ,
.
( ), .
, . ,

( ).
.
167
(
).
, (
) , , , ,
.
()
begin
if then
:= ;
else
if = then
:= ;
else
if < then
:= ( );
else
:= ( );
end
1.
, . 7.27. , |
R, .
. R > K , K . R < T ,
T . , R 6= M
M ,
, .
K
T
C
M
7.27.
( )
, . ,
168
7.
.
(, )
begin
if then
;
else
if = then
:
;
else
end
if < then
:= (; );
else
:= (; );
2.
R, A L 1.
. R > K ,
K . , R < T . -
, T . R > M M ,
R M , . 7.28. A L, ,
. 7.29.
K
T
C
M
V
R
7.28.

, . ,
.
169
. 7.26
, .
K
T
C
M
V
R
L
7.29.
, , .
. . , , ,
. , , , ,
.
()
begin
if then
;
else
begin
( );
;
( );
end
end
3. , 2 R, A L.
. :
A; C; K; L; M; R; T ; V:
170
7.
(. 7.30)
, ,
.
K
T
C
M
V
R
L
7.30.
8

4
. ,
, , .
,
.
. |
.
PERT | Program Evaluation and Review
Te hnique.
- .
.

( ( ) , ). 8.2 , . , , ,
4.2. , .
,
.
8.1.
G =
(V; E ), V | , E |
V . ( ), .
E .
, (u; v ) u v G, uv .
172
8.
. , u v uv u v ,
vu v u. uv | , u
v .
. 8.1
V = {a; b; ; d} E = {ab; bd; b; db; d }.
8.1.
()

a
b

d
( a, d | b).
k v0 ; v1 ; : : : ; vk , vi1 vi
(i = 1; : : : ; k ).
G
v0 ; v1 ; : : : ; vk , , v0 vk ,
. G , .
,
( , ).

.
8.1.
173
8.1.
, , ,
. . 8.1. , .
8.1

(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
(F)
(G)
(H)
B
C
H
C
D, G
E
C
. (. . 8.2) | , -
.
| . A H.
,
.
8.2. :
, 8.1
, ,
174
8.
. . , 1, 2, 3, . . . , n |
uv | , u i v
j , i < j .
. G = (V; E ).
v A(v ).
begin
for v V do
A(v );
label := 0;
while ,
A(v ) = do
begin
label := 1;
u := A(u) = ;
u;
for v V do;
A(v ) := A(v ) \ {u};
end
end
. , .
8.2. , -
. 8.2.
.
0
A(A) = {B}, A(B) = {C}, A(C) = {H}, A(D) = {C},

A(E) = {D; G}, A(F) = {E}, A(G) = {C} A(H) = .
while. 1 H
H A(v ).
A(A) = {B}, A(B) = {C}, A(C) = , A(D) = {C},
A(E) = {D; G}, A(F) = {E} A(G) = {C}.
while. 2
C C A(v ).
8.2.
175
A(A) = {B}, A(B) = , A(D) = , A(E) = {D; G},

A(F) = {E} A(G) = .
while. :
? , . , , 3 B,
B A(v ). A(A) = , A(D) = ,
A(E) = {D; G}, A(F) = {E} A(G) = .
while.
. 4 A A A(v ). A(D) = , A(E) = {D; G}, A(F) = {E}
A(G) = .
while. 5 D
D A(v ). A(E) = {G}, A(F) = {E}
A(G) = .
while. 6
G G A(v ). A(E) = , A(F) = .
while. 7 E
E A(v ). A(F) = .
while. 8 F.
, : H, C, B, A,
D, G, E, F. , ,
.
8.2.

, , . (
) .
,
,
:
. ,
, .
176
8.
,
.
G = (V; E ) | n , M |
. , i-
j - i
j . , , 1. M
M 2 .
2. M 3 = M M M
3, , M k k .
,
M = M M 2 : : : M n
.
,
, |
. ,
a11
a12 : : : a1(n1)
a1n
b11
b12 : : : b1(n1)
b1n
a21 a22 : : : a2(n1) a2n
b21 b22 : : : b2(n1) b2n =

::: ::: :::
::: ::: :::
:::
:::
:::
:::
am1 am2 : : : am(n1) amn
a11 b11
a21 b21
=
:::
am1 bm1
bm1 bm2 : : : bm(n1) bmn
a12 b12
a22 b22
:::
am2 bm2
:::
:::
:::
:::
a1n b1n
a2n b2n
:
:::
amn bmn
G = (V; E ) E E
G.
8.3. , -
. 8.3.
. .

M =

8.2.
177
8.3.

M2 =

, M 2 2
G, : a b , a b d b d .
M .
M3 =

:

,
M =

, , M M 2 a b d.
M M . M
.
G = (V; E ) | v1 ; v2 ; : : : ; vn . W0 = M ,
W1 , W2 , . . . , Wn , Wk (k > 1),
i- j - Wk (i; j ),
, ( )
178
8.
vi vj
{v1 ; v2 ; : : : ; vk }.
W0 M ,
Wn | M .
for . ( k ) W1 , W2 , . . . , Wn .
.
W = M G = (V; E ) M .
begin
W := M ;
for k = 1 to n do
for i = 1 to n do
for j = 1 to n do

W (i; j ) = W (i; j ) W (i; k ) W (k; j ) ;
end
,
- . .
( k ) Wk , Wk1 .
i- Wk ,
:

Wk1 (i; j ) Wk1 (i; k ) Wk1 (k; j )
(1)
j .

Wk1 (i; k ) = , Wk1 (i; k ) Wk1 (k; j ) = , (1) Wk1 (i; j ). ,
i- . ,
Wk1 (i; k ) = ,
(1)
Wk1 (i; k ) Wk1 (k; j ) . i- i
k . , Wk
.
1. k - Wk1 .
2. i (i = 1; : : : ; n), k -
, i- Wk .
8.2.
179
3. i (i = 1; : : : ; n), k -
, k - ,
i- Wk .
8.4.
, . 8.4.
3
8.4.
. W0
W0 =
W1 . ,
1- W0 . 2,
W0 1, 2 4 W1
. ,
:
?
?
?
?
?
W1 =

? ? ? ? ?
, 3, 3 W1 1- 3-
W0 .
W1 =
:

? ? ? ? ?
180
8.
3 5-
W1 , 5- 1-
W0 .
W1 =
:

W1 . W2 , W1 . 2- W1 ,
2 4 W2 . W2 |
1- 2- W1 .
W2 3- 2- W1 . , , W2 |
, 5- 2- W1 . ,
W2 =
, , 3- 3-
W2 . ,
, 3, 1 2.
(. 8.4), , 3: 3 1 2 3.
W3 .
W3 =
:

4 ,
, 4.
, W4 W3 . ,
, 5. ,
, . . W5 = W4 . , W5 = M ,
.
181
8.3.
8.3.

, , .
,
| .
, , (
) ( ).
. 8.5. , , .
,
. , ,
, . ,
, ,
, ,
.
1
2
4
E
2
8.5.
,
, .
. ,
A (. . 8.5). |
, . -
182
8.
, , ,
. , u v , u v .
w, w(u; v )
0;
w(u; v ) = ;
d;
u = v;
u v ,
uv | d:
A
B
C
w=
D
E
F
2
0
1
0
3
4
5
:
0 2
0 1
0
v d[v , A v .
d[v (A; v ), , .
d[v .
u, A d[u .
d[u .
, v , d[v
, A
u. , d[v .
, , . 8.2 , d[v . d[v
. . , d[v
.
8.3.
183
8.2
0
1
2
3
4
5
A
B
D
C
E
F
0
0
B; C; D; E; F
C; D; E; F
0
0
0
0
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
C; E; F
E; F
5
5
3
3
3
A, w d[v .
. d[v |
d[B = 2.
B, A.
, A
B . d[v , .
, A B C 3,
A B E | 6,
A . , , d[C 3 d[E 6.
, C D
A. .
D . A D E 5,
d[E 5. .
d[v C .
C d[v .
F , A B C F .
, d[F , 8.
: E F .
E ,
d[F 8 6.
F .
184
8.
(V; E ) | , A | . A
v d[v . u v
w(u; v ) uv , PATHTO(v ) A v .
begin
for v V do
begin
d[v := w(A; v );
PATHTO(v ) := A;
end
A;
while do
begin
u :=
A;
u;
for v
uv E do
begin
d := d[u + w(u; v )
if d < d[v then
begin
d[v := d ;
PATHTO(v ) := PATHTO(u); v ;
end
end
end
end
8
8.1. {1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6}
8
185
, 1 (
)
() () 1 2;
() () 3 6;
() 5.
8.2. v G + (v ) , v , (v ),
, | | .

?
?
8.3. ,
, .
,
, ,
.
() , , . 8.6, .
8.6.
() , (. . ,
),
.
186
8.
() : , ,
.
8.4. (-
) :
a
b

d
e
f
,
. ?
. 8.1?
8.5. . 8.3 -
.
.
8.3

-

, , ,
8.6. M = M (i; j ) | G V = {1; 2; 3; : : : ; n}. , A(v )

v V .
187
8.7. G

M =

M 2 , M 3 M 4 . M .
8.8. W1 , W2 , W3
W4 G ,
M .
8.9. -
, . 8.7,
() A;
() C .
8.7.
8.10.
S . 8.8. S T .

G =
= (V; E ), V | , E |
V . E .
uv | , u v .
188
8.
k
v0 ; v1 ; : : : ; vk , vi1 vi (i = 1; : : : ; k ).
8.8.
G v0 ; v1 ; : : : ; vk , , v0
, .
, . .
G = (V; E ) | : 1, 2, 3, . . . , n ,
uv | , u i v
j , i < j .

, . .
G = (V; E ) | n M . M k k
G.
M = M M 2 : : : M n
189
.
.
-
. W0 , W1 , W2 , . . . , Wn , W0 = M , Wn = M k > 1
Wk Wk1 :
1. k - Wk1 .
2. , k - , Wk .
3. , k - , k - ,
Wk .
-
.
, u v , u v . u v ,
.
.
.
, ( )
, | . , .
8.9 , , .
,
.

.
, . .
,
.
190
8.
.
, ,
. ,

.
8.9.
, . 8.9,
, . , 1
. 8.10.
, ,
1 . , 1,
(. 8.4).
8.4
2
2
3
2
4
4
5
4
6
4
7
4
. | . .
191
1. , -
2 , .
2.
1
5
5
5
8.10. 1
. . 8.5.
8.5
2
3
4
5
1
6
7
4
4
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
4
4
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
6
6
6
4
4
4
4
6
6
9
9
8
1,
1,
1,
1,
6,
7
3,
4,
5,
6,
7
4, 5, 6, 7
5, 6, 7
6, 7
7
,
2 . , PATHTO(6) = 2; 3; 6.

. 8.11 . 8.6 .
192
8.
8.6
1
1
3
3
4
4
6
3
7
3
2
4
3
3
5
4
3
3
4
3
8.11.
8.12.
2. ,

2 4 3 1.
2?
. ,
2 4, 1. .
. 8.12.
| . 8.7.
8.7
1
4
3
3
4
4
5
4
6
3
7
4
3. -
1 2, 5 6?
. 5 6 -
2,
, 1, .
193
1, 1 6.
: PATHTO(6) = 1; 4; 5; 7; 6.
. 8.13.
8.8 | .
8.8
2
2
3
2
4
4
5
4
1
5
7
2
6
8.13.
6
4
7
4
| ,
. , , .
, {0; 1} , .
,
(. 2) ,
( 3) . ,
,
. , ,
.
, .
, , ,
. .
, , 2- .
9.1.
B = {0; 1}
(),
() ( ). () () 0
1 . 9.1.
0 1
0
0 1
0 1
0
0 0
1 1
0 1
9.1.
9.1.
195
0 1 :
0 = 1 1 = 0:
p q (. . ,
0 1) ,
p, p q p q (. . 9.1 . 9.2).
9.1
p
0
1
9.2
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
, , 2. , . 9.1 . 9.2
, ,
p q P Q, 0 1 . , p
( P ), p q | (P Q), p q | (P Q).

.
(), () ( ), , ,
,
.
9.3.
:
:
:
q = q p,
q = q p;
(q r) = (p q ) r,
(q r) = (p q ) r;
(q r) = (p q ) (p r),
(q r) = (p q ) (p r);
p = p,
p = p;
(p q ) = p,
(p q ) = p;
(p q ) = p q,
(p q ) = p q.
196
9.
,
. , , (. .).
9.1. :
p (q r ) = (p q ) (p r ):
. . 9.4.
,
p (q r ) (p q ) (p r ) .
9.4
p
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
(q r)
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
(p q ) (p r)
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
, 3,
. , , ,
.
9.5
1 ,
, . ,
, .
1
. |
. .
9.1.
197
9.2. , (
p q ) (p q ) -
p.
. .
(
p q ) (p q ) =
=
=
=
=

(
p) q (p q ) = ( )
(p q) (p q ) =
p (
q q) =
p0 =
( (
p) = p)
( )
( q q = 0)
( ):
n p1 ; p2 ; : : : ; pn f : B n B , f (p1 ; p2 ; : : : ; pn ) |
.
| , (
). . m(p; q; r )
p, q r , (. 9.6).
9.6
p
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
m | , . . ,
1 .
m(p; q; r ) = 1 p = 0, q = 1 r = 1, 2
m(p; q; r ) = p q r:
p q r .
2
,
1 , p = q = r = 1.
q r = 1 p = 0;
= r = 1:
q r -
198
9.
9.3. , -
, . . pi . m(p1 ; p2 ; : : : ; pr )
. m(p1 ; p2 ; : : : ; pr ) | .
m
. ,
| 1. pi = 1, , m, pi ;
pi = 0, pi .
, . 9.6
0, 1, 1, 1. , m(0; 1; 1) = 1. m(p; q; r ) = p q r .
, , . , , ( ) .
f (p; q; r ), | . 9.7.
:
p q r;
p q r;
p q r:
f
.
9.7
p
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
1 ( , f1 f2 fs 1 ,
9.1.
199
fi 1), f
:
f (p; q; r ) = (
p q r ) (
p q r ) (p q r):
f . ,

.
9.4.
q r ).
f = (p q ) (
. . 9.8 f .
9.8
p
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
:
p q r;
p q r;
p q r;
p q r:
, :
f (p; q; r ) = (
p q r ) (p q r ) (p q r) (p q r ):
, . , : p q , p q p. , , . ,
{p q; p q; p} | . . ,
(p q ) = p q. ,
p q = (
p q):
200
9.
,
: , . . {p q; p} | . ,
, .
9.5. { :
p { q = (p q ):
, { { } | .
. ,
p, p q p q { .
p = (p p) = p { p:

p q) = (p { p) (q { q ) =
p q = (
= (p { p) { (q { q ):
,
p q = (p q ) = (p { q ) =
= (p { q ) { (p { q ):
, { { } | .
9.2.

. , , .
, ,
, .
, .
.
,
, . ,
pqr pqr pqr
(
p q r ) (
p q r ) (p q r):
9.2.
201
| .
:
pqr pqr pqr = (
pr q prq ) pqr =
= pr (
q q ) pqr =
= pr pqr

q q = 1:
, , . , ,
, , . , :
,
.
,
q .
, , 1950-
. , | , , .
p, q r
(. 9.2). ,
p q , |
r r.
pq
pq
pq
pq
r
r
9.2.

,
.
, .
, ,
, , 1. ,
pqr pqr pqr . 9.3.
202
9.
pq
r
pq
pq
r
pq
9.3. pqr pqr pqr
( , . 9.3).
. ,
.
, - ( ,
) , .
, (. 9.4) pqr pq r pqr
, pqr pqr .
pq
pq
pq
pq
r
r
1
1
9.4.
pqr pq r pqr
,
(. 9.5).
.
pq
r
r
pq
pq
pq
1
9.5.
pqr pq r pqr
,
pqr pq r pqr = pq r (pqr pqr ) =
= pq r pr (
q q ) = pq r pr:
9.2.
203
9.6.
pqr pqr pqr pq r pq r:
. . 9.6, -
.
pq
pq
r
pq
pq
9.6.
pqr p
qr pqr pq r pq r
,
:
pqr pqr pq r pq r;
(), :
pq r pqr:
().
().
pqr pqr pq r pq r = (p p)qr (p p)q r =
= qr q r = q (r r) = q:
().
pq r pqr = pr(q q) = pr:
, 1 q pr.
1
, , pq r
,
. , . : f = f f , f | .
. | . .
204
9.
9.7.
f (p; q; r ) = (p q ) r (q r ):
. f (. 9.9).
9.9
p
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
f :
pqr pqr pqr:
. 9.7.
pq
pq
pq
r
pq
9.7. pqr pqr pqr
,
: pqr pqr pqr pqr.
: pq qr. ,
pq qr.
,
,
, . . . {
-. (., , [??)
.
9.3.
205
9.3.
,
,
. , .
. 9.8.
a
a
a
a b
b
9.8.
, .
.
9.8. ,
. 9.9?
p
1
q
3
6
7
4
r
5
9.9.
206
9.
. . 9.10 -
. 9.9.
9.10
1
2
3
4
5
p; q
pq
p; q
pq
pq; r
pqr

pq ; r
pq r
pq; r
6
7
pq r
pqr; pq r
pqr
pqr;
pq r
pqr
pqr
pqr
pqr pq r
, pqr pqr pq r.
, ,
. ,
,
.
9.9. , -
9.8 , .
.
. 9.10. (
).
pq
r
r
pq
pq
9.10.
pq
pqr
pqr pq r
pqr pq r = pq (r r) = pq
pqr pqr = (q q)pr = pr:
pq pr , , , p(q r ).
9.3.
207
, 9.8, . 9.11.
p
p(q r)
q
r
9.11.
. , {; } .
, .
, ,
{ .
9.10. ,
p(q r ), { .
. -, ,
p(q r ) = p { (q r ) { p { (q r ) :
-,
q r = (q { q ) { (r { r ):
. 9.12.
9.12. p (q r)
208
9.
9
9.1. ,
9.2. , -
() (p q) r = p q r;
() ((p q) (r (p q))) = p q .
9.3. g (p; q; r; s), | (. 9.11).

9.11
p
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
9.4.
p (
q r ) p (q r)
.
9.5. (p q) r , :
()
() { .
9
209
9.6. {
p { q = (p q ):
, {{} .
9.7.
pqr pqr pq r pqr
.
9.8. f (p; q; r ) | . 9.12.
9.12
p
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
0
1
f .
9.9. ,
, . 9.13.
p
q
9.13.
210
9.
, , : .
9.10. , -
p { (
q { r )

p (
q r ):
,
. 9.14, , : 1 .
p
q
r
9.14.
p
q
r
p
q
9.15.
1
. |
. .
211
9.11. , -
. 9.15.
9.12.
p { q ,
{ .
(: q { q =
= (
p { q), , r r = r { r .)

: 0 1.
, ,
.
n p1 ; p2 ; : : : ; pn f : B n B , f (p1 ; p2 ; : : : ; pn ) |
.
, , ,
.
p q | .
:
9.13.
:
:
:
q = q p,
q = q p;
(q r) = (p q ) r,
(q r) = (p q ) r;
(q r) = (p q ) (p r),
(q r) = (p q ) (p r);
p = p,
p = p;
(p q ) = p,
(p q ) = p;
(p q ) = p q,
(p q ) = p q.
212
9.

. .
,
, .
, , , . ,

, .
| , , .
,
(. 9.16).
a
a
a
a b
b
9.16.
,
, .
. 2-
2- | ,
2 , . , 10 +2 11 = 101. 2-
. . , 1 +2 1 = 10.
2
. |
. .
. 2-
213
x y ,
, u v | , , . 9.17.
9.17.
(. 9.14) . , u = xy ( ) v = x
y xy ( 2 ).
9.14
x
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
1. , ,
. 9.18, .
x
y
1
4
9.18.
. 3 4
2 ( . 9.15).
214
9.
9.15
x; y
xy
xy
2
3
4
x; y
x; y
xy
xy; xy
xy
xy
2- .
2-
, ,
. , 2- , : 11 +2 10 = 101.
a b
, d | (. 9.19). e, f g |
.
e
a
b
2-
f
g
9.19.
, ,
e, f g ,
,
.
:
. , . 9.20,
: a +2
b +2 d.
2 ( v2 ) g . u2 v1
, u3 f . , , e, u1 u3
.
2. 2-
11 +2 10 = 101.
215
. 2-
. :
a = 1;
b = 1;
= 1;
d = 0:
a +2 = 1 +2 1 = 10, u1 = 1 v1 = 0. ,
b +2 d = 1 +2 0 = 01, : u2 = 0 v2 = 1, g = 1.
, u2 +2 v1 = 0 +2 0 = 00, . . u3 = 0. f = 0.
, u1 u3 = 1 0 = 1, e = 1.
, 11 +2 10 = 101, .
9.20.
2- . 9.21.
a
3
c
9.21. 2-
3. 11 01
. 9.21.
. ui vi , i i = 1, 2 3. a = 1, b = 1, = 0
d = 1,
a +2 = 1 +2 0 = 01 u1 = 0 v1 = 1;
216
9.
b +2 d = 1 +2 1 = 10 u2 = 1 v2 = 0
( g = 0):
v1 = 1 u2 = 1.
v1 +2 u2 = 1 +2 1 = 10 u3 = 1 v3 = 0
( f = 0):
,
u1 u3 = 0 1 = 1;
( e = 1):
, , , 100 =
= 11 +2 01, .
. 9.22 3- ,
a, b, d, e, f . g , h, i j .
a
c
d
e
2-
9.22. 3-
4. , . 9.22
:
() 110 +2 011;
() 101 +2 111.
. 1001 () 1100 -
().

1
1.1.
B . 1.1.
1.1.
14.
1.2. () f = 6,
() f = 120.
n f = n!.
1.3. . 1.1
1.1
i
1
2
3
4
3
9
27
81
6= 4?
n > 0 mn .
n = 0 .
, ,
1 i.
1

. | . .
i < n
6=
218
1.4. : 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89.
,
, ,
.
1.5. . 1.2
1.2
l
sum
0
1
4
9
16
25
36
0
1
5
14
30
55
91
1
3
5
7
9
11
13
k <
12?
n .
1.6. . 1.3
1.3
1
2
3
BG
DE
EF
6
5
4
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
AB
BC
CD
EG
FG
AF
CE
CG
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
1
. = 11 m = 7.
. :
BG, DE, EF, AB EG. , . 1.2.
219
3
G
1
2
1.2.
2
2.1.
() P Q,
() P ( Q),
() R P ,
() ( P ) ( Q).
() R P ,
2.2. () ( P ) ( Q).
() P ( Q).
() (P Q) ( (P Q)).
. 2.1.
2.1
P
((
) (
))
, () () .
2.3. . 2.2
. 2.3. , () () |
.
2.2
P
(P (
))
220
2.3
P
(P
(P (P Q)) Q
2.4. . 2.4.
2.4
P
Q R P
Q (
)R
`
R (P Q) R (
)R QR
, .
,

(P Q) R
( P ) R Q R
.
2.5. () x P (x);
() x : P (x);
() x P (x).
()
: x P (x) (. . ()
()).
() : x : P (x). : .
2.6. : | -
. . ().
2.7. () n m n = 2a
m = 2b, a, b | . ,
n + m = 2a + 2b = 2(a + b);
n + m.
221
() n | , n = 2a + 1 -
a. n ,
n2 = (2a + 1)2 = 4a2 + 4a + 1 = 2(2a2 + 2a) + 1:
, n2 | . , n2 |
, n | .
() , n + m |
, : n m , , |
. , , . .
m, n | , m = 2a n = 2b
- a b. ,
n + m = 2a + 2b = 2(a + b)
, .
m n | . m = 2a + 1, n = 2b + 1 a
b. ,
n + m = (2a + 1) + (2b + 1) = 2(a + b) + 2 = 2(a + b + 1);
. .
, . ,
.
2.8. () 1 + 5 + 9 + + (4n 3) = n(2n 1)
P (n). n = 1
1. n = 1
1:
n(2n 1) = 1 (2 1 1) = 1:
P (1) .
, P (k ) k > 1.
,
P (k + 1). .
222

1 + + 4(k + 1) 3 = 1 + + (4k 3) + (4k + 1) =
= k (2k 1) + (4k + 1) =
= 2k 2 + 3k + 1 =
= (k + 1)(2k + 1) =

= (k + 1) 2(k + 1) 1 :
, P (n)
n > 1.
() P (n) :
12 + 22 + + n2 =
1
n(n + 1)(2n + 1):
6
12 = 1 16 n(n + 1)(2n + 1) =
n = 1), P (1) .
1
6
1 2 3 = 1 (
, P (k ) k > 1
, P (k + 1).
12 + + (k + 1)2 = 12 + + k 2 + (k + 1)2 =
1
= k (k + 1)(2k + 1) + (k + 1)2 =
6

1
= (k + 1) k (2k + 1) + 6(k + 1) =
6
1
= (k + 1)(2k 2 + 7k + 6) =
6

1
= (k + 1) (2k + 3)(k + 2) =
6

1
= (k + 1) (k + 1) + 1 2(k + 1) + 1 :
6
, , P (n)
n > 1.
() P (n)
1
1
1
n
+
+ +
=
:
13 35
(2n 1) (2n + 1)
2n + 1
n = 1,
|
n
1
= :
2n + 1
3
1
3
223
, P (1) | .
P (k ) - k .
=
=
=
1
1
1

=
+
+ +
13 35
2(k + 1) 1 2(k + 1) + 1
1
1
1
+ +
+
=
13
(2k 1)(2k + 1) (2k + 1)(2k + 3)
k
2k + 1
1
k (2k + 3) + 1
=
=
(2k + 1)(2k + 3)
(2k + 1)(2k + 3)
2k 2 + 3k + 1
(2k + 1)(k + 1)
k+1
=
=
:
(2k + 1)(2k + 3)
(2k + 1)(2k + 3)
2k + 3
P (k +1)
P (k ). , P (n)
n.
() : n3 n 3 P (n).
13 1 = 0 3, P (1)
.
, P (k ) k > 1.

(k + 1)3 (k + 1) = k 3 + 3k 2 + 2k =
= (k 3 k ) + 3k 2 + 3k:
k 3 k 3 ,
3k 2 + 3k = 3(k 2 + k ) 3. ,
(k 3 k ) + 3k 2 + 3k 3.
: P (k ) P (k + 1),
P (n)
n.
() P (n) :
1 1! + 2 2! + + n n! = (n + 1)! 1:
n = 1, :
1 1! = (1 + 1)! 1:
224
, P (1) .
P (k ) - k :
1 1! + 2 2! + + (k + 1) (k + 1)! =
= 1 1! + 2 2! + + k k ! + (k + 1) (k + 1)! =
= (k + 1)! 1 + (k + 1)!(k + 1) =
= (k + 1)!(k + 2) 1 = (k + 2)! 1;
P (k +1), . , P (n)
n.
2.9. x2 = 13 , x3 =
1
7
x4 =
1
15
P (n) | xn = 2n11 . n = 1
P (1). ,
P (k ) - k > 1.
xk+1 =
xk
xk + 2
2k
2k
+2
1
1
= k+1
:
k
1 + 2(2 1)
2
1
, P (k ) P (k + 1).
, P (n) | n.
2.10. :
x3 = 2x2 x1 = 2 2 1 = 3;
x4 = 2x3 x2 = 2 3 2 = 4;
x5 = 2x4 x3 = 2 4 3 = 5:
, . . P (n) xn = n. P (1) P (2)

. , ,
, P (3), P (4) P (5).
, k > 1 P (k 1) P (k ).
xk+1 = 2xk xk1 = 2k (k 1) = k + 1:
, P (k + 1)
P (k 1) P (k ). ,
225
, ,
P (n) n.
3
3.1. () A = {10; 11; 12; 13; 14; 15; 16; 17};

B = {4; 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3; 4};
C=
; 1 1
D = 2; 3 ;
() S = {3n 1 : n N};
T = {1=(2n 1) : n N}.
3.2. () {t};
() ;
() {p; q; r; s; t; u};
() {q; r; v; w};
() {p; s};
() {u; w};
() {r; v };
()
{p; r; s; u; v };
3.3. () , A B .
() ,
B ; ,
.
() , B C
(B C ) \ (B C ), B , C , . .
.
() ,
, , .
() ,
.
() , .
3.4. ()
(i)
B;
(ii) B C ;
(iii) A B ;
(iv) C \ B .
() A \ B = {3n : n Z n > 4; n| }.
, n 2k + 1,
: A \ B = {6k + 3 : k Z k > 2}.
3.5. . 3.1.
226

x A (B C ), x A (x B ) (x C ) .
,

(x A) (x B ) (x A) (x C ) :
, x (A B ) (A C ).
: A (B C ) (A B ) (A C ).
.
B
C
BC
A (B C)
B
A B - .
A C - .
(A B) (A C)
3.1.
3.6. . 3.2.
B
C
A (B D C)
BDC
B
C
A B - .
A C - .
(A B) D (A C)
3.2.
A, B C , A
B , C , -
227
A (B C ) = (A B ) (A C ). ,
A = {1; 2}, B = {3; 4} C = {4; 5}.
B C = {3; 5}
A (B C ) = {1; 2; 3; 5}:
,
A B = {1; 2; 3; 4};
A C = {1; 2; 4; 5}
(A B ) (A C ) = {3; 5}:
3.7. () :
(A B ) B = (A B ) B = (. .)
= A (B B ) = (. )
= AB
(. )
() :
(A (B C )) = A (B C ) = (. .)
= ABC
( . .)
() ,
(A B C ) (A B C ) (A C ) =

= (B (A C ) B (A C ) (A C ):
,

(B (A C ) B (A C ) (A C ) =

= (B B ) (A C ) (A C ):
.

(B B ) (A C ) (A C ) = (A C ) (A C ):
:

(A C ) (A C ) = (A C ) (A C ) = :
228
() :
(A \ B ) \ C = (A B ) \ C =
( \)
= (A B ) C = ( \)
= A (B C ) = ( )
= A (B C ) = ( )
= A \ (B C )
( \)
() , :
A A = (A \ A) (A \ A) =
= (A \ A) =
= AA=
=
( )
( . )
( \)
( . )
,
AAA=A=
= (A \ ) ( \ A) =
( )
= (A ) ( A) = ( \)
= A=
( . ,
=A
. .)
3.8. . 3.3.
3.3.
()
:
A A = (A A) = A:
229
() , , .
(A A) (B B ) = A B = (A B ) = A B:
() .
(A B ) (A B ) = (A B ) =
= ((A B )) =
= A B:
3.9. () . 3.4.
B
A
2
6
3.4.
1, 2, ... , 8,
, , i ni .
|A| + |B | + |C | =
= (n1 + n2 + n4 + n5 ) + (n1 + n2 + n3 + n6 )+
+ (n1 + n3 + n4 + n7 ) =
= 3n1 + 2n2 + 2n3 + 2n4 + n5 + n6 + n7 :
,
|A B | + |B C | + |A C | =
= (n1 + n2 ) + (n1 + n3 ) + (n1 + n4 ) =
= 3n1 + n2 + n3 + n4 :
230
,
,
|A B C | = n1 :
|A| + |B | + |C |
|A B | |B C | |A C | + |A B C | =
= 3n1 + 2n2 + 2n3 + 2n4 + n5 + n6 + n7
3n1 n2 n3 n4 + n1 =
= n1 + n2 + n3 + n4 + n5 + n6 + n7 =
= |A B C |;
1 .
() A ,
, B | , , C | ,
. ,
|A B C | = 25 + 27 + 12 20 5 3 = 36:
, 36 . (. . 3.5).
, .

2 . , C \ (A B ), , ,
, . , C :
C = (C \ A) (C A):
|C | = |C \ A| + |C A|:
, . | . .
2
. | . .
231
A
20
4
5
C
0
3
4
3.5.
, |C | = 12 |C A| = 5. ,
|C \ A| = 12 5 = 7. ,
C \ A , , . C \ A
, .
, : (C \ A) \ B .
.

(C \ A) \ B = |C \ A| (C \ A) B :
(C \ A) B .
C ,
B , A.
C , B , A,
. ,

(C \ A) B = C B (C \ A) B = C B = 3:
:
12 5 3 = 4:
3.10. A B (a; b),

a A b B . AB = B A, (a; b)
A B B A, . . a B b A.
a A b B ,
A = B .
A C (a; ), a A C . A B = A C , (a; ) A B ,
B . : C B . B C , ,
B C . , B = C .
232
3.11. () x A (B C ). x = (a; t); a A

t (B C ). , t B , . . (a; t) A B ,
, t C (a; t) A C . , (a; t)
(A B ) (A C ). ,
A (B C ) (A B ) (A C ):
. x (A B ) (A C ), x A B
x A C . , x = (a; t), a A, t
B , C , . . t B C . , x A (B C ).
: (A B ) (A C ) A (B C ):
() x (A B ) C . x = (s; ), s (A B )
C . s | ,
s A, x A C , s B , . . x B C .
x A C , B C .
, x (A C ) (B C ).
. x (A C ) (B C ), x = (s; ) C , s
A, B . ,
s (A B ). , x = (s; ) (A B ) C .
x ,
(A C ) (B C ) (A B ) C:
.

3.12. () P (A) = ; {1}; {2}; {3}; {1; 2}; {1; 3}; {2; 3}; {1; 2; 3} .
() C P (A) P (B ). C A C B ,
C (A B ). , P (A) P (B ) P (A B ).
C P (A B ). C (A B ), . .
C A C B . , P (A B ) P (A) P (B ).
P (A) P (B ) = P (A B ).
() P (A) P (B ) , A, , B .
, P (A) P (B ) P (A B ).
, A B A,
B . , , A = {1; 2; 3}, B = {4; 5},
C = {1; 2; 5}. , , C P (A B ), , , C 6 P (A) P (B ).
233
3.13. A a = (1; 1; 0; 1; 1; 0). B b = (0; 0; 1; 0; 1; 0).
A B .
a ( b) = (1; 1; 0; 1; 1; 0) (1; 1; 0; 1; 0; 1) =
= (1; 1; 0; 1; 1; 1):
, A B = {1; 2; 4; 5; 6}.
A B
(a ( b)) (b ( a)) =

= (1; 1; 0; 1; 1; 0) (1; 1; 0; 1; 0; 1)

(0; 0; 1; 0; 1; 0) (0; 0; 1; 0; 0; 1) =
= (1; 1; 0; 1; 0; 0) (0; 0; 1; 0; 0; 0) =
= (1; 1; 1; 1; 0; 0):
, A B = {1; 2; 3; 4}.
4

(1; a); (1; ); (2; a); (2; ); (3; b); (3; ) .
. 4.1.

4.2. R = (1; 7); (2; 5); (3; 3); (4; 1) .

S = (1; 1); (1; 2); (1; 3); (1; 4); (1; 5); (2; 1); (2; 2); (2; 3);

(2; 4); (3; 1); (3; 2); (3; 3); (4; 1); (4; 2); (5; 1) .
4.1.
T = {(n; n2 ) : n N}.
4.1.
234
4.3. () : R = (1; 1); (1; 2);

(1; 3); (1; 4); (3; 1); (3; 2); (3; 3); (3; 4) :
() . 4.2.
4.2.
() R :
4.4. () , .
() , .
() , .
() , .
4.5. () , x + y y + x.
, x + x .
, , , 1+4 4+3 |
, 1 + 3 | .
() , x
x + x | .
x + y = y + x .
, x + y y + z ,
(
235
). x + z
.
() : xy = yx.
, xy yz : x, y
z . , xz .
, , , 2 2 = 4 |
.
() , x + x2 =
= x(x + 1) | , .
.
. , x + xy y + yz |
, x | ( x + xz |
), x | ( : x, y
z | , , x + xz | ). ,
x + xz | ,
.
: 2 + 2 3 = 8 | ,
3 + 3 2 = 9 | , ,
.

4.6. () R = (1; 9); (3; 3); (9; 1) .

() S = (3; 2); (6; 4); (9; 6); (12; 8) .
() R
R (1; 1); (9; 9) :
() S
S (9; 4) :
4.7. () x , y .
() x = 2n y n.
() x < y ( ).
() x y .
236
4.8. , -
:

(a; a); (b; b); ( ; ); (d; d); (a; ); (a; d); (b; d); ( ; a); (d; a) :
:

(a; a); (b; b); ( ; ); (a; ); (a; d); (b; d); ( ; a); (d; a); (d; b) :
,
(b; a) ( (b; d) (d; a)),
( ; d) (- ( ; a) (a; d)) (d; d) (
(d; a) (a; d)).
(b; ) ( (b; a)
(a; )).
, :

(a; a); (b; b); ( ; ); (a; ); (a; d); (b; d); ( ; a); (d; a);

(b; a) ( ; d); (d; ); (d; d); (b; ) :
, (x; y ) (y; x), x 6= y .

, . .
4.9. () ,
.
() :

.
() . , | .
() (0; 0).
4.10. x2 x2 = 0 3, R -
x2 y 2 3, y 2 x2 = (x2 y 2 )
3. R .
237
, x2 y 2 y 2 z 2 3.
x2 z 2 = (x2 y 2 ) + (y 2 z 2 ) | , 3. 3,
R.
, 0,
: E0 = {n : n2 3}. n2
, n 3,
E0 = {0; 3; 6; : : :}.
, 1, :
E1 = {n : n2 1 3}:
n2 1 = (n 1)(n +1), : (n 1)
(n + 1) 3. , n = 3m 1,
m | , , E1 = {::: 1; 1; 2; 4; 5; :::}.
, E0 E1 = Z,
: E0 E1 .
4.11. () . 4.3.
4.3.
()
.
.
1 ;
6 {1; 2};
2 {1};
10 {1; 3};
3 {2};
15 {2; 3};
5 {3};
30 {1; 2; 3}:
238
4.12. R = (a; d); (a; g ); (b; e); (b; g ); (b; h); ( ; e); ( ; g ); ( ; h);

(d; g ); (e; g ); (e; h) :
: a, b, f .
: f , g h.
4.13. :
, , , , .
5
5.1. R1 = (1; 1); (1; 3); (3; 2); (4; 2); (4; 3) .
S 1 = (1; 1); (1; 2); (1; 3); (2; 1); (2; 4) .
S R = (1; 1); (1; 2); (2; 1); (2; 2); (3; 1); (3; 2) .

(S R)1 = (1; 1); (1; 2); (1; 3); (2; 1); (2; 2); (2; 3) .

R1 S 1 = (1; 1); (1; 2); (1; 3); (2; 1); (2; 2); (2; 3) =
= (S R)1 .
5.2. R1 | ... ....

S 1 | ... ....
R S | ... ....
S 1 R1 | ... ....
R R | ... ....
5.3. R | , -
, . R, (x; x). R1 , . . R1 | . , x R1 y y R1 x. ,
y R x x R y .
, , x = y ,
R1 .
, x R1 y y R1 z . y R x z R y . R | , , z R x.
, x R1 z , . . R1 .
, , R1
. , R1 -
239
R , R1 | R.
5.4.
MN =

= :

M N S R.
5.5. () () .
() , 0 A
B .
() , 0 A
B : 3 7.
() ,
A (6 0)
3 B . ,
, 7 B
.
() , , . .
.
5.6. () f (a1 ) = f (a2 ), 2a1 + 1 = 2a2 + 1, a1 = a2 .
, f | .
, f , , f | .
() g , , , g (4) =
= g (1) = 2. , g (2m) = m, m | , Z. ,
g | .
() , h(n) | ,
n | , , n | . ,
h(a1 ) = h(a2 ), a1 + 1 = a2 + 1, a1 1 =
= a2 1. : a1 = a2 .
h | .
m | , m 1
, h,
h(m 1) = (m 1) + 1 = m:
240
m | , m + 1

h(m + 1) = (m + 1) 1 = m:
, m, n ( (m 1)
(m + 1)), h(n) = m. , h | .
5.7. . 5.1.
() f
{n2 + 1 : n Z} = {1; 2; 5; 10; : : :}:

f (1) = f (1) = 2, .
, f (x) = 3 . f .
() g
{2; 4; 8; 16; : : : }:
g (a) = g (b) 2a = 2b ,
a b. , g | . , g (x) = 3 .
() h R.
h(a) = h(b), 5a 1 = 5b 1, . . a = b. , h | . h ,
.
() j R. j (1) = j ( 32 ) = 0, j | .
, .
() k , . , k
. , , x1 < 0 x2 < 0
: k (x1 ) = k (x2 ) = 0.
5.1.
, x > 1
x < 1
241
242
() l | , . . R. , .
x > 0, l(x) = x > 0, x < 0 l(x) = 3x < 0.
, l(a) = l(b) a b .
, l : a = b.
a < 0 b < 0, l(a) = l(b) ,
3a = 3b; a = b. , l(a) = l(b) a = b, . . l |
.
j
k
2
2
(1) +1
=
= 0: , f (0) = 0,
5.8. () f (1) =
3
3
f (1) = 0 f (2) = 1. ,
f | {0; 1}.
() g , , , g (0) =
= g (1) = 0. ,

2n
g (2n) =
= n;
2

n | .
5.9. f (a) = f (b), 1+ a2 = 1+ 2b , a = b.
g . f (x) = y
2
1 + x2 = y , x = y
.
1
y = 1, -
.
B x, f . , f |
.
, f , . , . 2
.
f 1 : B A f 1 (x) = x
1

(2x + 1)2 ; x > 0;
5.10. (f g )(x) = f (g (x)) =
x2 ;
x < 0;
(g f )(x) = g (f (x)) = 2x2 + 1;

g (2x + 1); x > 0;
(g g )(x) = g (g (x)) =
g (x);
x < 0:
243
x > 0, 2x + 1 > 1
g (2x + 1) = 2(2x + 1) + 1 = 4x + 3:
x < 0, x > 0. , g (x) = 2(x) + 1 = 1 2x:

,

4x + 3; x > 0;
(g g )(x) =
1 2x; x < 0:
5.11. () (g f )(a1 ) = (g f )(a2 )
: g (f (a1 )) = g (f (a2 )). g , f (a1 ) = f (a2 ).
, f | . ,
a1 = a2 . , g f | -
() C . g | , b B , g (b) = .
b, f ,
a A, f (a) = b. , :
C a A, g (f (a) = ,
g f .
() , f (a) = b g (b) = . , (g f )(a) = . ,
(g f )1 ( ) = a. f 1 (b) = a g 1 ( ) = b.
(f 1 g 1 )( ) = f 1 (g 1 ( )) = f 1 (b) = a:
, C
(g f )1 ( ) = (f 1 g 1 )( );
5.12. () -
. , ,
. ,
, - .
() A , ,
. A . B = {2; 3; 4; : : : ; 12} .
244
f : A B , . , , |A| > |B |, -
. , 12 .
() : ,
, . ,
, ,
.
() A , B | .
f : A B .
, |A| > 3|B | ,
.
: 13 .
5.13. ()
A | , ,
B | .
f : A B ,
, .
12 ,
12 12 = 144. , 132
| . , ,
,
. , . . B ,
|B | = 12 +
132
= 78:
2
|A| = 79, |B | = 78, ,

, ,
.
() A , B | f : A B ,
.
|A| = 2 79 = 158. ,
,
, | 31 (
245
: , ). , |B | = 31. , |A| > 5|B |,

, , , 6 ,
.
5.14. () S ,
22: {2; 20}, {4; 18}, {6; 16}, {8; 14}, {10; 12}.
A ,
S , B |
. f : A B -
, . , f (6) = {6; 16}.

, , |A| > |B |,
A, f . ,
, 22. , |B | = 6. ,
S 6 .
() , f , S , .
S 10 , 19. S | 1, 3, 5, 7 9.
, B f S .
A | S , |
11 . f : A B ,
n A
. |B | = 10,
, . n m.
n = 2i b, b | 1 , i = 0; 1; 2; 3; 4. , m = 2j b, j = 0; 1; 2; 3; 4. i > j ,
1
, n b.
n = n=b | . n - ,
1, , k, n . ,
n kb, .
b n. , n =
= n=b , 1.
i
n = 2 i. | . .
246
m n. n m.
, , 11 S ,
.
6
6.1. () 5 8 7 = 280
() 5 3 = 15
.
.
, 15 + 6 = 21
.
()
, 66 = 36 63 = 216
. 6 + 36 + 216 = 258
.
6.2. () , 10 : 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 9.
( ,
) 0.
, 9 102 = 900
.
. , 900
.
. , , . , :
900 10 = 9000.
() 1,
3 5.
( 5).
3 53 = 375 ,
6000, .
() 262 = 676
.
247
36 (26 10 ).
364 = 1 679 616 . , 6761 679 616 = 1 135 420 416
.
6.3. ()
(1, 2, 3, 6), |
. S 4 53 = 500
.
() .
( 0
). | 4 3 2 = 24. ,
4 24 = 96 S .
() S : 0, 2 6. 0, 4 3 2 = 24 .
| 2 6, (
0) 3 3 2 = 18
. ()
24 + 18 + 18 = 60 .
() () , 4 000,
4, 5 6. 0, 1, 2, 3, 6. ,
6. 3 4 3 2 = 48 . , 48 ,
. (), 4 000.
6.4. () P (7; 2) = 42, P (8; 5) = 6 720, P (6; 4) = 360, P (n; 1) = n
P (n; n 1) = n!:
() C (10; 7) = 120, C (9; 2) = 36, C (8; 6) = 28,

C (n; 1) = C (n; n 1) = n.
, k
n, n k
n. , , , .
C (n; k ) = C (n; n k ).
248

:
C (n; n k ) =
n!
n!
=
= C (n; k ):
(n (n k ))!(n k )!
k !(n k )!
6.5. () , . P (17; 3) = 4080
.
() , , . ,
P (20; 2) = 380 .
() , .
P (26; 2) = 650 . , 10
24 ,
. , P (34; 4) = 1 113 024 . , ,
650 1 113 024 = 723 465 600
.
6.6. ()

. ,
C (18; 11) = 31 824
.
() C (8; 5) = 56
, | C (11; 7) = 330 . , 56 330 = 18 480
.
() C (5; 3) = 10 C (5; 1) = 5
. 10 5 = 50 , .
C (5; 4) = 5.
5 .
, 5 + 5 = 10 ,
.
6.7. ()
C (12; 3) = 220 .
249
() C (8; 3) = 56 ,
- .
220 -
, ,
-,
220 56 = 164.
() , , C (9; 3) = 84. ,
C (7; 3) = 35 .
, 84 + 35 = 119 .
, -, .
C (4; 3) = 4. : 115 , .
() C (5; 2) C (3; 1) = 10 3 = 30 ,
,
C (5; 1) C (3; 2) = 15 ,
. ,
C (5; 1)C (3; 1)C (4; 1) = 60 ,
. 30 + 15 + 60 =
= 105 .
6.8. () C (8; 2) C (5; 2) C (3; 2) = 840 -
, .
() , C (8; 6) = 28 . ,
C (8; 1) C (8; 5) = 448
. , 28 + 448 = 476 ,
.
, , C (16; 6) = 8 008, 7 532 .
() U .
. ,
250
|U | = 8 008: X | , . . X . ,
, , x = U \ X , . , X
,
.
A | ,
, B | ,
, C | , . ,
X = A B C:

(. . 60).
.
|X | = |A B C | =
= |A| + |B | + |C |
|A B | |A C | |B C | + |A B C |:
, , :
|A| = C (8; 6) = 28;

|B | = C (11; 6) = 462;
|C | = C (13; 6) = 1 716:
A B ,
. 6 , | . , AB = |AB | = 0.
, A C ,
. ,
: |A C | = 0.
B C , ,
251
. :
|B C | = C (8; 6) = 28:
, A B C = , , , A B = . ,
|X | = |A B C | =
= 28 + 462 + 1 716 28 = 2 178:
,
|X | = |U | |X | = 5 830:
6.9. ()
. C (n + k 1; n 1), n = 5
k = 6. , C (10; 4) = 210
.
() | 12
. , C (4 + 12 1; 4 1) = C (15; 3) = 455 .
6.10. () | -
.

C (4 + 5 1; 4 1) = C (8; 3) = 56
.
() , C (4; 2) = 6. .

C (2 + 5 1; 2 1) = C (6; 1) = 6
.
. . , ,
252
A B .

, : 5A 5B .
A C ,
5A 5C . , ,
.
,
,
, 6 2 = 4. ,
, 5 , 4 6 = 24.
4 . : 28.
6.11. () , :
21
35
35
21
1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1
9 36 84 126 126 84 36 9 1:
()
,
1 + 2 7 + 21 = 36;
7 + 2 21 + 35 = 84;
21 + 2 35 + 35 = 126;
. . .
()
C (n; k ) + C (n; k + 1) = C (n + 1; k + 1)
C (n; k + 1) + C (n; k + 2) = C (n + 1; k + 2):
,
C (n; k ) + 2C (n; k + 1) + C (n; k + 2) =
= C (n + 1; k + 1) + C (n + 1; k + 2):
, :
C (n; k ) + 2C (n; k + 1) + C (n; k + 2) = C (n + 2; k + 2):
253
6.12. () a = b = 1 ,
C (n; 0) + C (n; 1) + + C )n; n) = (1 + 1)n = 2n :
k - S n k
n .
, C (n; k ). S 0 1, 2, ...
n . , n-
C (n; 0) + C (n; 1) + + C )n; n) = 2n
.
() a = 1, b = 1
C (n; 0) C (n; 1) + C (n; 2) + (1)n C (n; n) =
= (1 1)n = 0:
6.13. ()
11! , , , , , , ,
, , . ,
,
11!
= 83 160
5!2!2!
.
() , , , , , , , , ,

10!
= 7560
5!2!2!
. ,
, ,
.
() ,
. ,
10!
= 15 120
5!2!
,
.
254
6.14. () C (8; 5) = 56.
() xy 3 z 4 ,
(x + y + z )8 ,
8!
= 280:
1!3!4!
() ab2 d,
(a + b + + d)5 ,
5!
= 60:
1!2!1!1!
, a + b + + d
60ab2 d. a = x, b = 2y , = z d = 1. ,
(x + 2y + z 1)5 ,
60x(2y )2 z (1) = 240xy 2 z . ,
xy 2 z (x + 2y + z 1)5 240.
7
7.1. G . ,
, 1.
, , . ,
, , uv , u v . ,
.
Kn . ,
Kn (n 1). ,
n(n 1). ,
n(n21) .
,
Kn (n 1). , ,
G , . Kn |
, n | , 1.
7.2. G = (V; E ) | n > 2 . S .
255
G, n 1. ,
S {0; 1; 2; : : : ; n 1}:
S 0, n 1,
, n 1
. ,
0, . , |S | 6 n 1. f : V S , G . |V | = n,
: |V | > |S |. , , , f
, . . .
7.3. -
1 6, . . 7.1.
2
7.1.
Kn n n
. (
) , | .
7.2.
256
7.4. 1 4,
, (. 7.2).
G, H K ,
, . 7.2 (a) H ,
. 7.2 () | K , . 7.2 () | G.
7.5. . 7.3 ,
7.3.
7.6.
1 2 6 8 7 5 4 3 1:
3, 4, 5, 6 7.
3: 2 8 6 2, 2 8 7 2, 4 7 8 4 4 5 7 4.
4: 2 7 8 6 2, 2 8 4 7 2 4 5 7 8 4.
5: 1 2 7 4 3 1, 1 2 8 4 3 1, 2 6 8 4 7 2 2 7 5 4 8 2.
6: 1 2 7 5 4 3 1, 1 2 8 7 4 3 1, 1 2 7 8 4 3 1 1 2 6 8 4 3 1.
7: 1 2 6 8 7 4 3 1 1 3 4 5 7 8 2 1.
7.3.
7.7. 9: a b f j i d g h a.
C P . , ,
,
: ah, bf , i, dg ej . , C ah. , C a,
ab ae. , , ,
C ae. ,
257
2 (
, ). C
ab. ,
b ( ).
C : bf b . e
2. C
: ej de.
.
, C ej . ed
.
. 7.4, ,
C , , C .
b
f
a
c
h
7.4.
, d
dg d . ,
C . i . ,
i. i C ,
hj ji,
hg jf . , . 7.5.
C f g ,
f g . -
258
C , . .
, . ,
ej
.
b
f
a
c
h
7.5.
b
f
a
c
h
7.6.
, C ed, ej , , .
, . 7.6.
259
. 7.6 , j C
f j ji. f g , , f ,
C . f g .
g : gd gh. , hi d
. . 7.7,
, :
i ,
.
, P . , P |
.
b
f
a
c
h
7.7.
7.8. () A C B D E A -
4 + 2 + 3 + 2 + 8 = 19.
() D E B C A D 2 + 4 + 2 + 4 + 5 = 17.
7.9.
1 6, . 7.8.
() , . 7.8 () , 2 4 5 3 6 2.
260
() , . 7.8 () | , , .
()
()
7.8.
7.10. n | .
3 + 3 + 3 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + (n 7) = n + 10:
, T , . .
n 1. , :
n + 10 = 2(n 1):
, n = 12, ,
T 1 .
7.11. () G T1 , T2 , . . . , Tk . , Ti ni (i = 1; : : : ; k ).
Ti (ni 1) .
G
(n1 1)+(n2 1)+ +(nk 1) = n1 +n2 + +nk k = nk:

() ,

1. T | r > 2 . , 1.
r 1
2 . ,
, 1 + 2(r 1) = 2r 1. , T r 1 ,
, 2(r 1)
261
, ,
, , 2r 1.
.
() . () , ,
G 9 6 = 3 .
. ()
( ).
. , . . 7.9. 1.
7.9.
7.12.
, ,
, . : BE , AB , EF , EG, F H ,
DG CD . , ,
. 7.10.
7.10.
7.13. A , D | ,
G | , L | , S |
262
W | . : AG ( 56), GL ( 64) AS ( 71).

AL ( 73), , .
AD ( 78), GS
( 85) ( ). DW ( 96). ( 365), . 7.11.

A
7.11.
7.14. () . 7.12.
7.12.
() 1 2 . , 21 = 2. ,
n = 1.
, k 2k k > 1. ,
k + 1 2k k .
, 2 2k = 2k+1 k + 1.
,
k + 1 . , ,
263
n 2n
.
8
8.1. . 8.1.
() 1 2
1 4 6 2.
() 3 6:
3 5 6 3 2 6.
() 5 | 1 4 6 3 2 1.
8.1.
8.2. uv , 1, u v . , -
. .
,
v .
, u
, , v
u. , , v ,
+ (v ). , ,
264
, (u).
8.3. () , -
, ,
d 0 ( d
). , d.
, ,
, :
d . , 0. ,
, d .
| . a b d e a, . ,
. b d e a |
b a.
() C | .
.
, C
v0 v1 v2 : : : vk v0 :
, vi1 vi vi1
vi . , , vk vk v0 . . ,

,
v0 v1 v2 : : : vk v0 , .
() , ,
.
8.4. :
A(a) = {b}; A(b) = { }; A( ) = ; A(d) = {a; e};
A(e) = { }; A(f ) = {b; d; e}:
1 , . -
265
:
A(a) = {b}; A(b) = ; A(d) = {a; e};
A(e) = ; A(f ) = {b; d; e}:
, . 2 b . :
A(a) = ; A(d) = {a; e}; A(e) = ; A(f ) = {d; e}:
. 3 a . :
A(d) = {e}; A(e) = ; A(f ) = {d; e}:
e , 4.
A{d} = ; A(f ) = {d}:
5 d , .
:
A(f ) = :
f 6.

: (1), b(2), a(3), e(4), d(5) f (6). :

b
a
e
d
f
,
266

.
. 8.1 .
, .

.
8.5. . 8.2.
8.2.
:
A() = {}; A() = {}; A() = {}; A() = {};
A() = {; }; A() = ; A() = {}; A() = {};

A() = {}; A() = {; ; ; }; A() = :
, 1 2 ,
.

A() = {}; A() = ; A() = ; A() = {};
A() = {; }; A() = {}; A() = {};
A() = ; A() = {; ; }:
3, | 4 | 5, , .
267

A() = ; A() = {}; A() = ; A() = ;
A() = ; A() = {; ; }:
6, 7, 8 9
.
A() = {}; A() = :
, , 10,
11 . .
8.6.
begin
for j := 1 to n do
A(j ) := ;
k := 1;
begin
while k 6 n do
if M (k; j ) = then
A(j ) := A(j ) {k };
k := k + 1;
end
end
8.7.
M2 =
M3 =
M4 =
268
2
3
4
M = M M M M =
8.8.
M = W0 =
W2 =
M = W4 =
W1 =
W3 =
8.9. () . 8.1.
8.1
0
1
2
3
4
5
A
B
C
D
E
F
0
0
0
0
0
0
B; C; D; E; F
C; D; E; F
23
D; E; F
10
3
3
3
3
3
10
15
10
10
10
10
15
15
15
15
17
17
17
23
E; F
F
23
A:
AB
3,
AC
10,
A C D 15.
() . 8.2.
A C D E 17,
A C D F 23.
269
8.2
A; B; D; E; F
0
0
13
A; B; E; F
11
13
A; F
11
11
7
7
7
A; B; F
5
5
5
13
0
0
0
13
0
1
2
3
4
C :
CD
5,
C D E 7,
11,
13.
CDEB
CDF
8.10. . 8.3.
8.3
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
S
C
A
B
D
F
E
T
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
10 4
10 4
9 4
9 4
9 4
9 4
9 4
9 4
A; B; C; D; E; F; T
22 18
22 18
14 22 17
14 20 17
14 20 17
14 20 17
14 20 17
A; B; D; E; F; T
B; D; E; F; T
26
26
E; F; T
25
5
5
5
5
5
5
14
14
D; E; F; T
E; T
25
S :
SC
SA
S A; B
SCD
4,
5,
9,
14,
S AB F
S AB F E
S AB F E T
SCDET
17,
20,
25,
25.
9
9.1. . 9.1 . 9.2 |
, .
. ,
.
270
9.1
p
q
(p q )
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
q
(p q )
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
9.2
p
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
9.2. () , , (
q ) = q ,
(p q) r = (
p q ) r = p q r:
() , , ,
((p q) (r (p q))) =
= (p q) (r (p q)) =
=
=
=
=
(
p q ) (
r (p q)) =
r (
p q )) =
(
p q ) (
((
p q ) r) (
p q) =
p q:
9.3. pqrs pqr s pqrs pq rs:

9.4.
f = p (
q r ) p (q r) :
f . 9.3.
:
f = pqr pq r pqr pqr pqr pqr:
9.5. () (p q) r =
(p q) r

= (p q) r =
= ((
p q ) r) = (p q r):
271
() (p q) r =

= p (q { q ) r =

= p (q { q ) { r {

{
p (q { q ) { r =
h

=
p { (q { q ) {
i

{ r {
{ p { (q { q )
h

{
p { (q { q ) {
i

{ p { (q { q )
{ r :
9.3
p
(q r)
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
r
1
1
0
1
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
r
(
q r)
9.6. p,
p q p q p { q . .
p = (p p) = p { p;
p q = (p q ) = (p { q ) =
= (p { q ) { (p { q );
p q = (
p q) = p { q =
= (p { p) { (q { q ):
{ { } .
,
{ { } .
p { q p { q .
272
,
p { q = (p q ) =

p q
= (
p { q) =

= (p { p) { (q { q ) :
p { q = (p { p) { (q { q )
{ (p { p) { (q { q ) :
9.7. . 9.1.
pq
pq
pq
r
pq
9.1.
pqr pqr pq r pqr
.
pqr pqr pq r pqr = (
pqr pqr ) (pq r pqr ) =
r r) =
= pr (
q q ) pq (
= pr pq:
9.8. f = pqr pq r pqr pqr: f
. 9.2.
pq
r
r
pq
pq
pq
1
1
9.2.
273
. (
). :
pqr pq r = pr
pqr pqr = pr:
: f = pr pr:
9.9. pqr pqr .
. 9.3.
pq
r
pq
pq
pq
r
9.3. pqr pqr
, pr . . 9.4.
p
r
9.4. pr
9.10.
p { (
q { r ) = p { (
q r) =
= p { (q r) =

= p (q r) =
= p (q r) =
= p (
q r ):
. 9.5.
9.11. pqr
pq r qr , pqr pq r pqr pqr ,
qr = (p p)qr:
274
pr pq . 9.7, , ,
pr pq = pqr pq r pqr pqr:
, , . .
.
p
q
r
9.5.
(
q r)
9.12. ,
p { q = (p q ) = p q = (
p q) = (
p { q) =

= (p { p) { (q { q ) {

{ (p { p) { (q { q ) :
. 9.6.
p
9.6.

. .
.1.
.
, | | . , , ,

, , .
, , .
. ( , ) .
, . .
, , , . ,
. , ,
, .
, , .
, ,
. , .
, , ,
,
.
, ,
. ,
.
. , , -
276

,
.

.
,
.
, , , ,
,
, .
, , . ,
, ,
.

,
.
, [0; 1. ,
, ,
,
, | .
[0; 1
[21. ,
.
n m . n n, 2m ( ,
) m | .
| , , . , .
, R, [0; 1. ,
. . , , . R, ,
k. , , 12R [0; 12, nR | [0; n.
nR .
nR (, , nR). -
.1.
277
. ,
R n, nR 0,
1.
nR +1, | 1 n.
, , ,
nR +1. , , ,
. . : ,
| . . n
, , i-
j -
N = (n 1)i + j . N = n R +1
, , . .
. i j , . , ,
:

N
i=
+ 1; j = N (i 1)n:
n
, ,
.
1
.1.1.

M , n
m , n n 2m ,
.
, , . . i = 1; 2; : : : ; n;
M (i; i) = . - (k = 1; 2; : : : ; m)
,
(i; j ) .
(i; j ) i = j ,
m .
Input
n | ;
m | ;
M | n n,
begin
for k = 1 to m do
begin

1 ,
1. , ,
nR + 1 =
, .
+ 1.
278

R;
N := n R + 1;
i := N : n + 1;
j := N (i 1) n;
if M (i; j ) 6= and i 6= j then
begin
M (i; j ) := ;
M (j; i) := ;
2
end
Output M |
end
else
end
m := m + 1
.1.2.

M , n m ,
nn m : ,
. - (k = 1; 2; : : : ; m)
,
(i; j ) .
(i; j ) i = j ,
, m .
Input
n | ;
m | ;
M | n n,
begin
for k = 1 to m do
begin

R;

N := n R + 1;
i := N : n + 1;
j := N (i 1) n;
if M (i; j ) 6= and i 6= j then
2
else
begin
M (i; j ) := ;
end
.1.
end
Output M |
end
279
m := m + 1
,
- . |
. .
.1.3.

, n m ,
nn m : , ,
. ,
, . ,
- (k = 1; 2; : : : ; m)
, (i; j )
i < j , (i; j ), i > j , (j; i) .
(i; j ) ( i < j ) (j; i) ( i > j )
i = j ,
m .
Input
n | ;
m | ;
M | n n,
begin
for k = 1 to m do
begin

R;
N := n R + 1;
i := N : n + 1;
j := N (i 1) n;
if i 6= j and i < j and M (i; j ) 6= then
M (i; j ) := ;
if i 6= j and i > j and M (i; j ) 6= then
M (j; i) := ;
else
m := m + 1
2
end
end
Output M | .
,
, ,
280

. . ,
.
.1.1. , 5 8 , .
. n = 5 m = 8.
:
.1.1
k
2
1
0,21132
0,26215
0,79253
0,28052
0,93648
20
24
10
6
6
6
4
0,35606
10
3
7
7
7
5
7
7
7
5
6
6
6
4
6
6
6
4
6
6
6
4
2
7
6
6
6
4
6
6
6
4
7
7
7
5
7
7
7
5
7
7
7
5
7
7
7
5
.2.
281
. .1.1
2
8
0,16043
10
10
11
0,40480
0,74225
0,70183
11
19
18
10
11
11
7
7
7
5
2
9
6
6
6
4
6
6
6
4
6
6
6
4
6
6
6
4
7
7
7
5
7
7
7
5
7
7
7
5
. .1.
.2.
, ,
,
, . .
.
,
-
, .
|
, .
, ( )
.1.
282

.
.
W (. . 176),
. .
. G n
S n n, i- j -
S (i; j ) = , i = j ,
i- j -. ,
S (i; j ) = S (j; i), . . .
, ( . 185).
C n n,
C (i; j ) = , i = j i j , , j - i-.
, S (i; j ) = (. . S (i; j ) = ,
i j ).
C W , C (i; j ) = ,
i j , j i. , C (i; i) = i. , i-
j - W (i; j ) = , W (j; i) = , j -
i-. ,
:

i = j;
C (i; j ) = ;
W (i; j ) W (j; i); i 6= j:
. ,
(. . 177). ,
.
. , S .
.
.2.1. ,
G(V; E ) n M .
W , W , . . . , Wn,
W = M E;
0
283
.2.
E |
:::
:::
:::
:::
:::
:::
:::
Wn | S ,
:

Wk (i; j ) = Wk (i; j ) Wk (i; k) Wk (k; j ) ;
1
k = 1; :::; n; i = 1; :::; n; j = 1; :::; n:
. 178.
.2.1. , G = (V; E ), . .2,
.

2
3
M =
:

4
5
, W
,
. ,
W = M E =
:

W W , , W .
? ? ? ? ?

W =
:

? ? ? ? ?
0
.2.
284

W , ,
. 178. W W ,
W . , W
W .
W =
:

? ? ? ? ?
W .
W
W . ,
W =
:

W . W
, W . W ,
W ,
W .
W =
:

W W . 2 4
, W . , W
W .
W =
:

W . W .
,
W
1
285
.2.
W .
W , ( 2
4), . W W
.
W =
:

W . W
, W
. W

W .
W =
:

,

W =
:

(. 282),
C=
:

3
,
,
2
4
. - 1
5
.2.1
(. . .3).
, , . , .
4
.3.
286

.2.2.
, .
.
, i- , i.
,
,
. , , ,
, , , .
.
Input
V | G;
M | G;
C | G;
begin
p := 0;
B := C ;
while B 6= do
begin
p := p + 1;
Vp
B;
V,
Mp
M ,
Vp ;
B ,
Vp ;
V Vp ;

Output
end
end
p | G;
Vi , i = 1; 2; : : : p, | i-
Gi G;
Mi , i = 1; 2; : : : p; | i-
Gi G.
.2.2. G, -
.1.1, .
287
.2.
, :
W
, (. 282),

C=
:

p :=0, B = C . B 6= ,
.
{ p := p + 1 = 0 + 1 = 1;
{ V := {1; 3; 4; 5};
{ M , M , , V :
1
:=
V
M G.
{ B , V :
B := [ ;
{ V , V , V := {2}.
B 6= , .
{ p := p + 1 = 1 + 1 = 2;
{ V := {2};
1
288

{ M , M , , 2 V :
M := [ :
, V M
G.
{ B , V :
B := :
B = , , , .
G. . .4.
2
.3.
,
3 2
. ,
,
:

5
4
. .
, ,
.
,
, . ,
, | . .
( ) , , , . P a G ,
, .
, a. ,
1
.4.
289
.3.
, . . P = a a a : : : ak a. P
G, G , P .
G P . G . G ,
b
P
P as,
- G . as
P ,
a
b
G. as , . .
P
P = as b : : : bm as . P P a

a
a
P = a a : : : as b : : : bm as as : : : am a;
a
, P (. . .5). P
, . ,
.
1
+1
.5.
.3.1.
Input
G(V; E ) |
begin
:= ;
a := d;
dV;
while E 6= do
begin
:= d;
P := ;
repeat
begin
d ,
(d; x) E ;
(d; y ) E :
(d; y) = P ;
P := P {(d; y)};
(d; y ) ;
d := y;
end;
until y 6=
if P 6= then
P := P (a; ) P P ( ; a);
290

else
end
P := P ;
end
Output P |
G
.3.1. G(V; E ),

V = 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6

E = (1; 2); (1; 4); (2; 3); (2; 4); (2; 5); (3; 4); (4; 6); (5; 6) :

. : -
, .
d V .
{ d := 1;
{ P := ;
{ a := d = 1.
while E 6= do ... end. = ,
d , 1.
{ := d = 1;
{ P := .
repeat . ..until y 6= .
{ (d; y) E : (d; y) = P , d = 1
( (1; 2));
{ : P := 1 2;
{ (1; 2)
( := {(1; 4); (2; 3); (2; 4); (2; 5); (3; 4); (4; 6); (5; 6)});
{ d := y = 2.
{ (d; y) E : (d; y) = P , d = 2
( (2; 3));
{ : P := 1 2 3;
{ (2; 3)
( := {(1; 4); (2; 4); (2; 5); (3; 4); (4; 6); (5; 6)});
{ d := y = 3.
{ (d; y) E , (d; y) = P , d = 3
( (3; 4));
{ : P := 1 2 3 4;
.3.
291
{ (3; 4)
( := {(1; 4); (2; 4); (2; 5); (4; 6); (5; 6)});
{ d := y = 4.
{ (d; y) E , (d; y) = P , d = 4
( (4; 1));
{ : P := 1 2 3 4 1;
{ (1; 4) ( := {(2; 4); (2; 5); (4; 6); (5; 6)});
{ d := y = 1.
, .
= , := = 1 2 3 4 1. 6= ,
.
{ d P , (d; x), E ( d = 2);
{ := d = 2;
{ P := .
repeat .. .until
y 6= .
{ (d; y) E , (d; y) = P , d = 2
( (2; 4));
{ : P := 2 4;
{ (2; 4) ( := {(2; 5); (4; 6); (5; 6)});
{ d := y = 4.
{ (d; y) E , (d; y) = P , d = 4
( (4; 6));
{ : P := 2 4 6;
{ (4; 6) ( := {(2; 5); (5; 6)});
{ d := y = 6.
{ (d; y) E , (d; y) = P , d = 6
( (6; 5));
{ : P := 2 4 6 5;
{ (6; 5) ( := {(2; 5)});
{ d := y = 5.
292

{ (d; y) E , (d; y) = P , d = 5
( (5; 2));
{ : P := 2 4 6 5 2;
{ (5; 2) ( := );
{ d := y = 2.
= = 2, . 6= ,
P := P (a; ) P P ( ; a) = P (1; 2) P P (2; 1) =
= 1 2 4 6 5 2 3 4 1:
, = . ,
. : = 2 4 6 5 2 3 4 1.
.3.2.
G , -
, ,
. .
k G (, k |
). ,
G Pi . ,
k=2. ,
G . , G G ,
k=2 E , . G P .
P E k=2 , G.
, , ,
, , ,
. ,
, .
,

, . G,
. . Gd G, ,
,
.
,
.3.
293
. , ,
.
,
, ,
.
a , -
P , , . g ,
. g (g; r),
, . g ,
.
, g P
; , P a .
P G .
a . P a
, a
a ; P
, a .
P .
P a an , ai . an
(ai ; an) , , .
an P ; , an
. .
0
Input
n | ;
V | ;
m | ;
E | ;
M | ;
begin
P := ;
k := 2m;
V := V ;
while k 6= 0 do
aV;
294

begin
(a; b),
M (a; b) = ,
(a; b),
M (b; a) = ;
if b V then

begin
b V ;
M (a; b) := ;
else
end
Output P |
end
end
P := P {(a; b)};
k := k 1;
a := b;
M (a; b) := ;
,

.
.3.2.
, . .6 .
. ,
, . 4 1. . .4.2.
.
5
1
,
:

= (1; 2); (2; 3); (3; 1); (1; 5); (5; 2); (2; 1); (1; 3); (3; 2); (2; 5); (5; 4); (4; 5); (5; 1) :
3
.6.
.4.
| .
,
295
.4.
.
.
, ,
( . 81).
.4.2
k
(a; b)
2
12
{1; 2; 3; 4; 5}
6
6
6
6
6
4
2
11
(1; 2)
{1; 3; 4; 5}
{(1; 2)}
(2; 3)
{1; 4; 5}
{(1; 2); (2; 3)}
(3; 1)
{4; 5}
{(1; 2); (2; 3); (3; 1)}
(1; 5)
{4}
{(1; 2); (2; 3); (3; 1); (1; 5)}
(5; 2)
{4}
{(1; 2); (2; 3);

(3; 1); (1; 5); (5; 2)}
(2; 1)
{4}
{(1; 2); (2; 3); (3; 1);

(1; 5); (5; 2); (2; 1)}
6
6
6
6
6
4
2
6
6
6
6
6
4
2
6
6
6
6
6
4
2
6
6
6
6
6
4
2
6
6
6
6
6
4
2
10
6
6
6
6
6
4
3
7
7
7
7
7
5
3
7
7
7
7
7
5
3
7
7
7
7
7
5
3
7
7
7
7
7
5
3
7
7
7
7
7
5
3
7
7
7
7
7
5
3
7
7
7
7
7
5
296

. .4.2
2
5
(1; 3)
{4}
{(1; 2); (2; 3); (3; 1); (1; 5);

(5; 2) (2; 1); (1; 3)}
6
6
6
6
6
4
2
4
(3; 2)
(2; 5)
(5; 4)
(4; 5)
{4}
{4}
{(1; 2); (2; 3); (3; 1); (1; 5);

(5; 2) (2; 1); (1; 3); (3; 2)}
{(1; 2); (2; 3); (3; 1); (1; 5); (5; 2);
(2; 1); (1; 3); (3; 2); (2; 5)}
{(1; 2); (2; 3); (3; 1); (1; 5); (5; 2);
(2; 1); (1; 3); (3; 2); (2; 5); (5; 4)}
{(1; 2); (2; 3); (3; 1); (1; 5); (5; 2) (2; 1);
(1; 3); (3; 2); (2; 5); (5; 4); (4; 5)}
6
6
6
6
6
4
6
6
6
6
6
4
6
6
6
6
6
4
6
6
6
6
6
4
2
0
(5; 1)
{(1; 2); (2; 3); (3; 1); (1; 5); (5; 2) (2; 1);
(1; 3); (3; 2); (2; 5); (5; 4); (4; 5); (5; 1)}
6
6
6
6
6
4
3
7
7
7
7
7
5
3
7
7
7
7
7
5
3
7
7
7
7
7
5
3
7
7
7
7
7
5
3
7
7
7
7
7
5
3
7
7
7
7
7
5
, , , , ( ). , , , , , .
.
,
.
(a; S ) , S ; a S ,
| ; | .
.4.
297
(a; S ) S , S
S {a}.
(S ) S
.
(a; S ) S , S
S \ {a}.
(S ; S ; S ) S S , . . S = S S .
(S ) S .
. 7 . 167 169 . ,
, | (S ). v ; v ; : : : ; vp , v |
, vi | vi (i = 1; 2; : : : ; p), vp
. vp
. vp ,
.
(S ) (v), v. .
1
Input
begin
if T = then output
else
;
(r)
( r | );
:= l(v), v |
;

Output
end
,
.
Pro edure (v).

begin
if v w then return (w)
else return v
end
.4.1. ,
. .7
298

. , 1

if
(1).
1 |
3
2
2, then
end
(2).
2 | 4
6
4, - begin
while
(4).
4 ,
5
4 else
.
4 begin,
= begin.
(a; S ) . , , ,
v. :
v ; v ;
v ;
v v, v ( v | ,
);
v ;
v b, ,
b, v b. (, , a, b .
, , b, , , .)
, (a; S ) ,
S . (a; S ),
v,
( v l(v)). ,
(a; S ) w,
v. (a; S )
, .
Pro edure (a; S )
begin
(1)
if v | then v
else
(2)
if v
.7.
.4.
(5)
(6)
(7)
u then
w then
u w
if v
else
(3)
(4)
299
else
u ,
v

v
y;
return (b; S );
l(v) := b;
end
.4.2. (a; S ) S , . .7, a | if .
. if -
1
1, (end
2 3), (5)
. , if
3
(), 4
then
begin
2, | end. (end; S ).
5
6
(2) else
while
, 2 end . (3)
,
. (4): 2 , 4
() 3 (). (end; S ) .
( (7)):
1 end (l(1) := end).
. .8.
,
, .
,
: leftson, rightson key.
:

v; v | i;
leftson(i) =
?; i ;

v; v | i;
rightson(i) =
?; i ;
key(i) = l (i) | i:
.8.
300

, , . .7,
.
i
leftson
rightson
key
if
end
then
begin
else
while

.
leftson rightson, .
, 4 2, 4
leftson.
.4.1.
, S S , .

. , ,
. ,
,
.
. , ,
,
S .
, ,
.

.
, 1, 2, . . ., n. , , |
. , .
, - , .
.
(S ; S ; S ).
1
.4.
301
r next n, r(i) |
, i, next(i) r, , i. i |
- , next(i) = 0. list,
,
list(j )
j r.
, size, size(j ) j .
, r,
,
. ext-name int-name.
ext-name(j ) , j , int-name(k) | ,
k:
.4.3. , {1; 3; 5; 7}; {2; 4; 8}; {6} 1, 2, 3
2, 3, 1 .
. , . r next n = 8.
, , list, size, ext-name
r | , int-name |
.
.
.4.3
.4.4
.4.5
next
list
size
ext-name
int-name
(S ; S ; S ) S S S . S .
1
302

(i; j; k)
Input
i; j
|
i j );
(
r, next, list, size, ext-name, int-name;
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
Output
begin
A := int-name(i);
B := int-name(j );
element := list(A);
while element 6= 0 do
begin
(element) := B;
last := element;
element := next(element)
r
end
(last) := list(B);
(B) := list(A);
size(B ) := size(B ) + size(A);
int-name(K ) := B ;
ext-name(B ) := k
next
list
end
i; j
k.
:
1) i j ( (1) (2));
2)
( (3));
3) r
( (4){(7));
4) ( (8){(10));
5) k.
, .
.4.4. (1; 2; 4)
.4.3.
. , ,
.4.6{.4.8.
303
.4.
. , , ,
| . (S ; S ; S )
, ,
S , S , , S S (
). .
1
.4.6
.4.7
.4.8
list
size
ext-name
next
3
4
int-name
father , root , name , size ,

.
father
, : father (i) i. i | ,
father (i) = 0. root
, root (i) , i. size (i)
i. name (i) , i. i , name (i) = 0.
.4.5. father , root , name size ,
.4.3, ,

1 = {1; 3; 5; 7}; 2 = {2; 4; 8}; 3 = {6}
, . .9.
.9.
304

. .4.9 .4.10.
(i; j; k).
Input
i, j
|
i
(
father , name , root , size ;
begin
Output
end
j );
large := root (i);

small := root (j );
father (small ) := large;
size (k ) := size (large) + size (small );
name (large) := k ;
name (small ) := 0;
root (k ) := large;
root (small ) := 0;
root (large) := 0;
i j
.4.9
k.
.4.11
.4.10
father
name
father
name
5
6
root
size
.4.6. (i; j; k)
.4.3. .
. (1; 2; 4)
.4.11 .4.12. . .10.
.4.12
root
size
2
.10.

. . , . .
2004 . . ,
,
, .
. | .
,

, , , , .
,
.
, .
.5.
, , .
, , . , ,
, , , .
,
,
.
306
:
for i = 1 to n
for j = i to n i + 1
< >
for j
for i
end
end
, n = 10? . ,
n,
. S (n)

S (n) = n + (n 2) + (n 4) + : : :
.
, , ,

.
,
.
.5.1.
,
. , ,
.
:
a + a + + an ;
ak | k |
. ak . , , , , k, . . ak = f (k).
:
1+4+ +n ;
(.1)
1 + 41 + + n1 ;
(.2)
(.1) | f (k) = k , (.2) | f (k) = k .
,
, .
.5.
307
, . - | , - | .
, :
n
X
k=1
ak ;
16
k 6n
ak :
(.3)
1820 -. ,
(.3), . | ak k. |
n. , 1+2+3+4+5,
1+2+ +5 P k, 1+2+3+4+5 = 15,
k
.
,
| . |
n
X
(a + (k 1) d) = na + (n 2 1)n d;
(.4)
k
|
n
X
qn 1
aqk = a
:
(.5)
q1
k
(.4) (.5) , .
, ,
. ,
S (n),
5
=1
=1
=1
S (n) =
n
X
k=1
ak ;
. .
. S (n)
. ,
S (n).
| .

, , n.
,
. ,
.
308
, , , , n.

f n = 0, f (n) = o(g (n)) (1. -. nlim

g n
).
2. -. , fg nn <
n, f (n) = O(g(n)) ( O
). , o- O-,
.
3. . > 0
> 0, n , n > n g(n) 6
6 f (n) 6 g (n), f (n) = (g (n)). f (n) = (g (n)) ,
g(n) f (n).
f n = 1, f (n) g (n) (
4. . nlim
g n
). , : f (n) g(n),
f (n) = g(n) + o(g(n)).

.
(
S (n) =
n
X
k=1
ak ;
S (n) | g(n),
S (n) g(n). .
S (n) = (g(n)), , , . S (n) = O(g(n))
.
1
.5.1. O- S (n) = kPn k .

. , 1 6 k 6 n k
3
=1
S (n) =
n
X
k=1
n
X
k=1
6 n3
=n :
4
,
S (n) =
n
X
k=1
= O(n ):
4
. , , n = 1, , ,
n = n, n + 1.
309
.5.
, , g(n) = n

n
X
S (n) = k ; . . S (n) = (n ):
4
k=1

n , n > n
n
X
S (n) = k > n :
(.6)
1
k=1
.
. n (.6). , n > n
1
S (n + 1) =
nX
+1
k=1
(n + 1) :
> 1
(.7)
.
S (n + 1) =
S (n + 1) =
n
X
k=1
nX
+1
k=1
n
X
k=1
+(n + 1) ;
3
+(n + 1) = S (n) + (n + 1)
3
> 1 n4
+ (n + 1) :
3
,
n + (n + 1) > (n + 1)
(.8)
n, (.7),
. (.8),
,
(n + 1) > ((n + 1) n ); 6 4n +(6nn+ +1)4n + 1 :
, n > 1
(n + 1)
n
1;
>
=
4n + 6n + 4n + 1 4n + 6n + 4n + n 15
= , , S (1) = 1 > 1 , ,
, n > 1
n
X
1
S (n) = k > n :
15
1
15
15
k=1
, n > 1 S (n) 6 n , ,
= , = 1, S (n) = (n ), g(n) = n
S (n).
4
15
310
. ,
. | . | ,
n
n
n
X
X
X
( ak + dbk ) = ak +d bk :
k=1
k=1
k=1
,
.
.

n
n
X
X
U (n) = ak ; V (n) = bk ;
k=1
k=1
k ak 6 bk . , U (n) 6 V (n).
. ,
.
.5.2.
U (n) =
n
X
k=1
k+1
2k :
1
. |
V (n) =
n
X
k=1
2k ;
1
| (.5) V (n) = P 2k = 2n 1.
k
k k < 1, U (n) 6 V (n) = 2n 1, ,
U (n) = O(2n ):
. |
. , ak = f (k),
y = f (x) x.
y = f (x) , ,
=1
+1
ak 6
kZ+1
k
f (x) dx
ak >
Zk
k 1
f (x) dx;
311
.5.
| S (n) = P ak
S (n) 6
k=1
nZ+1
f (x) dx
S (n) > a
Zn
f (x) dx:
y = f (x) , ,
kZ+1
ak >
f (x) dx
ak 6
k 1
S (n)
S (n) >
nZ+1
f (x) dx
Zk
S (n) 6 a
f (x) dx;
Zn
f (x) dx:
.5.3. S (n) = kPn k

1
.
. f (x) = x ,
.
nZ
n
1 dx 6 S (n) 6 1 + Z 1 dx;
=1
+1
, ln(n + 1) 6 S (n) 6 1 + ln(n). , S (n) ln(n). , , ,

S (n) = ln(n) + O(1):
.5.4. Pn
S (n) =
k=1
ln k:
. y = ln x ,
Zn
ln xdx <
n
X
1
ln k <
nZ+1
ln xdx:
ln xdx = x ln x x,
R
n ln n n <
n
X
k=1
ln k < (n + 1) ln(n + 1) (n + 1):
312
,
n
X
ln k n ln n:
k=1
n!. , n! = 1 2 3 n,
n
P
n
n
k
n
n! = e
= ek ; n < n! < (n + 1) :
ln(
!)
=1
+1
ln
en
en+1
, n!,
(., [16).
.5.5. , kPn k = O(1).

. , ,
1
=1
n
X
k=1
n. f (x) = x , .
n
n
X
1 6 1 + Z 1 dx = 1 1 + 1 = 2 1 6 2;
1
k=1 k
. , R dx
x = x.
.5.6.
,
n
P
S (n) = k :
2
k=1
. . , k > 1
Zk
x dx < k <
3
k 1

S (n) =
k=1
x dx;
3
S (n) =
n
X
k+1
Z
n
X
k=1
k <
3
k >
3
Zn
nZ+1
x dx =
1
4
x dx = n ;
4
1 ((n + 1)
4
1):
.5.
, g(n) =
1
4
313
S (n) n.
1 6 (1S=(4)nn) 6 (1=4)(((1n=+4)n1) 1) ;
(1 + 1=n) 1=n = 1:
lim (1=4)(((1n=+4)n1) 1) = nlim
n
1
,

S (n)
lim
= 1;
n (1=4) n
,
n
X
1
S (n) = k n :
4
4
k=1

,
.
. ,

.

n
X
(a + (k 1) d) = na + (n 2 1)n d:
k

n
X
S (n) = (a + (k 1) d):
.
S (n)
=1
k=1
n = 1 . ,
n, (n + 1)
S (n + 1) =
nX
+1
k=1
(a + (k 1) d) =
n
X
k=1
(a + (k 1) d) + a + nd = S (n) + a + nd;
S (n) = na + (n 2 1)n d,
(n 1)n d + a + nd = (n + 1)a + n(n + 1) d;
S (n + 1) = na +
2
2
.
. , S (n) , , ,

.
314
n |
S (n) = P k :
k
n, . .
S (n) = An + Bn + Cn + Dn + E:
(.9)
S (1) = 1 | ,
A + B + C + D + E = 1:
S (n) (.9) | ,
S (n + 1) = A(n + 1) + B (n + 1) + C (n + 1) + D(n + 1) + E;

S (n + 1) = S (n) + (n + 1) :
(.10)
, (.10) S (n) (.9),
An + Bn + Cn + Dn + E + (n + 1) =
= A(n + 1) + B(n + 1) + C (n + 1) + D(n + 1) + E;
n. n,
A, B, C , D.
4A = 1;
6A + 3B = 3;
4A + 3B + 2C = 3;
A + B + C + D = 1:
, A = , B = , C = , D = 0. A, B, C , D
A + B + C + D + E = 1;
, E = 0, , (.9)
n
X
1 = 1 n + 1 n + 1 n = n (n + 1) :
S (n) =
k
4
2
4
4
k
,
.
(1 + 2 + + n) = n(n2+ 1) ; (1 + 2 + + n ) = (1 + 2 + + n) :
. , ,
. ,
.
3
=1
=1
.5.
315
.5.7. S (n)
S (n) =
n
X
k=1
k(k + 2)
. S (n)
1 ; S (2) = 1 + 1 = 11 :
3
3 8 24
,

n
X
1
1
S (n) =
2k 2(k + 2) ;
k
,

n
n
n
X
1X
11X
1 :
1
1
S (n) =
=
2k 2(k + 2) 2 k k 2 k k + 2
k
S (1) =
=1
=1
=1
=1

n
n
X
1 ; V (n) = X
1 ;
U (n) =
k
k
+
2
k
k
=1
=1
| V (n). ,
| 0 = + ,
1
n
1 = 1 + 1 +X
1 1 1 = nX 1 1 1 =
1 2 k k+2 1 2 k k 1 2
k k+2
n
X
= k1 + n +1 1 + n +1 2 11 12 ;
k
,
1 + 1 1 1;
V (n) = U (n) +
n+1 n+2 1 2

1
1
1
1
1
1
S (n) = (U (n) V (n)) = U (n) U (n)
+ + :
2
2
n+1 n+2 1 2
, n > 3 S (n) = 34 2(n 1+ 1) 2(n 1+ 2) .
V (n) =
n
X
=1
=1
+2
=1
=1
316
.5.8.
, (.5).
. S (n) = kPn aqk .

1
=1
S (n) =
n
X
k=1
aqk
= a+
n
X
aqk
k=2
=a+q
n
X
k=2
aqk
= a + (q
k=2
n
aq aqn
, 0 = (
S (n) = a + (q
k=2
nX
+1
= a + q(

n
X
k=2
aqk
aqk
n
X
+ aqn) aqn = a + q(
) aqn = a(1 qn) + q(
aqk
k=1
k=1
aqk
aqk
+ aqn) aqn;
),
k=2
n
X
n
X
n
X
+ aqn ) aqn =
1
aqk ):
1
= S (n);
S (n)
S (n) = a(1 qn ) + qS (n);
,
n
X
qn 1
S (n) = aqk = a
:
q1
k
1
=1
.

. .
n
X
(.11)
S (n) = k3k :
k=1
.
f (x) =
n
X
k=1
kxk ;

x = 3, . .
n
X
k3k = f (3):
k=1
.5.
317
,
.
f (x) =
n
P
xk
k=1
n
X
k=1
kxk = x
n
X
k=1
kxk
n
X
= x dxd (
k=1
xk ):

n
n
X
X
xn 1 xn x
xk = x xk = x
= x1 :
x1
+1
k=1
k=1
,
n
d X
nxn
(
xk ) =
dx k
+1
=1
,
(n + 1)xn + 1 :
(x 1)
(n + 1)xn + 1 ;
(.12)
(x 1)
k
, , x = 3,
n
X
3
k3k = f (3) = (n3n (n + 1)3n + 1):
4
k
,
(.11) . , ,
f (x) =
n
X
kxk = x
nxn
+1
=1
+1
=1
S (n) =
n
X
k=1
k2k = f (2);
,
(.12).
. ,

P
ak , , k
.
=1
.5.1
.5.1.1. kPn (2n 2k).

.5.1.2. kPn k k .
=1
=1
( +1)
318
.5.1.3. kPn k.
=1
n
P
.5.1.4. k
.5.1.5. , kPn
=1
k3
= O(1).
=1
.5.2.
, . ,
, , , , 0; 7x = 2,
, , , , . , ( ,
, ).
x = 0; 3x + 2, x = 1 xn ,

x = 1;
(.13)
xn = 0; 3xn + 2:
, . . rn = |xn xn |. (.13)
xn = 0; 3xn + 2, xn = 0; 3xn + 2,
xn xn = 0; 3 (xn xn ):
, rn = 0; 3 rn . , xn n. x = 1, x = 2; 3, n > 2
|xn x | = |(xn xn ) + (xn xn ) + + (x x ) + (x x )|:
,
|xn x | 6 |xn xn | + |xn xn | + + |x x | + |x x |;
,
|xn x | 6 rn + rn + + r + r ;
rn = 0; 3 rn ,
|xn x | 6 0; 3n r + 0; 3n r + + 0; 3r + r :
,
1 0; 3n ;
|xn x | 6 r
1 0; 3
xn .
.
+1
+1
+1
+2
+1
+2
+1
+1
+1
+1
.5.
319
, . dmn = |xn xm|, , n > m.

dmn 6 rn + rn + + rm + rm ;
,
1 0; 3nm :
dmn 6 0; 3n r + 0; 3n r + + 0; 3mr + 0; 3m r = 0; 3m r
1 0; 3
" > 0, n = n ("), ,
n > n , m > n dmn < ".
, xn n
.
xn = z , xn = 0; 3xn +2.
nlim
nlim
xn = nlim
(0; 3xn + 2), z = 0; 3z + 2, ,
. ,
, . , (.13)

.
.
a (a > 0), |, , , . a
x = a.
2x = x + a,
1 a
x= x+ :
2
x
xn, :

x = 1;
(.14)
xn = (xn + xan ):
,
. ,

1 a
y(x) = x + ;
2
x
,
dy 1
a
=
1
:
dx 2
x

x = a.
y(x) (0; a) ( a; ).
x = a
, , ,

1 a + a = a:
y>
2
a
1
+1
+1
+1
+1
1
2
320
, , ,
a: xn > a n > 1. , , , , . . xn 6 xn n > 2.
, x > a
1 x + a 6 1 x + x = x:
2
x
2
, , , , xn = z ,
. nlim

1
a
xn = xn +
;
2
xn
,
1 a
z= z+ ;
2
z
z = a. , ,
, .
, ,
, . . ,
.
, , .
,
, .
, T (n),
n . ( , n > 0 n > 1).
.
. T (n)
n: 1 6 n 6 m.
. , ,
T (n) n 6 k (k > m), n = k + 1,
. . T (k + 1) | ,
.
,

.
n
P
, S (n) = ak
k

S (0) = 0;
(.15)
S (k) = S (k 1) + ak ; k > 1:
+1
+1
=1
.5.
321
. f (n) = n!,
.
n! = 1 2 3 (n 1) n;
. .

f (0) = 1;
(.16)
f (k) = k f (k 1); k > 1:
,
.
,
(. (.13), (.14)), (.
(.15), (.16)). , , . ,
f (k) = ak .

. x ; x ; :::; xn
,
.
xn = f (xn ; xn ; :::; xni ); n > i:
xn , ,
.
, , , . , ,
. , , ,
.
. ,
,
.

.
.
-
p .
322
an = an
+ an + + panp ; p 6= 0:
, . b ; b ; :::; bn ; ;
:::; n .
B = {b ; b ; :::; bn}, C = { ; ; :::; n }, D = b B + C , ( b ),
, .
p. , , p = 2. .
dy
dy
+ d dx
+ d y = 0:
(.17)
dx
2
(.18)
an = an + an an an an = 0:

y = ex . (.17),
ex + d ex + d ex = 0; + d + d = 0:
+ d + d = 0,
.

2 an = rn . (.18),

rn = rn + rn ; r r = 0:
r r r = 0,
.
, A B
.
I. + d + d = 0
= k , = k ,
y = Aek x +
k
x
+Be . r r = 0 r = r , r = r ,
an = Arn + Brn .
II. + d + d = 0
= = k,
1
323
.5.
y = Aekx +
kx
+Bxe . r r = 0
r = r = a,
n.
an = Aan + Bna
n
. , an = a , r = a
. an = nan. (.18)
nan = (n 1)an + (n 2)an ;

nan (a a ) + an ( a + 2 ) = 0:
a | , (a a ) = 0,
. . a 2, ( a + 2 ) = 0. , an = nan
.
III. + d + d = 0 = i, y =
= Aex os x + Bex sin x.
r r = 0
r = i, an = A ( + i)n + B ( i)n.
, . ,
,
. + i

+ i = ( os ' + i sin ');
p
= + , '

os ' = ; sin ' = (0 6 ' < 2):
(( os ' + i sin ')) n = n( os n'+i sin n'). n , bn = n os n' n =
= sin n' .
an = An os n' + Bn sin n'.
2
324
.5.9. ()
fb(n),

fb(1) = 1; fb(2) = 1;
fb(n) = fb(n 1) + fb(n 2) ; n > 3:
(.19)
. ,
. r =
= r + 1 r r 1 = 0, ,
1
5
r; =
2 ;
!n
!n
1
+
5
1
5
fb(n) =
+d 2
:
2
2
1 2
d. fb(1) = 1,
!
!
1
+
5
1
5

2 + d 2 = 1;
(.19) fb(2) = 1,
!
!
1
+
5
1
5

+d 2
= 1:
2

d. , = ; d = ;
!n
!n
1
1
+
5
1
1
5
fb(n) =
:
5 2
5 2
2
.5.10. -
( )

a = 7; a = 19;
an = 4an 3an ; n > 2 :
. r = 4r 3 r 4r +3 = 0,
r = 1, r = 3,
an = + d 3n:
a = 7, + 3d = 7, a = 19, + 9d = 19.
, = 1, d = 2,
an = 1 + 2 3n:
1
325
.5.
.5.11.
a = 4; a = 12;
an = 4an 4an ; n > 2:
1
. r = 4r 4 r 4r +
2
+4 = 0, , r = r = 2.
,
an = 2n + d n 2n :
a = 4, 2 + 2d = 4, . .
a = 12, 4 + 8d = 12. , = 1,
d = 1,
an = 2n + n 2n :
.5.12.

a = 1; a = 2;
an = 2an 4an ; n > 2:
.
r = 2r 4 r 2r +4 = 0.
, r ; = 1 3i. , . = 1 + 3 = 2.

1
os ' = 2 ; sin ' = 23 ; ' = 3 ;
n
n
+
d 2n sin
an = 2n os
3
3 :
,

+ 3d= 1;
2 + 2 3d = 2;
, = 1, d = 0,
n
an = 2n os
3 :
1
1 2

an = an
p.
+ an + panp;

rp = rp + rp + + p ;
1
p 6= 0;
326
rp rp rp p = 0:
r = b m, m
an = bn ; an = nbn ; an = n bn ; : : : ; an = nm bn :
r = ( os '
i sin ') m,
2m :
an = n sin sn';
an = n os n' ;
n
an = n os n' ;
an = nn sin n';
m
n
an = n os n' ; an = nm n sin n';
1
, .
.5.13.

a = 3; a = 10; a = 19;
an = 4an 5an + 2an ; n > 3:
. r = 4r 5r + 2
r 4r + 5r 2 = 0.
r = r = 1, r = 2. r = 1 2,

: an = 1; an = n, r = 2
an = 2n.
an = b + n + d2n . b, , d
b + + 2d = 3;
b + 2 + 4d = 10;
b + 3 + 8d = 19;
, b = 0; = 1; d = 1,
an = n + 2n :
1
-
p p
an = an + an + + p anp + g(n);
(.20)
p 6= 0, g(n) | .
.
g(n), ( )
. -
. .

327
.5.
,
, .
g(n) . , . g(n)
g(n) = g (n) + g (n) -
an = an + an + + p anp + g (n);
an = an + an + + p anp + g (n);
(.20). , .
g(n) g(n) = Pm(n) bn, Pm(n) m, an = ns Qm(n) bn,
Qm (n) | Pm (n), s | r = b
. r = b , s = 0. , Pm(n)
Pm (n) = Pm (n) 1n .
.5.14.
an = 4an 3an + 5 2n + (5n + 4):
1
. ,
r = 1, r = 3. an = + d 3n, d
.
g(n) = 5 2n + (5n + 4).
n
g (n) = 5 2 g (n) = (5n + 4).
an = 4an 3an + 5 2n.
g (n) g (n) = Pm(n)bn , Pm(n) = 5 |
m = 0; b = 2 b = 2
, s = 0.
an = n Q (n) 2n = A 2n, A |
, .
,
1
A 2n = 4A 2n 3A 2n + 5 2n A = 5; A = 20;
4
, an = 20 2n.
an = 4an 3an + (5n + 4).
g (n) g (n) = Pm(n) bn, Pm (n) = 5n + 4 |
m = 1; b = 1, b = 1
1, s = 1.
an = n Q (n) 1n = n(An + B),
1
328
A B | , -
. ,
n(An + B ) = 4(n 1)(A(n 1) + B ) 3(n 2)(A(n 2) + B ) + (5n + 4):
n,
A B.

4A + 5 = 0;
8A + 2B + 4 = 0;
, A = , B = 7,
5
an = 20 2n + n( n 7):
4

5
an = 20 2n + n( n 7) + + d 3n ;
4
d | .
5
4
-

an = b(n) an + (n); n > 1;
a .
F (n),
1 :
F (n) = Q
n
b(k)
.
k=1
.
an
n b(n)
= aQ
+ Qn (n) :
n
n
Q
b(k )
b(k)
b(k)
1
k=1
k=1
k=1
yn = b(n + 1) F (n + 1) an ,
yn = yn + F (n) (n).

n
P
a
+
F (k) (k)
n
X
k
yn = y + F (k) (k); an =
:
b(n + 1) F (n + 1)
k
1
=1
=1
.5.
329

n
Y
k=1
b(k) = e
ln
n
Q
k=1
b(k)
=e
n
P
k=1
ln
b(k)
.
.5.15.

a = 0;
an = nn an + 2; n > 1:
.
1 = 1 :
F (n) = Q
n
n+1
0
+1
k=1
k+1
k
yn = b(n + 1) F (n + 1) an =
n+1
(n + 2) an = (n + 1) an:
n+2
yn

y = 0;
yn = yn + n ;
n
n
X
2 ; an = 2(n + 1) X
1 :
yn =
k+1
k+1
0
+1
k=1
k=1
, -
, T (n).
, |
f (n), T (n)
n, . . n > 1 T (n) 6 f (n). .
f (n), , ,
.
.
.5.16. ,

T (1) = ;
(.21)
T (n) = 2T ([ n ) + n; n > 1;
, [x .
.
330
. f (n) f (n) = a n log n + b, a b -
. .
n = 1 , b > . , k < n
T (k) 6 a k log k + b:
k = [ n , (.21)
h n i
n
n
T (n) = 2T
+
n 6 2 (a k log k + b) + n 6 2 a log + b + n =
2
2 2
= a n log n a n + n + 2b 6 a n log n + b:
, a > +b. ,
, b > a > + b.
b = , a = + . ,
n > 1
T (n) 6 ( + ) n log n + :
, T (n) = O(n log n). , , , . , T (n)
f (n) = n log n. ,

T (n) 6 ( + ) n log n + ;
n = n, n , n = n + 1 .
, n
n = n + n mod 2:
2
| ,
.
.5.17. T (n) = 3T ([ n ) + n:
. m, 4m < n 6 4m,

T (n) 6 3T (4m ) + 4m;
T (4m ) = 3T (4m )+4m , ,

3
m
m
m
m
T (n) 6 3 3T (4 ) + 4
+4 =3 T 4 +4 1+ 4 :
T (4m ) = 3T (4m ) + 4m ;
.
.5.
331

3 3 ;
T (n) 6 3 T (4 ) + 4 1 + +
4 4
,

m !
3
3
3
m
m
T (n) 6 3 T (1) + 4 1 + +
+
+
:
4 4
4
q = 3=4, , 4,
T (n) 6 3m T (1) + 4m :
m m 6 log n + 1,
T (n) 6 3 n T (1) + 16n;
3 n = n = o(n), T (n) = O(n).
3
m3
+1
log4
log4
+1
log4 3
, 1980 . . , .
. [20
.
, . , .5.16
, . | .
. (J. L. Bentley, Dorothea Haken, J. B. Saxe, 1980) a > 1 b > 1 |
, f (n) | , T (n)
n
h n i
T (n) = aT
+ f (n);
b
:
1) f (n) = O(n b a") " > 0,
T (n) = (n b a );
2) f (n) = (n b a),
T (n) = (n b a logb n);
3)
> 0 " > 0, n f (n) >
> n b a " d < 1, , n
n
a f ( ) 6 d f (n); T (n) = (f (n)):
b
.
log
log
log
log
log
332

.
.5.18. T (n) = 8T ([ n )+n:
. a = 8, b = 4, f (n) = n,
n ba = n
= n = nn:
f (n) = O(nn) " = 1=:2, ,
, , T (n) = (n n).
.5.19. T (n) = T ([ n )+5:
. a = 1, b = 4=3, f (n) = 5,
n b a = n = = n = (1);
.
f (n) = 5 = (n b a ) = (1);
T (n) = (log = n).
.5.20.

h n i
T (n) = 2T
4 + n log n:
. a = 2, b =; 4," f (n) = n log n, n b a = n = n =: = n,
f (n) = n log n > n , n " = 0; 5. .
n

2f n4 = 2 n4 log n4 6 12 n log n = d f (n); d = 12 < 1;
, T (n) = (n log n).
4
log
3
2
log4 8
log
log4 3 1
log
4 3
log
0 5+
log4 2
.5.2
.5.2.1. .
.5.2.2. ,

(
a = 1;
an = 2an
1
+ an ; n > 1;
n .
.5.2.3.
1
2
2 1
an = an + n + n :
3
3
3 3
1
3
.5.
333
.5.2.4.
an = 2an
+ 2:
.5.2.5.
an = 5an 6an :
.5.2.6.
an = 6an 9an
.5.2.7.
an = 2an 2an :
.5.2.8. ,

,
| A(3; 5),
n + 1; m = 0;
A(m; n) = A(m 1; n); n = 0;
A(m 1; A(m; n 1)):

n
.5.3. .
. D,
f (x + h) f (x)
Df (x) = lim
:
h
h
,
.
,
f (x) = f (x + 1) f (x):
- ,
, h 0,
| h = 1.
, . , ,
.
.
334
D

|
,
R .

g(x) = Df (x); ,
R
R
g(x)dx =f (x) + C: g(x)dx |
g(x) , g(x).
-
P. - .
g(x) = f (x);
,
X
g(x)x = f (x) + C:
P
g(x)x g(x) |
, g(x). C ,
C p(x), p(x + 1) = p(x):
, , ,
, |
.
. , .
{ :
.
.
g(x) = Df (x)
Zb
= f (b) f (a):
= f (b) f (a):
g(x)dx = f (x)

g(x) = f (x)
b
b
X
a
g(x)x= f (x)
P g(x)x , a
, .
. .
k=b
X
k=a
g(k); b > a:
(.22)
, -
g(x), f (x), . . g(x) = f (x + 1) f (x):
.5.
335
k g(k) = f (k + 1) f (k). (.22)
k=b
X
k=a
g(k) = g(a) + g(a + 1) + g(a + 2) + + g(b 1) + g(b):
g(x) f (x),
(.22)
k =b
X
k =a
g(k) = (f (a + 1) f (a)) + (f (a + 2) f (a + 1))+
+ (f (a + 3) f (a + 2)) + + (f (b) f (b 1)) + (f (b + 1) f (b)) :

,
.
k=b
X
k =a
g(k) = f (b + 1) f (a);
, . .
b
X
a
g(x)x =
k=
b1
X
k=a
g(k):

Za
Zb
g(x)dx = 0;
g(x)dx =
Za
g(x)dx;

:
a
P
1)
g(x)x = 0;
2) b < a P g(x)x = P g(x)x.

a
b

Zb
g(x)dx +
g(x)dx =
g(x)dx:

b
X
a
g(x)x +

X
b
g(x)x =

X
a
g(x)x:
336

D
Zx
g(t)dt = g(x):
,

b+1
X
a
g(x)x
b
X
a
g(x)x = (f (b + 1) f (a)) (f (b) f (a)) = f (b + 1) f (b) = g(b):
, .
k b
P g(k); -
k a
g(x)
X
g(x)x = f (x);
. . f (x),
f (x + 1) f (x) = g(x):

(, f (x) ),

=
k=b
X
k=a
g(k) =
b+1
X
a
g(x)x = f (b + 1) f (a):
,
. , ,
.

f , f ,
f (x) = f (x + 1) f (x):
f ,
f ,
f (x) = (f (x)):
,
f (x) = (f (x)) = (f (x + 1) f (x)) =
= (f (x + 2) f (x + 1)) (f (x + 1) f (x)) = f (x + 2) 2f (x + 1) + f (x) :
n nf (x) = (n f (x)).
, nf (x).
.
337
.5.
.5.21. f (x) = x .
.
4
(x ) = (x + 1) x = 3x + 3x + 1:
(x ) = ((x )) = (3x + 3x + 1) =
= (3(x + 1) + 3(x + 1) + 1) (3x + 3x + 1) = 6x + 6:
(x ) = ( (x )) = (6x + 6) = (6(x + 1) + 6) (6x + 6) = 6:
(x ) = ( (x )) = (6) = 0:
2
.5.22. f (x) = ax.

.
(ax ) = ax
+1
ax
= (a 1)ax:
(2x x) = 2x. n(ax) = (a1)nax,

x
, D(e ) = e ,
f (x) = 2x
.
.5.23. (ax)
.
. kkPn aqk
=
g(x) = qx .

=1
f (x) =
kX
=n
k=1
aqk1
qx
;
q1
. .
nX
+1
aqx1 x
qx x =
1
n+1
x
= a qq 1
1
qx
;
q1
1
n
= a qq 11 :
E , E (f (x)) = f (x + 1); I
I (f (x)) = f (x);

(f (x)) = f (x + 1) f (x) = E (f (x)) I (f (x)) = (E I )(f (x)):
338
E = I ,
n(f (x)) = (E I )n(f (x)) = E n (f (x)) n E n (f (x)) +
+ (1)k Cnk E nk (f (x)) + + (1)n E (f (x)) =
= f (x + n) nf (x + n 1) +
+ (1)k Cnk f (x + n k ) + + (1)n f (x);
Cnk = k nnk | . ,
. C (n; kk),
, | Cn .
(f (x)),
(f (x)) = f (x + 4) 4f (x + 3) + 6f (x + 2) 4f (x + 1) + f (x):
E ,
.
E
1. . f g,
a b E (af + bg) = aE (f ) + bE (g); (af + bg) = a(f ) + b(g).
, : E = E ; E (a) = a; a = 0.
2. . .

D(fg) = fD(g) + gD(f ):

(f (x)g(x)) = f (x + 1)g(x + 1) f (x)g(x) =
=f (x + 1)g(x + 1) f (x)g(x + 1) + f (x)g(x + 1) f (x)g(x) =
=g(x + 1)(f (x + 1) f (x)) + f (x)(g(x + 1) g(x)) =
=(f (x))E (g(x)) + f (x)(g(x)) = (f g + Eg f )(x);

(fg) = f (g) + E (g) (f ):
(.23)
3. .

f
D
= gD(f ) g fD(g) :
g

1) f (x) = f (x + 1)g(x) f (x)g(x + 1) =
fg((xx)) = fg((xx ++ 1)
g(x)
g(x)g(x + 1)
= f (x + 1)g(x) f (x)gg((xx))g+(xf+(x1))g(x) f (x)g(x + 1) =
= g(x)(f (x + 1) fg((xx)))g(xf+(x1))(g(x + 1) g(x)) = g(x)(fg((xx)))g(xf+(x1))(g(x)) ;
0
!(
)!
339
.5.
(.24)
fg = g (gf ) E(fg) (g) :
,
(.23) (.24).

.5.24.

) (2x + 3x + 4x + 5); ) ((x + 4x + 3)(x + 5)); ) ( x x x ).
. , (x) = (x +1) x = 1, (x ) = (x +1) x =
2x + 1, , (x ) = 3x + 3x + 1.
) (2x + 3x + 4x + 5).
(2x + 3x + 4x + 5) = 2(x ) + 3(x ) + 4(x) + 5(1) =
= 2(3x + 3x + 1) + 3(2x + 1) + 4(1) + 0 = 6x + 12x + 9:
) ((x + 4x + 3)(x + 5)). (.23),
((x + 4x + 3)(x + 5)) = (x + 4x + 3) (x + 5) + E (x + 5)(x + 4x + 3) =
= (x + 4x + 3) 1 + ((x + 1) + 5)(2x + 1 + 4)) =
= (x + 4x + 3) + (x + 6)(2x + 5):
) ( x x x ). (.24)

x + 4x + 3
x + 5 = (x + 5) (x + 4(xx++3)5)E((xx++5)4x + 3) (x + 5) =
+ 4) (x + 4x + 3) 1 =
= (x + 5) (2(xx ++ 15)((
x + 1) + 5)
= (x + 5)(2(xx++5)5)(x (+x 6)+ 4x + 3) :
3
+4 +3
+5
+4
+3
+5

(xn ) |
(xn ) = (x + 1)n xn = nxn + n(n2 1) xn + + Cnk xnk + + 1;

D(xn ) = nxn :
, f (x) = xn
, , , .
, .
.
340
f (x) = x n ,
. x > n > 0
n
x = 1; n = 0;
x n = x (x 1) (x 2) (x n + 1); n > 0:
f (x) = x n n,
, . , .
(x n ) = (x + 1) (x) (x 1) (x n + 2) x (x 1) (x 2) (x n + 1) =
= (x (x 1) (x 2) (x n + 2)) ((x + 1) (x n + 1)
= nx (x 1) (x 2) (x n + 2) = nx n :
, n f (x) = x n
, , f (x) = x .
n
f (x) = an x n + an x n + + a x + a x + a :
.
.5.25.
f (x) = 4x 5x + 7x + 2:
(
1)
1)
(3)
(f (x)) = (4x

= 4 3x
(3)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(1)
(1)
5x + 7x + 2) = 4(x ) 5(x ) + 7(x ) + (2) =

5 2x + 7 1 + 0 = 12x 10x + 7:
(2)
(1)
(3)
(1)
(2)
(2)
(1)
(1)
,
.
, , .
. ,
f (x) = an xn + an xn + + a x + a x + a
( n > 1) (x a),
x = a, . . f (a).

| f (x) = x . ,
, ,
x =a x +a x +a x +a x +a :

x = a x(x 1)(x 2)(x 3) + a x(x 1)(x 2) + a x(x 1) + a x + a :
1
(4)
(3)
(2)
(1)
341
.5.
x. , , :
| , | a , a = 0.
x ,
a (x 1)(x 2)(x 3) + a (x 1)(x 2) + a (x 1) + a ;

x = a (x 1)(x 2)(x 3) + a (x 1)(x 2) + a (x 1) + a :
| (x 1). :
1, | a , a = 1.
| x + x + 1, | a (x 2)(x 3) + a (x 2) + a ,
x + x + 1 = a (x 2)(x 3) + a (x 2) + a :
(x 2). : 7, | a , a = 7. : | x + 3, |
a (x 3) + a , x + 3 = a (x 3) + a .
| (x 3). :
6, | a , a = 6. : | 1,
| a , a = 1.
x = x + 6x + 7x + x :
, . ,

.

x n = nx n , , , xnn = x n ;

X
xn
x n x =
;
n+1
.
n
P
x k :
k
f (x) = x
x = x + 6x + 7x + x ;
(4)
(3)
(2)
(1)
( +1)
1)
+1
+1)
=0
n
X
k=0

x=0
x x =
4
nX
+1
x=0
(3)
(5)
(4)
(3)
(4)
(3)
(2)
n+1

0
(2)
(1)
(x + 6x + 7x + x )x =
x
x
x

+
6
+
7
+
5
4
3
2
1)(3n + 3n 1) :
= n(n + 1)(2n + 30
nX
+1
(4)
(2)
(1)
x(x 1)(2x 1)(3x
30
3x 1 n =

+1
342

, n > 0. .
xn
x n =
:
(.25)
xn+1
x n
. n = 1,
xn
(
.
1)
= x x1 + 1 = 1;
(1)
(0)
n = 0,
= x x0 + 1 = x +1 1 :
(.25) ,
1
x m =
(m + x) m ;
m > 1, . m = 1
1 = 1 :
x =
(1 + x) (1 + x)
x
(
(0)
1)
1)
(1)
, x k =
(
x k
(
k x)(k) ;
1
( +
k
= x +x k + 1 = (x +1k) k x + 1k + 1 =
= (x + k)(x + k 1 1) (x + 1) x + 1k + 1 =
= (x + k + 1)(x + k)(x1 + k 1) (x + 1) = (x + k 1+ 1) m :
(
1)
( )
, (x n ),

1
1
n
(x ) = (x + n + 1) n (x + n) n =

1
1
= (x + n + 1) (x + n) (x + 2) (x + n) (x + n 1) (x + 1) =

1
1
1
= (x + n) (x + n 1) (x + 2) (x + n + 1) (x + 1) =
(
= (x + n + 1) (x n+ n) (x + 1) = (x + n +n1) n = nx n :

f (x) = xn , : D(xn) = nxn .
(
1)
+1)
343
.5.
, x n
(
x n
(n + 1) :
x n x =
(
+1)

. | .

f g
(fg) = f (g) + E (g) (f );

X
X
X
(fg)x = f (g)x + E (g) (f )x;
,
X
X
f (g)x = (fg) E (g) (f )x;
.
.
.5.26. S (n) = kPn k2k .

.
=0
P x
x
kX
=n
k=0
= 2x ;
(1)
nX
+1
k2
nX
+1
x2x x;
= x;
x2x x =
nX
+1
(1)
(2x)x;
,
nX
+1
x2x x =
nX
+1
(1)
(1)
n+1
= (x2x)
n+1
(2x)x = (x (2x))
= (n + 1) 2n
S (n) =
nX
+1
0
+1
n
X
k=0
n+2
+ 2;
k2k = (n + 1) 2n
+1
E (2x )(x
(1)
)x =
n+1
(2x )x = (x2x)
+1
nX
+1
n+2
n+1
(2x )
+1
+ 2:
344
.5.27. S (n) = kPn k 3k .

.
P x .
2
=0
1) 3 x = x .
2) x = x(x 1) + x = x + x .
3) E (3x) = 3x = 3 3x.
, ,
n
nX
nX
1
X
k 3k =
x 3x x =
x +x
(3x)x =
2
k

n
nX
1

1
x

= x + x 2 (3 ) 2 E (3x) x + x x =
nX
n

= 12 x 3x 32
2x + 1 3xx =
nX
3x
n
1
3
x
=2 x 3 2
2x + 1 2 x =
nX
n

n

= 12 x 3x 34 3x(2x + 1) + 43 E (3x) 2x + 1 x =
nX
n

n
= 12 x 3x 34 3x(2x + 1) + 29 3xx =
n
n

n
= 12 x 3x 34 3x(2x + 1) + 29 12 (3x) =
= 12 (n + 1) 3n 34 (2n + 3) 3n + 34 + 94 3n 94 =
n
= 3 2 (n n + 1) 32 :

n
X
3n (n n + 1) 3 :
S (n) = k 3k =
2
2
3
(2)
(1)
+1
+1
+1
=0
(2)
(1)
+1
(2)
+1
(1)
(2)
+1
+1
(1)
+1
+1
(1)
+1
+1
+1
(1)
+1
+1
(1)
(1)
+1
+1
+1
(1)
(1)
+1
+1
+1
+1
+1
+1
k=0
.5.3
.5.3.1. x 5x.
x
.5.3.2. 2x3+ 1 .
.5.3.3. x + 7 x.
2
.5.
345
.5.3.4. f (x) = x :
.5.3.5.
3
f (x) = 2x
.5.3.6. kPn k .
.5.3.7. kPn k 2k .
3x + 5x 1:
2
=0
=0
.5.4.

(a ; a ; a ; : : : ; an; ):
.
, , ,
, . ,
. ,

X
ak z k ;
(.26)
k
z .
( G(z)) . ,
G(z) (a ; a ; a ; : : : ; an; )
0
=0
G(z ) =
k=0
ak z k :
.
. ,
,
. | , G(z), (a ; a ; a ; : : : ; an; ), |
.
. (.26)
z = 0,
G(z) . (a ; a ; a ; : : : ; an; )
0
346
z = 0.

1
an = Dn (G(z )) ;
(.27)
n!
z
=0
Dn (G(z)) z n G(z)
z = 0.
.
.5.28.
,
G(z) = (az + b)n.
. ,
, :
D((az + b)n ) = n(az + b)n a;
D ((az + b)n ) = n(n 1)(az + b)n a ;
Dk ((az + b)n ) = n(n 1) (n k + 1)(az + b)nk ak ; k 6 n;
Dk ((az + b)n ) = 0; k > n:

(.27),
a = bn; a = nabn ; a = n(n 1)a bn ;
1 n(n 1) (n k + 1)a2!k bnk ; k 6 n;

a
=
k
k!
ak = 0; k > n:
,
n(n 1) 2 1
1 n(n 1) (n k + 1) = 1
= n! = Cnk ;
k!
k! (n k)(n k 1) 2 1 k!(n k)!
Cnk | , ,
n k. , (a ; a ; a ; : : : ; an; ),

ak = Cnk ak bnk ; k 6 n;
(.28)
ak = 0; k > n:

=0
. G(z) = (z b)n,

ak = Cnk (1)nk bnk ; k 6 n;
ak = 0; k > n:
, G(z) = (1 + z)n, (.28)

ak = Cnk ; k 6 n;
ak = 0; k > n;
.5.
347
. . G(z) = (1 + z)n n k.

1 ; m > 0;
G(z ) =
(az + b)m

1
(m + 1)(m + 2) (m + k) ak ;
k
k
D (g(z )) = D
=
(
1)k
m
(az + b)
(az + b)m k
1
(m + 1)(m + 2) (m + k) ak = (1)k ak 1 1 2 (m + k) ;
ak = (1)k
k!
bm k
bm k k!
1 2m

+1
+1
+1+
+1+
+1+
ak
ak = (1)k m k Cmm k :
b
(.29)
+1+
,
1
G(z ) =
(z b)m ;
1
ak = (1)m m k Cmm k :
b
,
1
k
m
G(z ) =
(1 + z)m ak = (1) Cm
,
1
m
G(z ) =
(1 z)m ak = Cm k :
+1
(.30)
+1
+1+
k;
+1
, m = 0 |
1
G(z ) =
(1 + z) ;
ak = (1)k , . .
, , ,
1
G(z ) =
(1 z)
ak = 1, . . .

1 zn :
G(z ) =
(1 z)
+1
348
,
, ,
,
1 zn = 1 + z + z + + zn:
G(z ) =
(1 z)
, , : ak = 1 k 6 n; ak = 0 k > n.
, .
G(z) (a ; a ;
a ; : : : ; an ; ). G (z ) = z n G(z ), n > 0 (b ; b ; b ; : : : ; bn; )
: bk = 0 k < n; bk = akn k > n.
zn
n .

1 zn
G(z ) =
(1 z)
.
,
.
. (a ; a ;
a ; : : : ; an ; ) (b ; b ; b ; : : : ; bn ; ), , G (z) G (z),
( a + d b ; a + d b ; : : : ; an + d bn; : : :)
G(z)
G(z ) = G (z ) + d G (z ):
+1
+1
,
, , . n (
Pn(z))
Pn (z ) = an z n + an z n + + a z + a z + a ;
a ; a ; a ; : : : ; an , an 6= 0.
, Pn ( ) = 0. , Pn(z) =
= (z )Pn (z), Pn (z) | .
r, Pn (z) = (z )r Pnr (z), Pnr ( ) 6= 0. n
.
349
.5.
n . ,
Pn (z ) = an z n + an z n + + a z + a z + a
k ; ; :::; k r ; r ; :::; rk , . .
(r + r + + rk = n),
Pn (z ) = an (z )r (z )r (z k )rk :
1
R(z) = PPmn zz ;
Pn (z ) Pm (z ) | .
,
.

. R(z) = PPmn zz
,
R(z ) = Pnm (z ) + R (z );
Pnm(z) n m, R (z) | .
( )
A
R(z ) =
(z a)m :

R(z )
( )
( )
( )
( )
. , . . .
. .

.

P (z )
R(z ) = n ; m > n;
Pm (z )
Pm (z) = bmzm + bm zm + + b z + b z + b
k ; ; :::; k r ; r ; :::; rk ,
,
Pm (z ) = bm (z )r (z )r (z k )rk ;
.
350
R(z)
P (z )
Pn (z )
R(z ) = n =
=
P (z ) b (z )r (z )r (z )rk
=
A ;r1
A ;r1
(z )r1 + (z )r1
A ;r2
A ;r2
+
r
2
(z ) (z )r2
Ak;rk
Ak;rk
+
r
k
(z k ) (z k )rk
1
+ + (zA; ) +
+ + (zA; ) +
+ + (zAk; ) :
k
1
2 1
1 1
+
.
.5.29. (a ; a ; a ; : : : ; an),
4z z 9 :
G(z ) =
(z + 2)(z + 1)(z 1)
. .

4z z 9
A
B
C
(z + 2)(z + 1)(z 1) = (z + 2) + (z + 1) + (z 1) :
A; B; C . , (z +2)(z +1)(z 1), . . ,
,
4z z 9 = A(z + 1)(z 1) + B(z + 2)(z 1) + C (z + 2)(z + 1): (.31)
(.31)
z A, B , C .
A + B + C = 4;
B + 3C = 1;
A 2B + 2C = 9:
, . ,
,
. (.31) , z. z = 2, 9 = 3A, A = 3,
z = 1, 4 = 2B, , B = 2. z = 1
6 = 6C , C = 1. ,
4z z 9
3
2
1
(z + 2)(z + 1)(z 1) = (z + 2) + (z + 1) (z 1) :
2
351
.5.
z , (.29) n (b ; b ; b ; : : : ; bn; ) bn = n , z , bn = (1)n, z

(.29) bn = (1). ,
.
.5.30. ,
4z 8
G(z ) =
(z 3)(z 1) :
. ,
A
B
C
4z 8
(z 3)(z 1) = (z 3) + (z 1) + (z 1) :

,
4z 8 = A(z 1) + B(z 3) + C (z 3)(z 1):
(.32)
z,
A, B, C .
A + C = 0;
2A + B 4C = 4;
A 3B + 3C = 8:
, .
1.29, (.32) , z.
z = 3, 4 = 4A, A = 1, (.32) z = 1
4 = 2B , B = 2. , C = 1,
4z 8 = 1 + 2 1 :
(z 3)(z 1) (z 3) (z 1) (z 1)
z (.29) bn = n , z (b ; b ; b ; : : : ; bn; ) bn = C n = (n + 1). z . .
.5.31. (a ; a ; a ; : : : ; an; ),
G(z) = z z :
. G(z)
4
G(z ) =
(z (1 + i))(z (1 i)) :
1
+2
1)
2 +1
0
1
+1
3 +1
0
1
1
1+
2 +2
1)2
352

4
A
B
(z (1 + i))(z (1 i)) = (z (1 + i)) + (z (1 i)) :
, ,
A = 2i, B = 2i,
2i
4
2i
(z (1 + i))(z (1 i)) = (z (1 + i)) + (z (1 i)) :
z i , (.29), bn = i n ; z i ;
( ; ; ; : : : ; n; )
1
n =
(1 i)n :

1
1
i
n
n
an = 2ibn + 2i n = 2i
=
n
n
(1 + i)
(1 i)
2n ((1 i) (1 + i) ):
,

1 + i = 2( os 4 + i sin 4 ); 1 i = 2 os 4 + i sin 4 ;

(1 + i)n = 2 n os(n + 1) 4 + i sin(n + 1) 4 ;

(1 i)n = 2 n os(n + 1) 4 + i sin(n + 1) 4 :
,

n
i n
an = n 2
=
2
sin(
n + 1)
2i sin(n + 1)
2
4
4 :
1
(1+ ))
1
(1+ ) +1
(1
))
+1
+1
+1
+1
+1
2
+1
+1
2
+1
+1
+1
2
3
2

.
, .
.5.32. an
a = 0;
an = an + n ; n > 1:
.
. G(z) = nP anzn:
=0
1
2
an = an
+ 21n
.5.
353
zn n 1 ,
X
X
1X
1 z n;
an z n =
an z n +
n
2
2
n
n
n
a = 0,
X
X
an z n =
an z n = G(z ):
1
=1
=1
=1
n=1
n=0
,
n=1
X
an z n =
an z n
1
=z
+1
n=0
n
X
z
n=0
an z n = zG(z );
1 zn =
= z2 1 1 z = z z 2 ;
n
2
2
n
n
. G(z)
z
1
G(z ) = zG(z )
;
2
z2
,
2z :
G(z ) =
(z 2)
=1
=1
, (.30), 1
n+1
bn = n Cn = n :
2
2
z ,
n > 1
n
an = 2bn = n :
2
, a = 0, n = 0.
1
z2)2
+1
+2
+2
.5.33.
a = 0;
a = 1;
an = an
0
1
1
8
an
9
32
n + ; n > 2:
3
. G(z) = nP anzn:
zn n 2 6 n < .
X
1X
3X
9X
3X
an z n =
an z n
an z n +
nz n +
z n:
4
8
32
8
n
n
n
n
n
=0
=2
=2
=2
=2
=2
354
X
X
n
an z =
an z n a
n=2
X
n=2
X
n=2
X
n=2
n=0
an z n =
1
an z n =
2
nz n
=z
z
zn =
n=1
n=0
n=2
an z n
+1
an z n
+2
nz n1
= G(z) z;
a1 z
n=0
an z n
+1
= zG(z);
= z G(z);
2
X
= z dzd
zn
n
=2
a0 z
= z dzd
1z
= (1z +z2)z ;
3
1 z:
G(z)
3
1
9(z 2z ) + 3z ;
G(z ) z = zG(z ) z G(z )
4
8
32(1 z) 8(1 z)
11z 34z + 32z

11z 34z + 32z
G(z ) =
4(z 1) (z 6z + 8) = 4(z 1) (z 2)(z 4) :

11z 34z + 32z = A + B + C + D :
(z 1) (z 2)(z 4) (z 1) (z 1) z 2 z 4

11z 34z + 32z = A(z 2)(z 4) + B(z 1)(z 2)(z 4)+
+ C (z 1) (z 4) + D(z 1) (z 2):

z,
B + C + D = 11;
A 7B 6C 4D = 34;
6A + 15B + 9C + 5D = 32;
8A 12B 4C 2D = 0:
. z = 1, z = 2 z = 4 3A = 9, A = 3; 2C = 16, C = 8;
18D = 288, D = 16. B = 3. ,
3
3
2
4
G(z ) =
4(z 1) + 4(z 1) z 2 + z 4 ;
(.30),
n n
3
3
1
1
3 1 1
an = (n + 1) +
4
4 2 4 = 4 n + 2n 4n :
n=2
355
.5.
.5.34. -
.

a = 0;
a = 1;
an = an + an ; n > 2:
0
1
. G(z) = nP anzn,
zn n 2 6 n < ,

X
X
X
an z n =
an z n + an z n:
=0
n=2
n=2
n=2
, :
X
X
an z n =
an z n a a z = G(z ) z;
n=2
X
n=2
X
n=2
n=0
an z n =
1
an z n =
2
n=1
X
n=0
an z n
+1
an z n
+2
n=0
an z n
+1
a0 z
=z
= z G(z):
n=0
an z n = zG(z );

G(z ) z = zG(z ) + z G(z );
z
G(z ) =
= z =
z +z1
2
= 15
1
an =
5
1+ 5
2
1+
2
1+
2n 2n = 1 1 + 5
n
n
5 2
1 + 5
1 5
!
!n
1 1 5
5 2
!n
. A = (a ; a ; a ;
: : : ; an ; ) B = (b ; b ; b ; : : : ; bn ; ),
G (z ) G (z ) . C = A B C = ( ; ; ; : : : ; n; ),
.
n =
n
X
k=0
ak bnk :
356
G(z) C
G(z ) = G (z ) G (z ):
. B = (b ; b ; b ; : : : ; bn; )
, bn = 1 n, C = A B A = (a ; a ; a ; : : : ; an; ), . .
n
X
n = ak :
1
k=0
B, ,
G (z) G (z) = z , , ,
G(z ), C | A,
1
G(z ) =
1 z G (z):
.
A: (an = n ). |
G (z) A, ,
X
G (z ) =
n zn:
n
!
!
X
X
X
d X
d
n
n
n
n
G (z ) =
z nz
=
n z =z n z =z
nz = z
dz
dz
2
=0
n=0
n=1
!!
X
n
z
= z dzd z dzd
n
z+z
= (1 z) :
=1
n=1

= z dzd z dzd

1z

= z dzd
n=1

(1 z) =
2
C = A B, B = (1; 1; : : : ; 1)

1
z+z
G(z ) =
1 z G (z) = (1 z) :

z+z
A
B
C
D
G(z ) =
=
+
+
+
(z 1) (z 1) (z 1) (z 1) (z 1) ;

z + z = A + B (z 1) + C (z 1) + D(z 1) ;

D = 0;
C 3D = 1;
B 2C + 3D = 1;
A B + C D = 0:
2
.5.
357
: D = 0, C = 1, B = 3, A = 2,
2 + 3 + 1 :
G(z ) =
(z 1) (z 1) (z 1)
(.29),
n
X
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
sn = k = 2 Cn 3 Cn + Cn =
:
6
k
4
+3
+2
+1
=0

. Cnk | n k. , n > 0,
Cnk = 0; k < 0; k > n;

n!
; 0 6 k 6 n:
Cnk =
k!(n k)!
, (1+ z)n (a ; a ; a ; : : : ; an; : : :), ak = Cnk . , k > n
.
m r, m + r = n.
G (z) = (1 + z)m
(b ; b ; b ; : : : ; bk ; : : :), bk = Cmk , G (z) = (1 + z)r
( ; ; ; : : : ; k ; : : :), k = Crk .

G(z ) = G (z ) G (z ) = (1 + z )m (1 + z )r = (1 + z )m r = (1 + z )n :
,
ak = Cnk . (a ; a ; a ; : : : ; ak ; : : :)
(b ; b ; b ; : : : ; bk ; : : :) ( ; ; ; : : : ; k ; : : :), k
, k ak = P bl kl : ,
.
Cnk =
l=0
k
X
l=0
l k l ;
m
r
n = r + m,
Crk m =
+
k
X
l=0
l k l ;
m
r
.
. G (z) = (1+ z)n
(b ; b ; b ; : : : ; bn; : : :), bk = Cnk .
n
G (z) = (1z) ( ; ; ; : : : ; k ; : : :),
k = (1)k Cnk .
1
358

G(z ) = G (z )G (z ) = (1 + z )n (1 z )n = (1 z )n :
(a ; a ; a ;
: : : ; ak ; : : :),
a m = (1)m Cnm ; a m = 0:
k
X
ak = bl kl ;
1
+1
l=0
a m
2
am=
2
m
X
2
l=0
bl ml =
2
m
X
2
l=0
nl (1) ml Cnml ;
2

m
X
(1)m Cnm = (1)l nl Cnml :
2
l=0
.
.5.35. 12 , 1 5 .
. k (b ; b ; b ; : : : ; bk ; : : :), bk = 1.
G (z)
1
G (z ) = 1 + z + z + + z k + =
1 z:
5 ( ; ;
; : : : ; k ; : : :), k = 1, k 5 k = 0 . G (z)
1
G (z ) = 1 + z + z + + z k + =
1z :
,
, , G(z)
1 1 :
G(z ) = G (z ) G (z ) =
1z 1z
, n zn. n = 12.
0
10
.6.
359
.
, z :
z = z 1; z = z z ; z = z z ;
, .
12
12
12
12
12
10
.5.4
.5.4.1. , -
G(z):
() G(z) = 4 1 z ; () G(z) = z 6zz + 8 ;
() G(z) = 9 +1 z ; () G(z) = (z 1) 1(2z + 1) .
.5.4.2.
:

() aan == 2;3an 2n + 3; n > 0:
a = 2;
() a = 6;
an = 6an 8an + 3n 23n + 36; n > 1:
.5.4.3. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. ,
, 6,
. .
2
0
1
.6.

, 2, 3, 5, 6 7 , ,
21 . 21? 22 ? ,
| ,
, , .
: ,
,
360
?
,
| , ?
. , ? :
, | A = (a ; : : : ; an)
x = (x ; : : : xn ); xi { 0; 1 }.
xi = 1 , ai i ,
, x = (0; 1; 1; 1; 1) 21 .
x n- , . ,
() x (0; 1) n- ,
f (x) .
.
A = (a ; : : : ; an ) V .
x = (x ; : : : ; xn), X = x| xi {0; 1} ,
1
f (x) =
n
X
i=1
xi ai ;
x X , f (x) = V ,
.
, ,
. x , ,
2n , n
, n , | |X | = 2 .
n. . 10 ( ),
40 . 40
400 , 4 10. . 2 10 , ,
100000., 28 , . . . , 41
.
1960- ,
, .
.
40
12
.6.
.6.1.
361
,
, , .
, , ,
.
m- [18.
m- (x ; x ; : : : ; xm), mm
x ; x ; : : : ; xm , A . m-
, x, x ; x ; : : : ; xm x.
m-
x, ,
m- .
Am m- -m
, x, y m- A
, (x; y)
p
(x; y) = (x y ) + (x y ) + + (xn yn ) :
(.33)
m- E m. , , x; y ,
| (x; y), :
1) (x; y) = (y; x);
2) (x; y) 6 (x; z) + (z; y);
3) (x; y) > 0, (x; y) = 0 x = y,
. , ,

(.33) , , , E m .
, m , , [18 [27.
E , .

E m ,
E m, .
m- , Ezm:
Ezm = {x| x E m ; x = (x ; x ; : : : ; xm ); xi Z i = 1; m};
Z | .
1
362
, , , Ezm, | | , .
m- . Y y Ezm, (y ; y ; : : : ; ym)
y x 6 k; y x 6 k; : : : ; ym xm 6 k; yi > xi i = 1; m;
(.34)
m- k
x = (x ; x ; : : : ; xm ), x Ezm, Cubmz(x; k).
m- 0 = (0; : : : ; 0),
m (0; k ), . . Cub
z
: kzm = Cubmz(0; k). , , 1mz | m- ,
| 0 1. n | 1z n
.
, Y Ezm, (y ; y ; : : : ; ym) (x; y) = r,
m-
r x = (x ; x ; : : : ; xm ), x Ezm,
Szm (x; r).
m- ? ,
, . (.34)
k +1 ,
m Ezm, , |Cubmz(x; k)m| = (k + 1)m

. , 1z 2m .
, .
1
.6.2. ,

, ,
. ,
m-
() , ,
m- .
.6.
363
G
Ezm. x G f (x) : G R, R | .
, [27,
. | , , . .
() gi(x) : G R, i = 1; k
gi (x) 6 ai ; ai R; i = 1; k;

f (x) min; gi (x) 6 ai ; ai R; i = 1; k; x G:
(.35)
x, |
, G,
f (x). (.35) | x, (.35), ,
.
(.35) ,
G, . ,

:
{ , f (x)
gi (x) ;
{ ,
f (x) gi(x) ,
.
, G ,
| . .
, Em ,
,
. f (x), G
, x; y G
; 0 6 6 1; f (x + (1 )y ) 6 f (x) + (1 )f (y ):
.
.
.
364

n , n .
. xi i- , , xi > 1, i = 1; n.
, . ,
fi(xi ),
i, . i | pi, fi (xi ) , ,

fi (xi ) = 1 pxi i :
,
, , . ,
, |
, ,

.
n
Y
i=1
fi (xi ) max;
n
X
i=1
ai xi 6 ;
x = (x ; : : : ; xn) Ezn;
1
xi > 1:
, |
. , xi xj ; j 6= i.
,
.
, , , . , n .
xi | , i- , i |

i, i = 1; n.
n
X
f (x) = i xi :
.
i=1
b (),
n
X
i=1
xi = b:
.6.
365
i bi, , .
n
X
xi = b; 0 6 xi 6 bi ; i = 1; n; x Ezn :
f (x) min;
i=1
(x E n ) |
,
,
. , | n- ,
bi.
, .
.
m , n , n > m. ,
.
,
. tij | i j .
| .
x Ezn,
xi , i.
. m ,
- ,
1 6 xi 6 m; i = 1; n;
, G 1 = (1; 1; : : : ; 1) n-
(m 1) | Cubnz(1; m 1).
, (
) ,
f (x) = jmax
{ T } min;
;m j
Tj | j ,
.
=1
Tj =
n
X
i=1
[xi = j tij ;
| [k = l = 1, k = l, | 0.
, .
366
.6.3. NP-
,
, , ,
. , , ,
. , , ai , i = 1; n,
, Ezn ,
f (x) =
n
X
i=1
i v(xi ) max;
1 6 xi 6 n
= 1; n;
v(xi ) = axi :
, (n ln n).
?

.

1960- P ,
. : P ,
, O(nk ), n |
, k , n [20. P |
, ,
. P
|
P .
, . | , ?

NP | . NP, , O(nk ).
, () . ,
,

x : f (x) 6 C; x Ezn ; :
(.36)
gi (x) 6 ai ; ai R; i = 1; k x G:
, x, (.36), ,
. , ,
f (x) gi (x) , n, ,
.6.
367
(.36) , , ,
NP.
P NP?
, (P = NP), .
, P NP.
, NP- . 1971 NP NP | , , ,
NP.
NPC (NP- omplete )
: -, NP, , -,
NP.
NP-
. .
NP- .
NP- [20,
, , [22.
NP- , , , P = NP . NP- , , NP, . .
. NP- [27.
,
NP- [20,
, , | NP-. NP- P = NP [20, , ,

( ). ,
"- [20 [14, [9.
NP- ,
.
, , [13 [12.
, NP- . 1960-
,

. , NPC,
368
.

.
.6.4.

1950- | 1960- . , ,
.
, ,
NPC. , , ( )
, [27. , .
, ,
.
, , , ,
| ,
.
[22.
, , . . ,
, .
, .

| , , ,
,
| . British museum te hnique | . , |
| ,
, . , ,n ,
n 1z
.
.
.6.
369
. . [27.
. , . ,
.
,
,
, ,
. , . , ,
. ,
,
. ,
.

.
Pro edure
Begin
1.
While

End.
(
)
begin
2.1.
2.2.
end
,
.
.
(while)
,
, , ,
. , . |
.

. .
1960- .
., ., . . [7
, NP- ( NPC).
.
370
, , . , .

| , ( )
| .
, ,
,
.
. | , .
.
,
, .
. 1960- [11. , , . .
.
f (x) =
n
X
i=1
gi (xi );
,
[27. , [11. ,
n
X
i=1
xi = C;
, n , , gi(xi ),
i = 1; n xi . f (x) max,
, , n
.
, . ,
.6.
371
, | [11.
f (x) n, C .

{fm( )}, m = 1; n, 0 6 6 C ,
fm ( ) = max
f (x); xm > 0;
xm
m
X
k=1
xk = :
fm( ) , m .
. ,
| gm(0) = 0, m = 1; n, , fm(0) = 0, m = 1; n.
, > 0 f ( ) = g ( ).
, fm( )
fm ( ) m . xm | , m, | ( xm )

m 1 . , xm m
gm(xm ) + fm ( xm ):
, xm, ,
[11.
(
f ( ) = g ( );
fm ( ) = max [gm (xm ) + fm ( xm ); m = 2; n; > 0:
6xm 6
, , .
() . ,
,
, .

,
| ( ., [27, [26).
1
372
.6.5.

50- XX , .
,
, .
, , . ,
,
.
, , ,
, , .
. . [11 [25, .
, ,
,
.
,
. , ,
. ,
. , ,
. , |
.
, ,
, ( ) .
, , | , . ,
5 7 10 18,
10 , .
,
, ,
,
, .
, , , |
,
.
.6.
373
,
. ,
. .
:

Y = {yi }; yi = {vi ; i }; i = 1; n;
yi vi, , i ,
.
V . yi . V yi
:
x = {xi }; x = 1; n;
xi | , . . x Ezn, xi > 0.
xi = k k yi V .
V Y , , , ,
.
:
.
Pn (x) =
n
X
i=1

n
X
i=1
xi i max;
xi vi 6 V:
() , , ,
x, .
, ,
:
{ ,

;
.
374
{ , .
: | , , . , , , ,
.
n; V; v ; : : : ; vn, .
k = Vv ; ,
n
1 X
v = vi
n
1
i=1
V . , , V ,
, , k
() .

(. .6.4), , V , | gi(xi ) = i xi . | ( ), Pn(x), .

,
[11.
f (v) = 0;
fm (v ) = max{xm m + fm (v xm vm )};
xm
(.37)

m = 1; n; v = 0; V ; xm = 0; 1; : : : ;
:
vk
,
.
| ,
V ,
.
v yi ,
i = 1; m, m 6 n, xm
v , fm (v )
. [11 fm(v) = max
Pm (x); yi . xm
.
.
375
.6.

(.37).

fn(v) xnv
v 0 V ( ) Y . , , , ,
fn(v) .

. ,
V = 10.
. .6.1.
.6.1.

i
vi
, 1 10,
. .6.2. ,
(.37) , .
.6.2.
v
x1
f1 (v )
x1
x2
f2 (v )
x1
x2
x3
f3 (v )
10
10
11
12
12
13
14
12
15
15
10
15
10
16
10
, , , | -
376
.
.
Pro edure

boxV [1::n boxC [1::n

x[1::n; 0::V x1[1::n; 0::V
(
,
| )
(
,
|
)
f [0::V
(
| |
)
Input
n |
V |
boxV [1::n |
boxC [1::n |
Begin
for i = 0 to V
begin
1
( )
x[1; i = i div boxV [1 ( 1 i)

x1[1; i = x[1; i
f [i = x[1; i boxC [1
end
for i = 2 to N
begin
( )
V i = boxV [i
Ci = boxC [i
for v = 0 to V
begin
( )
maxKol = 0;
maxC = f [v
if V i 6 v then ( i v)
begin
z = v div V i (z |
i v )
for k = 0 toz ( f )
begin
if (maxC < (Ci k + f [v k V i)) then
begin
end
end
maxC = Ci k + f [v k V i
maxKol = k
end
(
(end if
6 )
Vi
k)
.6.
377
( |
)
end
for l = 1 to i 1
x[l; v = x1[l; v maxKol V i
end
(for l)
x[i; v = maxKol
( )
( )

(
)
x1
for l = 1 to V
sum = 0
for j = 1 to i
sum = sum + x[j; l boxC [j
end
j
f [l = sum
end
end
Output
(end for
(end for l)
( )
f [V | V
x[1::n; V |
End
, ,
.

. , , , , , k
V .
,
(1), , . , , . .6.3.
, ( v) ( z)
V (1) + (1 v + 2 v + + (k 1) v + k) (1) =

kX
(.38)
= (1) (V + k + v i) = (1) V + k + v k (k2 1) ;
i
.
=1
378
. k = V=v, (.38)

V
+ Vv
nV
2v
(1);
2v + 2
, n ,

.6.3.

0
2 v

0
...
(k
...
1) v

v1
v =V
1
k

, | (.37). .
. 10
, . .6.1 .11.
.
.11. , -
F3 (10)

x3 =2
x3 =0
x3 =1
F2 (10)
F2 (6)
x2 =3
x2 =0
x2 =1 x2 =2
F1 ( 10 )
F1 (7)
F1(4)
x2 =2
x2 =0
F2(2)
x2 =0
x2 =1
F1(1)
F1 (6)
F1(3)
F1(0)
F1 (2)
.6.
379
.
Fun tionF (V; x)
( )
V | )
x | )
(boxV [1::n, boxC [1::n | )
(F | |
V x )
(
(
Begin
if x = 0
then (
(
= 0)
V = 0)
F = 0 ( -)
|
x=0
else
begin
if x = 1
then (
begin
|
x = 1)
k = V=boxV [1
F = k boxC [1 ( . -)
( )
end
else (
begin
max F
Max = 0;
k = V div boxV [x
if k = 0
then
F = F (V; x 1)
else
begin
for i = 0 to k
Cost = i boxC [x + F ((V boxV [x i); x 1)
if Cost > Max
then
end
F
Max = Cost
Optx = i
(for i)
= Max(
)

end
(if k = 0 else)
x = 1 else)
end (if x = 0 V = 0 else)
end
(if
Optx
380
(

Return
End
x )
| F(1000, 15).

. ,
.
R (1,1)=1
, 1
0
, , , R (2,1)=3
(1)
0
1
0
. ,
R (3,1)=6
| 1
0
0
0
R (4,1)=10 0
1
0
0
0
. R(n; k)
R (5,1)=15
, ,
n k. n k. k = 1 k = 2
. .12 .13.
.
.12.

=1
R(1,2)=1
R(2,2)=4
0
1
0
R(3,2)=10
0
1
0 1
0
R(4,2)=20
0 1
0 1
0
R(5,2)=35
.13.
= 2.
R(n; k) , . .13.
, R(n; k) | ,
n k | m = (n + k),
R(n; k) = Cnnk ;
(.39)
1
.6.
381
, ,

(1) R(n; k) = (Cnnk );
n k = n 2,
.
1
m=1
m=2
m=3
m=4
m=5
m=6
m=7
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
.14. | .
.6.6.
., ., . .

[7, [17.
[17.
, ,
, .
| , ,
. ,
, .
, ,
| .
, , ,
| .
, , . , |
, .
n . | ,
.
, n 1 , . n 2, . . .
,
(n 1)! , .
.
382

, |
n . C ,
| ij ( , ) i j .
, ij = ji , i 6= j , i; j = 1; n,
. . , , .
ii = , i = 1; n ( ,
?).

() ,
, , (
) C .
,
, .
n
. 1. Ezn
, ,
. | ,
, ,
x, . n n (n 1) = n n |
. x
0 1, , , x 1nz n. n , x
n , . , | (xi > 0)
n, . (. .6.1)
| Szn n(0; n). ,
, , x,
.

. N |
N = {i| i = 1; n};
M |
M = {i| i = 1; n n};
R | .
v
M
N N; v(i) = (k; l);
.
.
383
.6.
i
| (k; l),

M
R ; (i) = v i = kl ;
() .
,

+
( )
f (x) =
2
nX
n
i=1
(i) xi ; f (x) min;
2
nP
n
xi { 0; 1 };
xi = n; x Szn n (0; n) ;
i
n , x; .
2
=1

.
2. Ezn . ,
x, | (. ). , Ezn
. , ,
.

. (k; l), l > k k; k + 1; : : : ; l, , (l k + 1)!.
(2; n) | |(2; n)| = (n2+1)! =
= (n 1)! |
n . |
, .
, ,
(2; n) , ,
, , .
, x Ezn |
n,
(2; n),
xi { 2; n }; i = 1; n 1; xi 6= xj ; i 6= j; x (2; n):
(.40)
x
(2; n) zn (2; n).
x Ezn , (.40)? , ,
x | n. , x Ezn
1
384

v
u n
uX
t
i2
i=2
n (n + 1) (2n + 1)
1; x Szn (0; r );
6
, ,
.5.
, | ,
R ; (i; j ) = ij ; (i; i) = ;
N N

, , .
Ezn
r=
f (x) = (1; x
) + (xn ; 1) +
xi ; xi+1 ;
i=1
x1 ; : : : ; xn zn1 ; n
1
x=(
nX
2
f (x) min;
)
(2 ):
, ,
.

| .
( ), , | . ,
.

, , . |
. | .
.
,
, . .
R (n 1)! n . , , ,
(k; l). ,
: , , ,
, , , , . (k; l) | , , ,
.
385
.6.
R {k; l} {k; l}. {k; l}

R, (k; l), . . ,
{k; l} | .
, | ,
, n .
. . .6.4
.
, . ,
(3; 5), .
. , . .15. ,
1.
- , {3; 5}
, {3; 5} | ,
, .
.6.4.
25
40
31
27
17
30
25
19
15
50
24
22
10
, {3; 5} ,
R. | (2; 1)
5. {3; 5}
, (2; 1), ,
. . .15.
.15.
47
R-
49
62
{3,5}
{3,5}
{2,1}
{2,1}
, , ,
386
. , 2 . .15
, (3; 5) (2; 1). ,
.
, .
, . | ,
, . ,
.
. ,
Ct. , , , , Ct,
, . . ,
, .
. :
1.
( )
. ,
| ,
, .
2. h - , h .
,
h. ( ) . t | C .
t z(t) = P ij .
i;j )t
C C ( ), t C ,

z (t) = h + z (t);
z(t) | t C .
:
hi . .
hi = 0, -
.6.
387
, :
X
hi :
h=

C .
. .6.5 . hi
( ).
h = 25 + 5 + 1 + 6 + 7 + 3 = 47, ,
R 47, . .
z (t) = h + z (t) > h = 47;
z(t) > 0 t C .
. .15. , , , ,
( , ).
| . .
.6.5.
25
40
31
27
h1
= 25
17
30
25
h2
=5
19
15
h3
=1
50
24
h4
=6
22
10
h5
=7
h6
=0
h7
=0
h8
=0
h9
=3
h10
=0
(3; 5) {3; 5}.

(5; 3), (3; 5) (5; 3) , . (5; 3) , = . 3 5
{3; 5}, 3 5.
, . .6.5, {3; 5}, . .6.6.
, . .6.7
h = 15. {3; 5}
47+15=62, {3; 5} . .15.
53
388
.6.6.
.6.7.
{3; 5}
15
12
22
44
18
{3; 5}
22
41
h3
15
h = 12
=3
{3; 5} .
(3; 5) , =
, . .6.5. {3; 5}
- 3 - 5.
3, (3; 5), 2,
5 0. ,
{3; 5} 47 + 2 + 0 = 49 (. .15).
{3; 5} . , ,
{ k; l }, . ,
{3; 5} , 62,
{3; 5},
, {3; 5} . {3; 5}
49 6 Ct 6 62.
,
, ,
,
() , .
X | , (k; l) |
, , X ,
Y Y . Y X ,
(k; l), Y | X ,
(k; l). Y Y w(Y ) w(Y ) . ,
z , z = .
35
Pro edure
Input
Begin
1.
2.
3.
While (w(X ) < z0)
X=R
.6.
begin
4.
(k; l)
5.
w(Y)
6.
w(Y )
if
then
begin
7.
if (w(Y ) < z0)
then
begin
z 0 = w(Y )
end (if (w(Y ) < z0)
end
8.
X
9.
end
w(X ) < z 0

389
Y
Y
= 2)
( )
(if)
(while
End
C,
z 0

,
.
1. , ,
. |
| , .
.
2. | ;
.
3. . ,
.
. .
4. , (k; l)
Y Y , X . (k; l) ,
, Y , Y .
.
390
, Y , n .
(k; l)?
C , X ,
( , C ).
, , ,
, .
, , Y = {k; l}
. (k; l) kl = 0, , , Y

w(Y ) = w(X ) + min il + min kj :
j; j 6 l
i; i6 k
, (k; l), kl = 0
C , |
w(Y ). 4
=
Pro edure
Begin
(
S
(i; j )
|
, ,
.
ij
,
[i; j = 0
D = min (
[i; j )
+
min ( j , [i; j )
)
1. Dij (i; j ) S
2. (k; l)
Dkl = max(Dij ) (i; j ) S
i
End
5. ,
Y , X .
Y
w(Y ) = w(X ) + Dkl ;
Dkl 4.
6. Y , X ,
X , (k; l), 4.
, Y
, | , ,
, . .
Pro edure
begin
1.
.6.
391
if
(k; l)
X
then
begin
2.
p
q
3. [p; q =
end
4.
h=
5.
w(Y ) = w(X ) + h
end
7. , ,
(
,

)

.
.
,
. ,
, Y ,
.
n , 2 2, n 2
Y , Y
, ,
. , ,
.
8. X , . .
, ,
, . .|
.
9. X , |
X .
, .
.
(. .16)
, .

? , , ,
. | ,
, . , . .
| (n) , n |
, n . .
392
,
n,
. -
. .
R 47
{2,1}
62
74
{4,1}
50
{2,1}
62
{4,1}
68
53
{4,5}
{4,5}
65
{1,4}
64
{1,4}
.16. ,
. .6.4
,
, , , 50 . , , NPC.
, ()
.
.6
.6.1. 22 , -
, 2, 3, 5, 6 7 .
, ?

.6.2. | V | vi. ,
393
.6.
,
,
, .
.6.3. , . .6.2, , |

, , , 10
.
.6.4. ,

| k = 3.
. .13.
.6.5. , f (14) , , . .11.
.
3
vi
.6.6. -
,

Ezn n. , xi = 1,
. , ,
n , , .
.6.7. Ezn n M | ,
n , |

M = Cnn n ;
n n n .
(n 1)!=M |
. 1, :
ln(1 x) x, 0 6 x 1.
.6.8. , {k; l}
n ?
2
394
.6.9. -
. ,
, ,
, ?
.

[1 Garnier, R. and Taylor, J. (1992) Dis rete Mathemati s for New Te hnology ,
Bristol: Institute of Physi s Publishing.
[2 Gersting, J. L. (1999) Mathemati al Stru tures for Computer S ien e , 4th edn,
San Fran is o: W. H. Freeman.
[3 Johnsonbaugh, R. (2001) Dis rete Mathemati s , 5th edn, New Jersey: Prenti e
Hall.
[4 Rosen, K. H. (1998) Dis rete Mathemati s and Its Appli ations , New York:
M Graw-Hill.
[5 Ross, K.A. and Wright, C.R. B. (1999) Dis rete Mathemati s , 4th edn, New
Jersey: Prenti e Hall.
[6 Truss, J. K. (1999) Dis rete Mathemati s for Computer S ientists , 2nd edn,
Harlow: Addison-Wesley.
[7 Little R. D. C., Murty K. G., Sweeney D. W., Karel C. An Algorithm for the
Traveling Salesman Problem . Oper. Res., 11: 979{989 (1963) (IM).
[8 . : . .
.: . 2003.
[9 .., ..
// . 2003. 11. . 24 { 29.
[10 ., ., . : .
.: | .: , 2001 .
[11 ., . : . . .: , -
, 1965.
[12 . .
(http://edu.yar.ru/russian/pedbank/sor-pro/bondarenko).
[13 . .
. : , 1995.
[14 .., .., .. :

// . . 2003. 2. 24 .
[15 ., . . .: ,
1987. | 120 .
[16 ., ., . .
: . . .: , 1998.
[17 ., . .
.: , 1981.
396
[18 . ., . ., . . .
.: . - , 1979.
[19 . . 1, 2, 3. 3- . . .:
. . .: . , 2001 .
[20 ., ., . : . .:
, 2001 .
[21 . . . .: ,
2002.
[22 . . 2- .
.: , 2004.
[23 .., . . . .: ,
1992.
[24 . . . .: ,
2001.
[25 . ., . ., . C., . .

// Exponenta Pro . 2004.
2(6). . 64{70.
[26 . . ,
.: , 1995.
[27 .., .., ..
. .: , 1982.
[28 . . . .: , 1986.

, 12
, 181
, 167
, 167
, 169

, 174
, 172
, 146
, 99
, 57
, 77
, 197
, 195
, 93

, 196
, 195
, 171
, 156
, 142
, 143
, 150
, 87
, 120
, 120
, 120
, 27
, 27
, 26

, 26
, 24
, 162
, 162
12, 142
, 146
, 148
, 150, 181
, 70
, 148
, 143
, 146
, 142
, 98
, 136
, 56
, 55
, 152
, 165
, 157
, 163
, 155
, 157
, 153
, 154
, 157
, 80

, 198
, 25, 194
, 190
, 48
, 171
, 149
, 153
, 27
, 52
, 75
398
, 97
, 143
, 99
, 78
, 166
, 167
, 167
, 172
, 25, 194
, 155

, 128
, 130
, 161
, 81
, 156
, 93
, 25
, 25
, 144
, 71
, 182
, 176
, 143
, 197
, 44
, 97
, 61
, 48
, 80
, 54

, 80
, 97
, 97
, 97
, 47
, 15
, 15
, 17
, 15
, 16
, 46
, 70, 171
, 185
, 185
, 171
, 155
, 55
, 73
, 68
, 73
, 73
, 73
, 77
, 24, 194
, 47
, 143
, 144
, 156
, 157
, 157
, 46
, 199
, 185
, 185
, 137

, 174
, 136
, 80
, 40
, 63
, 27
, 39
, 80
, 80
, 32
, 32
, 87
, 190
, 55
, 14
, 172
, 46
, 77
, 121
, 121
, 182
, 142
, 143
, 143
, 49
, 87
, 142
, 121
, 121
, 189
, 143
, 57
, 150
, 155
, 99
, 24
, 36
, 46
, 52
, 128
, 189
, 55
, 39
, 40
, 129
, 137
, 205
, 55, 96
, 99
, 99
, 99

, 137
, 99
, 102
, 102
, 136
, 99
, 116
, 137
, 57
, 110
, 17, 145
, 148
, 142
, 80
, 46
, 46
, 46
, 46
, 146
, 63
, 44
, 197
, 77

, 91
399

.: (495) 234-01-10
e-mail: knigi@technosphera.ru
:

http://www.technosphera.ru

2-,
..
..
..
..
70 100/16. .
Computer modern LaTeX
.. 25. 1000 ., .
1, 65 /2

, . , .16, .2
-
420066 . , . , 2.

Хэггерти Дискретная математика для программистов

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Хэггерти Дискретная математика для программистов

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

.

Pearson Education Limited 2002

1.3, 1.4 1.5  ,

1.2.1. ( , First Se ond ,

First and Se ond ;

One and Two ;

 , ,  One T wo 5 7 , . 1.2.

xy = (2m + 1)(2n + 1) = 4mn + 2m + 2n + 1 = 2(2mn + m + n) + 1

, : xn = (2n 1)2 n > 1.

xk+1 = 2xk xk1

{P } A1 {Q1 }; {Q1 } A2 {Q2 }; : : : ; {Qn1 } An {Q};

(2) sqk = k 2 , sqk+1 = (k + 1)2 .

() x2 +4x = 12, x(x +4) = 12. x | ,

U = {1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10; 11; 12}:

(A B ) = {6; 12} = {1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 7; 8; 9; 10; 11}

= {1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 7; 8; 9; 10; 11}:

= ((A A) (B A)) ((A B ) (B B )) = (. )

3.10. S = {1; 2; 3; 4; 5}, A = {1; 3; 5} B = {3; 4}.

b = (0; 0; 1; 1; 0) = (1; 1; 0; 0; 1):

: 6x2 + x 1 = (3x 1)(2x + 1):

3.2. U = {p; q; r; s; t; u; v; w}. A = {p; q; r; s}, B =

(iii) {6n : n Z n > 2};

(iv) {9; 7; 5; 3; 1; 1; 3; 5; 7; 9}.

() P (A), A = {1; 2; 3}.

(x) from ([ (x; y ) (z; y )

() U : (3; 6), (5; 4) (7; 2);

4.7. R A = {1; 2; 3; 4}  . 4.7.

4.9. A = {1; 2; 3}, R A  :

 (2; 1) (1; 2). , R  (2; 2).  ,

4.11. , ... ...   A = {1; 2; 3; 6; 12; 18}.

4.3. R | {1; 2; 3; 4},  : u R v , u + 2v |

() {1; 2; 3; 5; 6; 10; 15; 30} x y ;

S = {(1; y ); (2; x); (3; x)}:

() f = {(a; 1); (a; 2); (b; 3); ( ; 2)};

.  . 5.6. : g (2) = 0 g (3) = 1.

(g f )(x) = g (f (x)) = g (x2 ) = 4x2 + 3;

(g g )(x) = g (g (x)) = g (4x + 3) = 4(4x + 3) + 3 = 16x + 15.

{1; 8}; {2; 7}; {3; 6}; {4; 5}:

 , , |A| > 4|B | = 4 356.  ,  4 357 .

5 = |A| > 2|B |, ,

add har : C S S, add har( ; s) | ,  s .

add har har(s); add har

add har( har(rest(s)); add har( har(s); rest(rest(s)))):

(n; k )-   (n; k )-, ;

(a + b)n = C (n; 0)an + C (n; 1)an1 b + C (n; 2)an2 b2 + + C (n; n)bn :

() P (7; 2), P (8; 5), P (6; 4) P (n; n 1);

() C (10; 7), C (9; 2), C (8; 6) C (n; n 1).

(a + b)n = C (n; 0)an + C (n; 1)an1 b + C (n; 2)an2 b2 + + C (n; n)bn ;

218 = 250 000

2n2 + 4n 6 2n2 + 4n2 = 6n2

 , (n log n) n n2 , (n2 log n) n2 n3 . .

, : ABCDA 23 ACBDA 31.

A(A) = {B}, A(B) = {C}, A(C) = {H}, A(D) = {C},

A(A) = {B}, A(B) = , A(D) = , A(E) = {D; G},

a21 a22 : : : a2(n1) a2n

b21 b22 : : : b2(n1) b2n =

bm1 bm2 : : : bm(n1) bmn

8.6. M = M (i; j ) | G V = {1; 2; 3; : : : ; n}.   , A(v )

9.3. pqr pqr pqr

9.7. pqr pqr pqr

 ,  pqr pqr pq r.

() ((p q) (r (p q))) = p q .

9.3. g (p; q; r; s), | (. 9.11).

pqr pqr pq r pqr

1.3, 1.4 1.5 ,

, , One T wo 5 7 , . 1.2.

= ((A A) (B A)) ((A B ) (B B )) = (. )

() U : (3; 6), (5; 4) (7; 2);

4.7. R A = {1; 2; 3; 4} . 4.7.

4.9. A = {1; 2; 3}, R A :

(2; 1) (1; 2). , R (2; 2). ,

4.11. , ... ... A = {1; 2; 3; 6; 12; 18}.

4.3. R | {1; 2; 3; 4}, : u R v , u + 2v |

. . 5.6. : g (2) = 0 g (3) = 1.

, , |A| > 4|B | = 4 356. , 4 357 .

add har : C S S, add har( ; s) | , s .

(n; k )- (n; k )-, ;

, (n log n) n n2 , (n2 log n) n2 n3 . .

8.6. M = M (i; j ) | G V = {1; 2; 3; : : : ; n}. , A(v )

9.3. pqr pqr pqr

9.7. pqr pqr pqr

, pqr pqr pq r.

() ((p q) (r (p q))) = p q .

pqr pqr pq r pqr

, . . P (n) xn = n. P (1) P (2)

3.10. A B (a; b),

3.11. () x A (B C ). x = (a; t); a A

4.3. () : R = (1; 1); (1; 2);

, (x; y ) (y; x), x 6= y .

|A| = 79, |B | = 78, ,

: , ). , |B | = 31. , |A| > 5|B |,

, . , f (6) = {6; 16}.

6.5. () , . P (17; 3) = 4080

( 85) ( ). DW ( 96). ( 365), . 7.11.

9.1. . 9.1 . 9.2 |

9.3. pqrs pqr s pqrs pq rs:

pqr pqr pq r pqr

9.8. f = pqr pq r pqr pqr: f

pqr pqr = pr:

9.9. pqr pqr .

father , root , name , size ,

f n = 0, f (n) = o(g (n)) (1. -. nlim

, ln(n + 1) 6 S (n) 6 1 + ln(n). , S (n) ln(n). , , ,

, . dmn = |xn xm|, , n > m.

. f (n) f (n) = a n log n + b, a b -

k g(k) = f (k + 1) f (k). (.22)

2) b < a P g(x)x = P g(x)x.

(2x x) = 2x. n(ax) = (a1)nax,